TOPIC 9

REDOX PROCESSES

9.1
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

By: Merinda Sautel

Alameda Int’l Jr/Sr High School
Lakewood, CO
msautel@jeffco.k12.co.us
 ESSENTIAL IDEA
Redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions play
a key role in many chemical and
biochemical processes.
NATURE OF SCIENCE (1.9)
How evidence is used – changes in the definition of
oxidation and reduction from one involving specific
elements (oxygen and hydrogen), to one involving
electron transfer, to one invoking oxidation numbers is
a good example of the way that scientists broaden
similarities to general principles.
 INTERNATIONAL-MINDEDN
ESS
Access to a supply of clean drinking
water has been recognized by the United
Nations as a fundamental human right,
yet it is estimated that over one billion
people lack this provision. Disinfection
of water supplies commonly uses
oxidizing agents such as chlorine or
ozone to kill microbial pathogens.
 THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
Chemistry has developed a systematic
language that has resulted in older
names becoming obsolete. What has
been lost and gained in this process?

Oxidation states are useful when

explaining redox reactions. Are artificial
conversions a useful or valid way of
clarifying knowledge?
 UNDERSTANDING/KEY
IDEA 9.1.A
Oxidation and reduction can be
considered in terms of oxygen
gain/hydrogen loss, electron
transfer or change in oxidation
number.
⦿ Early definitions for oxidation and reduction
were based upon observations of the gain
and loss of oxygen and hydrogen during
chemical change.
⦿ Oxidation: gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen
⦿ Reduction: loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen
⦿ It is now recognized that oxidation/reduction
occur whenever there is a shift in electron
density from one atom to another, whether
complete or partial.
⦿ Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
⚫ Atom gets more positive.
⦿ Reduction is the gain of electrons.
⚫ Atom gets more negative.
⦿ Reactions that involve oxidation and
reduction are called redox reactions.
⦿ You can never have one without the
other.
 UNDERSTANDING/KEY
IDEA 9.1.B
An oxidizing agent is reduced and a
reducing agent is oxidized.
⦿ Redox reactions ALWAYS involve the
simultaneous oxidation of one reactant
with the reduction of another through the
transfer of electrons.
⦿ The reactant causing the oxidation of
the other reactant is called the oxidizing
agent. (It is the one that was reduced.)
⦿ The reactant causing the reduction of
the other reactant is called the reducing
agent. (It is the one that is oxidized.)
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to identify the species

oxidized and reduced and the
oxidizing and reducing agents, in
redox reactions.
⦿ If you can determine which one was
reduced (got more negative), then the
other three are easy to find.
⦿ Remember that if it got reduced, then it
is the oxidizing agent and vice versa.
Example
⦿ Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents in
the following equation.
2Al + 3PbCl2 → 2AlCl3 + 3Pb
First write down the oxidation numbers.
0 +2 -1 +3 -1 0
2Al + 3PbCl2 → 2AlCl3 + 3Pb
Al went from 0 to +3 – oxidized (red agent)
Pb went from +2 to 0 – reduced (ox agent)
*Note the oxidizing agent is the whole
compound (PbCl2), not just the element.*
Identify the substances being oxidized and
reduced.

Cu + 2Ag+ → 2Ag + Cu2+

Copper goes from a zero to a +2.

It got more positive so it was oxidized.

Silver goes from +1 to zero.

It got more negative so it was reduced.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to deduce redox reactions

using half-equations in acidic or
neutral solutions.
DISPROPORTIONATION
REACTION
½ EQUATIONS
⦿ Since oxidation cannot occur without
reduction, you can identify each type of
reaction within a redox reaction.
⦿ These are called the ½ equations.
⦿ Include the electrons in your equations.
EXAMPLE
⦿ Deduce the two ½ equations for the following
reaction:
Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
Zinc goes from 0 to 2+ (more pos – oxidized)
Cu goes from 2+ to 0 (more neg – red)
Oxidation: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
Reduction: Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
Disproportionation – when the same element is
both oxidized and reduced.
RULES FOR BALANCING ½
REACTIONS
⦿ WRITE DOWN THE ½ REACTIONS.
⦿
⦿ BALANCE ALL ELEMENTS BESIDES OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN.
⦿
⦿ BALANCE OXYGEN WITH WATER.
⦿
⦿ BALANCE HYDROGENS WITH H+
⦿
⦿ DETERMINE OVERALL CHARGES ON BOTH SIDES.
⦿
⦿ BALANCE THE CHARGES ON EACH SIDE WITH e-
⦿
⦿ MULTIPLY BY A FACTOR IF NEEDED SO THE e- CANCEL.
⦿
⦿ ADD EQUATIONS AND CANCEL OUT COMMON FACTORS ON BOTH
SIDES.
⦿
⦿ FOR BASIC SOLUTIONS, ADD OH- TO BOTH SIDES TO GET RID OF
H+’S.
EXAMPLE
Balance the following redox reaction:
NO3- + Cu → NO + Cu2+
Step 1: Write the ½ reactions
Ox: Cu → Cu2+
Red: NO3- → NO
Step 2: Balance all elements besides H and O
Cu and N are balanced already.
Step 3: Balance oxygen with water
Ox: Cu → Cu2+
Red: NO3- → NO + 2H2O
Step 4: Balance hydrogens with H+
Ox: Cu → Cu2+
Red: 4H+ + NO3- → NO + 2H2O
Step 5: Determine overall charges on both sides
Ox: (zero) Cu → Cu2+ (+2)
Red: (+3) 4H+ + NO3- → NO + 2H2O (zero)
Step 6: Balance the charges on each side with e-
Ox: Cu → Cu2+ + 2e-
Red: 3e- + 4H+ + NO3- → NO + 2H2O
Step 7: Multiply by a factor if needed to cancel out the e-
3(Cu → Cu2+ + 2e-)
2(3e- + 4H+ + NO3- → NO + 2H2O)

