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Storage Tanks maintenance

Article in International Journal of Environmental Engineering · November 2023

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10338166

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 Storage Tanks

DSc Dževad Hadžihafizović (DEng)

Sarajevo 2023
Chapter 12 Contents

12.1 Types of storage tanks

12.1.1 The fixed rood tanks
12.1.2 The floating roof tanks
12.1.2.1 The pontoon roof tanks
12.1.2.2 The hard top pan roof tanks
12.2 Maintenance of storage tanks (basic introduction)
12.2.1 Cleaning
12.2.2 Maintenance
12.3 Tank maintenance
12.3.1 External maintenance of tank
12.3.1.1 Application of paint
12.3.2 Internal maintenance of tank
12.3.2.1 Emptying and blanking off the tanks
12.3.2.2 Gas freeing
12.3.2.3 Tank cleaning
12.3.2.4 Cleaning of fixed-roof tanks
12.3.2.5 Cleaning of floating roof tanks
12.4 Hazardous conditions and safety procedures
12.4.1 Explosive air vapour mixtures
12.4.2 Ignition sources
12.4.2.1 Static electricity
12.4.2.2 Pyrophoric iron sulphide
12.4.2.3 Spark formation by striking of metal objects
12.4.2.4 Electrical equipment
12.4.2.5 Smoking in the tank
12.4.3 Gases discharged during gas freeing
12.4.3.1 Petroleum gases
12.4.3.2 Hydrogen sulphide gas
12.5 Safety procedures
12.5.1 General safety instructions
12.5.2 Protective clothing
12.5.3 Protective clothing
12.5.4 Eye protection equipment
12.5.5 Use of life line

Page 2 of 30
 Chapter 12
Storage Tanks

Introduction

Crude oil tanks are usually used in the oil fields as intermediate storage tanks
for the produced treated clean oil. These tanks are installed upstream of the
main booster pump station. They serve as feeder tanks prior to transferring the
clean oil by the main oil trunk lines to the farm tanks for sales. Also they are
used for crude oil storage at the shipment terminal farm tanks.

Generally, storage tanks have walls with suitable thickness. They are high to
eliminate oil spill / fire spreading out as a safety precaution measure in case of a
tank burst, oil leakage or fire in the tank. In addition, storage tanks are
connected to the plant fire fighting system, so that suitable action can be made
in the event of fire in a tank.

12.1 Types of Storage Tanks

There are two common designs:

1- The fixed roof tanks.

2- Floating roof tanks.

12.1.1 The Fixed Roof Tanks

1- They store crude oil near atmospheric pressure (Figure 12.1).

2- The entering oil strikes an expanding plate to assist separation of any
remaining gas, which then goes to the low-pressure flare.
3- Oil level is detected by a float inside a guide tube and transmitted to the
control room. The level is also checked periodically by dipping.
4- The fire foam inlet is sealed by a thin sheet of glass, which prevents gas
escaping, and will shatter if foam arrives behind it.
A major problem experienced with fixed roof tanks is the variation of internal
pressure due to temperature changes causing expansion or contraction of the
tank contents.
The tank may be subjected to either pressure or vacuum. This is prevented by
using a combined pressure / vacuum relief valve installed in the roof as shown
in Figure 12.1.

Page 3 of 30
Figure 12.1 Fixed Roof Tank and Accessories

Page 4 of 30
If the tank contents can evaporate under atmospheric conditions, a nitrogen
blanket is maintained over the liquid surface. If the liquid does evaporate, the
tank will vent nitrogen (gas). Therefore, cooling of crude oil occurs and
contraction of the oil takes place. Air will be drawn into the tank but the
nitrogen blanket will form a barrier between air and the hydrocarbon thus
reducing the fire hazard.
Tanks are equipped with inlet and outlet valves, a level gage, a double breather
and a drainage outlet.
Pressure / Vacuum Safety Valve (Double Breather)
The double breather valve shown in Figure 6.1 is specially calibrated to bleed
off into the atmosphere when the internal pressure exceeds 20 mm of water. It
sucks in air from the atmosphere when a vacuum of 10 mm of water is created
inside.
12.1.2 The Floating Roof Tanks
These tanks are so called because the roof floats on the liquid and eliminates the
vapour space above the liquid. This allows for storage of higher vapour pressure
products such as gasoline, naphtha, etc.
There are two types, the pontoon roof and the hard top pan roof tanks. This type
of tanks is extensively used because it reduces costly evaporation losses from
tanks.
12.1.2.1 The Pontoon Roof Tanks
The floating roof has an annular ring of pontoon (Figure 12.2) surrounding a
single deck centre. The rim of the roof is sealed using shoes held against the
sides by weights or springs as shown in Figure 12.3.

Figure 12.2 Pontoon roof tank

Page 5 of 30
Figure 12.3 Floating Roof Tank Sealing Method

Page 6 of 30
12.1.2.2 The Hard Top Pan Roof Tanks

This type of floating roof shown in Figure 12.4 has all the advantages of the
pontoon roof for vapour conservation and better safety against fire. In addition,
it has a fixed cone roof, which protects the floating roof elements. The floating
roof has no need for roof water drainage. The cost of this type of tanks is
generally less where the tank size does not exceed 100 feet in diameter.

