UNIT-5 HIDDEN LINES AND SURFACES

When we view a picture containing non-transparent objects and surfaces, then we

cannot see those objects from view which are behind from objects closer to eye.
We must remove these hidden surfaces to get a realistic screen image. The
identification and removal of these surfaces is called Hidden-surface problem.

There are two approaches for removing hidden surface problems − Object-Space
method and Image-space method. The Object-space method is implemented in
physical coordinate system and image-space method is implemented in screen
coordinate system.

When we want to display a 3D object on a 2D screen, we need to identify those

parts of a screen that are visible from a chosen viewing position.

Image Space vs Object Space

In 3D computer animation images have to be stored in frame buffer converting two

dimensional arrays into three dimensional data. This conversion takes place after
many calculations like hidden surface removal, shadow generation and Z
buffering. These calculations can be done in Image Space or Object Space.
Algorithms used in image space for hidden surface removal are much more
efficient than object space algorithms. But object space algorithms for hidden
surface removal are much more functional than image space algorithms for the
same. The combination of these two algorithms gives the best output.

a)Image Space

The representation of graphics in the form of Raster or rectangular pixels has now
become very popular. Raster display is very flexible as they keep on refreshing the
screen by taking the values stored in frame buffer. Image space algorithms are
simple and efficient as their data structure is very similar to that of frame buffer.
The most commonly used image space algorithm is Z buffer algorithm that is used
to define the values of z coordinate of the object.

b)Object Space
Space object algorithms have the advantage of retaining the relevant data and
because of this ability the interaction of algorithm with the object becomes easier.
The calculation done for the color is done only once. Object space algorithms also
allow shadow generation to increase the depth of the 3 dimensional objects on the
screen. The incorporation of these algorithms is done in software and it is difficult
to implement them in hardware.

What’s the difference between Image Space and Object Space

• Image space algorithms are much more efficient than object space algorithms

• Object space algorithms are much more functional than image space algorithms

• Color calculation in object space algorithms is done only one time and is retained
by it but in image space algorithm the calculation once done is over written later.

1.Depth Buffer (Z-Buffer) Method

This method is developed by Cutmull. It is an image-space approach. The basic

idea is to test the Z-depth of each surface to determine the closest (visible) surface.

In this method each surface is processed separately one pixel position at a time
across the surface. The depth values for a pixel are compared and the closest
(smallest z) surface determines the color to be displayed in the frame buffer.

It is applied very efficiently on surfaces of polygon. Surfaces can be processed in

any order. To override the closer polygons from the far ones, two buffers
named frame buffer and depth buffer, are used.

Depth buffer is used to store depth values for (x, y) position, as surfaces are
processed (0 ≤ depth ≤ 1).

The frame buffer is used to store the intensity value of color value at each position
(x, y).

The z-coordinates are usually normalized to the range [0, 1]. The 0 value for z-
coordinate indicates back clipping pane and 1 value for z-coordinates indicates
front clipping pane.
Algorithm

Step-1 − Set the buffer values −

Depthbuffer (x, y) = 0

Framebuffer (x, y) = background color

Step-2 − Process each polygon (One at a time)

For each projected (x, y) pixel position of a polygon, calculate depth z.

If Z > depthbuffer (x, y)

Compute surface color,

set depthbuffer (x, y) = z,

framebuffer (x, y) = surfacecolor (x, y)

Advantages

 It is easy to implement.
 It reduces the speed problem if implemented in hardware.
  It processes one object at a time.

Disadvantages

 It requires large memory.

 It is time consuming process.

2.Scan-Line Method

It is an image-space method to identify visible surface. This method has a depth

information for only single scan-line. In order to require one scan-line of depth
values, we must group and process all polygons intersecting a given scan-line at
the same time before processing the next scan-line. Two important tables, edge
table and polygon table, are maintained for this.

The Edge Table − It contains coordinate endpoints of each line in the scene, the
inverse slope of each line, and pointers into the polygon table to connect edges to
surfaces.

The Polygon Table − It contains the plane coefficients, surface material

properties, other surface data, and may be pointers to the edge table.