3Cu → 3Cu2+ + 6e-

6e- + 8H+ + 2NO3- → 2NO + 4H2O

Step 8: Add both equations and cancel out anything common

on both sides.

3Cu → 3Cu2+ + 6e-

6e- + 8H+ + 2NO3- → 2NO + 4H2O
8H+ + 3Cu + 2NO3- → 2NO + 3Cu2+ + 4H2O
 UNDERSTANDING/KEY
IDEA 9.1.C
Variable oxidation numbers exist
for transition metals and for most
main-group non-metals.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to deduce the oxidation

states of an atom in an ion or a
compound.
 GUIDANCE

Oxidation states should be

represented with the sign before
the given number, not after like as
in ions.
SIGN CONVENTION
⦿ Oxidation numbers are shown with the
+or- in front of the number such as +7.
⦿ Ions with their charges are shown with
the number first followed by the charge
such as 2+.
OXIDATION NUMBERS
⦿ The concept of oxidation numbers
provides a way to keep track of
electrons in redox reactions.
⦿ They are not really charges, but we will
use them to assign numbers in covalent
compounds to show that the overall
charge in a compound is zero.
⦿ It is essentially a convention to assign
which element has electron control.
OXIDATION NUMBER
RULES
⦿ 1. Elements by themselves are zero.
⦿ 2. In simple ions, the oxidation number
is the same as its charge.
⦿ 3. Oxidation numbers in a neutral
compound must add up to zero.
⦿ 4. Oxidation numbers in a polyatomic
ion must add up to the charge of the ion.
⦿ You can predict many oxidation numbers
from the periodic table.
 GUIDANCE

Know that the oxidation state of

hydrogen can be -1 in metal
hydrides and oxygen can be -1 in
peroxides.
COMMON EXAMPLES
⦿ Fluorine is always (-1).
⦿ Oxygen is usually (-2) except:
⚫ Peroxides (-1)
⚫ OF2 (+2)
⦿ Hydrogen is (+1) except:
⚫ Metal hydrides NaH (-1)
⦿ Chlorine is (-1) except:
⚫ When combined with O or F, then it is (+1).
EXAMPLES
⦿ Find the oxidation states for the
elements in H2SO4 and Na2C2O4.

H2SO4: H +1 (2 of them for a total of +2)

O -2 (4 of them for a total of -8)
S +6 (make the overall charge 0)
Na2C2O4: Na +1 (2 of them for a total of +2)
O -2 (4 of them for a total of -8)
C +3 (2 of them to equal +6)
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to deduce the name of a

transition metal compound from a
given formula, applying oxidation
numbers represented by Roman
numerals.
 GUIDANCE
Oxidation number and oxidation
state are often used
interchangeably, though IUPAC
does formally distinguish between
the two terms. Oxidation numbers
are represented by Roman
numerals according to IUPAC.
IONIC NAMING RULES
⦿ You know how to do this – Yeah!!!
⦿ Use Roman numerals when you have
more than one choice of ion.
⦿ You may see covalent compounds using
Roman numerals.
⦿ NO – nitrogen monoxide or
nitrogen II oxide
⦿ NO2 – nitrogen dioxide or
nitrogen IV oxide
 UNDERSTANDING/KEY
IDEA 9.1.D
The activity series ranks metals
according to the ease with which
they undergo oxidation.
⦿ Not all oxidizing and reducing agents are
the same strength.
⦿ Their strength depends upon how easily
they lose or gain electrons.
Reducing Agents
⦿ Metals tend to give up electrons forming
positive ions so they cause other
elements to become more negative or to
be reduced.
⦿ This is why metals are commonly
reducing agents.
⦿ More reactive metals lose their electrons
more readily so they are stronger
reducing agents.
Reactivity Series
A sample reactivity series
Mg strongest reducing agent
Al (most readily oxidized)
Zn
Fe
Pb
Cu
Ag weakest reducing agent
(least readily oxidized)
Oxidizing Agents
⦿ Nonmetals tend to gain electrons
forming negative ions so they cause
other elements to become more positive
or to be oxidized.
⦿ This is why nonmetals are commonly
oxidizing agents.
⦿ More reactive nonmetals gain their
electrons more readily so they are
stronger oxidizing agents.
Reactivity Series
A sample reactivity series