To facilitate the search for surfaces crossing a given scan-line, an active list of
edges is formed. The active list stores only those edges that cross the scan-line in
order of increasing x. Also a flag is set for each surface to indicate whether a
position along a scan-line is either inside or outside the surface.
Pixel positions across each scan-line are processed from left to right. At the left
intersection with a surface, the surface flag is turned on and at the right, the flag is
turned off. You only need to perform depth calculations when multiple surfaces
have their flags turned on at a certain scan-line position.

3.Area-Subdivision Method

The area-subdivision method takes advantage by locating those view areas that
represent part of a single surface. Divide the total viewing area into smaller and
smaller rectangles until each small area is the projection of part of a single visible
surface or no surface at all.

Continue this process until the subdivisions are easily analyzed as belonging to a
single surface or until they are reduced to the size of a single pixel. An easy way to
do this is to successively divide the area into four equal parts at each step. There
are four possible relationships that a surface can have with a specified area
boundary.

 Surrounding surface − One that completely encloses the area.

 Overlapping surface − One that is partly inside and partly outside the area.
 Inside surface − One that is completely inside the area.
 Outside surface − One that is completely outside the area.

The tests for determining surface visibility within an area can be stated in terms of
these four classifications. No further subdivisions of a specified area are needed if
one of the following conditions is true −
  All surfaces are outside surfaces with respect to the area.
 Only one inside, overlapping or surrounding surface is in the area.
 A surrounding surface obscures all other surfaces within the area boundaries.

4. Back-Face Detection

A fast and simple object-space method for identifying the back faces of a
polyhedron is based on the "inside-outside" tests. A point (x, y, z) is "inside" a
polygon surface with plane parameters A, B, C, and D if When an inside point is
along the line of sight to the surface, the polygon must be a back face (we are
inside that face and cannot see the front of it from our viewing position).

We can simplify this test by considering the normal vector N to a polygon surface,
which has Cartesian components (A, B, C).

In general, if V is a vector in the viewing direction from the eye (or "camera")
position, then this polygon is a back face if

V.N > 0

Furthermore, if object descriptions are converted to projection coordinates and

your viewing direction is parallel to the viewing z-axis, then −

V = (0, 0, Vz) and V.N = VZC

So that we only need to consider the sign of C the component of the normal
vector N.

In a right-handed viewing system with viewing direction along the negative ZV

axis, the polygon is a back face if C < 0. Also, we cannot see any face whose
normal has z component C = 0, since your viewing direction is towards that
polygon. Thus, in general, we can label any polygon as a back face if its normal
vector has a z component value −

C <= 0
Similar methods can be used in packages that employ a left-handed viewing
system. In these packages, plane parameters A, B, C and D can be calculated from
polygon vertex coordinates specified in a clockwise direction (unlike the
counterclockwise direction used in a right-handed system).

Also, back faces have normal vectors that point away from the viewing position
and are identified by C >= 0 when the viewing direction is along the positive Zv

axis. By examining parameter C for the different planes defining an object, we can
immediately identify all the back faces.
5. A-Buffer Method

The A-buffer method is an extension of the depth-buffer method. The A-buffer

method is a visibility detection method developed at Lucas film Studios for the
rendering system Renders Everything You Ever Saw (REYES).

The A-buffer expands on the depth buffer method to allow transparencies. The key
data structure in the A-buffer is the accumulation buffer.

Each position in the A-buffer has two fields −

 Depth field − It stores a positive or negative real number

 Intensity field − It stores surface-intensity information or a pointer value
If depth >= 0, the number stored at that position is the depth of a single surface
overlapping the corresponding pixel area. The intensity field then stores the RGB
components of the surface color at that point and the percent of pixel coverage.

If depth < 0, it indicates multiple-surface contributions to the pixel intensity. The

intensity field then stores a pointer to a linked list of surface data. The surface
buffer in the A-buffer includes −

 RGB intensity components

 Opacity Parameter
 Depth
 Percent of area coverage
 Surface identifier

The algorithm proceeds just like the depth buffer algorithm. The depth and opacity
values are used to determine the final color of a pixel.