F2 strongest oxidizing agent

Cl2 (most readily reduced)
Br2
I2 weakest oxidizing agent
(least readily reduced)
⦿ You do not have to memorize the activity
series, but you will have to interpret
information from one.
⦿ Remember that any metal or nonmetal
above another will cause a displacement
reaction.
⦿ If it is not higher on the activity series,
the reaction will not occur.
⦿ If you were given a series of viable
reactions, you should be able to
determine the activity series.
SAMPLE REDOX
TITRATIONS
⦿ Redox titrations are commonly used in the
food and beverage industry.
⦿ They are very similar to acid-base titrations,
but sometimes do not need an indicator as a
color change can naturally occur at the
equivalence point.
 Analysis of Iron with
Manganate VII
⦿ 5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ → 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
⦿ This reaction used potassium permanganate in
an acidic solution as the oxidizing agent, which
oxidizes Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions. The
manganese is reduced from Mn7+ to Mn2+.
⦿ The reaction does not need an indicator as it
goes from a deep purple to colorless at
equivalence.
⦿ Work the example problem on page 420.
 Iodine-thiosulfate reaction
⦿ Several different redox titrations use an oxidizing
agent to react with excess iodine ions to form
iodine.
⦿ 2I- + oxidizing agent → I2 + reduced product
⦿ Examples of oxidizing agents are: KMnO4, KIO3,
K2Cr2O7 and NaOCl.
⦿ The I2 is then titrated with sodium thiosulfate using
starch as an indicator.
⦿ The starch indicator is added during the titration
(not at the start) and forms a deep blue color by
forming a complex with the free I2. As the I2 is
reduced to I- ions, the blue color disappears
marking equivalence.
⦿ Redox equations:
oxidation: 2S2O32- → S4O62- + 2e-
reduction: I2 + 2e- → 2I-
⦿ Overall equation:
2S2O32 + I2 → 2I- + S4O62-
 UNDERSTANDING/KEY
IDEA 9.1.E
The Winkler Method can be used to
measure biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), used as a measure
of the degree of pollution in a water
sample.
⦿ The dissolved oxygen content of water is one of the
most important indicators of its quality.
⦿ As pollution increases, the dissolved oxygen
content decreases as the oxygen is used by
bacteria in decomposition reactions.
⦿ The BOD (biological oxygen demand) is used as a
means of measuring the degree of pollution.
⦿ BOD is defined as the amount of oxygen used to
decompose the organic matter in a sample of water
over a specified time period, usually 5 days at a
specified temperature.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to apply the Winkler

Method to calculate BOD.
 WINKLER METHOD
⦿ The Winkler Method uses redox titrations to
measure the dissolved oxygen in water to
calculate the BOD.
1. The dissolved oxygen in the water is “fixed” by
the addition of a manganese II salt such as
MnSO4.
2. Reaction of this salt with oxygen in basic
solution causes oxidation of Mn(II) to higher
oxidation states such as Mn(IV).
2Mn2+ + O2 + 4OH- → 2MnO2 + 2H2O
3. Acidified iodide ions are added to the solution
and are oxidized by the Mn(IV) to I2.
MnO2 + 2I- + 4H+ → Mn2+ + I2 + 2H2O
4. The iodine produced is then titrated with sodium
thiosulfate as described earlier.
2S2O32 + I2 → 2I- + S4O62-
So we can see that for every 1 mole of O2 in the
water, 4 moles of S2O32- are used.
⦿ Work the sample problem page 423.
 Citations
International Baccalaureate Organization. Chemistry Guide,
First assessment 2016. Updated 2015.
Brown, Catrin, and Mike Ford. Higher Level Chemistry. 2nd
ed. N.p.: Pearson Baccalaureate, 2014. Print.
ISBN 978 1 447 95975 5
eBook 978 1 447 95976 2

Most of the information found in this power point comes

directly from this textbook.

The power point has been made to directly complement the

Higher Level Chemistry textbook by Brown and Ford and is
used for direct instructional purposes only.