The floating roof rests on the liquid and has the form of an inverted shallow pan
of single thickness steel. The roof contacts the liquid over its entire surface.
Hard top pan roof has automatic vents. Figure 12.4 shows an illustration of a
typical hard top pan floating roof sealing method.

Figure 12.4 Hard Top Pan Floating Tank

Page 7 of 30
12.2 Maintenance of Storage Tanks

12.2.1 Cleaning

Steel tanks should be kept clean and free from spilled oil or other materials.
They should be painted to minimize corrosion. All water and accumulated dirt
should be removed from the bottom edge of the tanks.

12.2.2 Maintenance

If leaks occur, they have to be repaired temporarily. The leaks should be

repaired permanently as soon as possible. Maintenance and inspection of tanks
must cover the following on a regular basis:

1- Tank basin and access ways.

2- Tank foundations.
3- Earthing system.
4- Bottom.
5- Shell.
6- Roof.
7- Ladders and gangways.
8- Fire fighting system.
9- Instruments.

The maintenance includes inspection before and after cleaning, suggested

repairs, effected repairs and inspection after effected repairs of any or all of the
above items.

On the following pages, more details about the tank maintenance and the
required safety precaution in different cases.

12.3 Tank Maintenance

Tanks require maintenance, both internally and externally. This includes

preventive measures to fight tank corrosion and pipeline connections,
accessories, and access ladders and walkways. It also includes repair.

12.3.1 External Maintenance of Tanks

External maintenance consists of the regular inspection and renewal of the

protective coating of the tank shells and the proper functioning of the cathodic

Page 8 of 30
protection system. The purpose of cathodic protection of tanks is to supplement
bottom exterior coatings by the metal at possible coating voids.

Protective coating is usually formed by one or more layers of paint.

Depending on the type of paint used, however, painting will only extend the
service life of the tank when it has a perfect bond to the metal. Therefore to be
sure of proper application it is important to follow the instructions of the paint
supplier.

In addition to corrosion protection the painting of a tank has a further

advantage: white or other light paints reflect heat and stabilize the internal
temperature of the tank.

It is difficult to specify how often a tank should be repainted, because the

climate is the principal factor in this decision. Humid, salt-bearing air near the
coast can make it necessary to repaint as often as every three years, while under
favorable conditions, paint coats may last for ten or even fifteen years.

As a rule, a tank should be painted as often as necessary to provide reasonable

protection for the tank and its contents.

12.3.1.1 Application of Paint

1- Before any paint is applied, the surface of the plates should be cleaned of
scale, rust, dirt, oil, grease and weathered paint to ensure a good bond to the
metal. This is done by grit-blasting(sand – blasting), because this method is
fast and comparatively safe. There are some points that require attention
while grit-blasting;

a. The grit should be clean and dry and the grit should be of equal size

b. The compressed air must be as dry as possible. Moist air will result in
rapid rusting of the freshly prepared surface. For the same reason grit-
blasting (sand – blasting) should not be done during rainy or foggy
weather, or when dew is present on the surface.
The presence of scale on the surface increases the time required to obtain bare
metal, because of its hardness. Thus it may be advisable to allow the scale to
drop off the metal surface by exposure to air for some time.

2- After grit-blasting, dust must be removed from all surfaces, and the plates
must be primed as soon as possible to prevent moisture and dirt in the air
Settling on the surface. Instead of immediate priming of the surface, a coat
of a Positing solution may be applied. This solution provides a good

Page 9 of 30
 foundation for all types of primers, and the application of primers may be
delayed for as long as 24 hours.

3- Other methods of preparing for painting are:

a. Wire brushing, either by hand or using pneumatic bushes.

b. Scraping with special knives or scrapers.
c. Chipping with hand hammers or pneumatic tools.
d. Grinding with specially developed surface grinders.
4- Spark resistant tools must be used in explosive areas. Previously painted
Surfaces also require some treatment before application of another layer.
The Old Paint must be free from oil, grease, dirt, dust, foreign substances
and flaking paint. This can be achieved by the use of suitable cleaning
fluids, Steam cleaning, high pressure water jets or wire brushing.
5- Optimum conditions require the application of a full coat of priming paint
on the prepared surface, followed by a full coat of finish paint. Paint can be
applied by brush, roller, airspray or airless spray, in accordance with the
manufacturers' recommendations.

Unless explosion proof, power driven spraying equipment must NOT be used
in explosive areas
12.3.2 Internal Maintenance of Tank
1- Internal maintenance of tanks is mainly concerned with corrosion combat.

2- Internal corrosion occurs on tank bottoms and in the vapour space above
the liquid. In this respect sour crudes present a much more serious
problem than sweet crudes or refined products.

3- Steel which is wetted frequently by oil is unlikely to corrode quickly.

Therefore, vapour zone problems in floating-roof tanks are confined to
the small area under the fabric seal.

4- Iron sulphide scale and brine in the basic sediment and water layers can
cause serious internal corrosion on tank bottoms. When combined with
corrosion products dropping from the tank roof, basic sediment and water
can quickly eat away tank bottoms unless protection is provided.
5- Although different coatings are used, preparation of the surface in the
vapour zone and on tank bottoms is of utmost importance.

Page 10 of 30
 6- In both cases, long life of the coating is directly dependent on the surface
preparation. The area to be coated should be free of scale and other
foreign materials and completely dry. Sand-blasting is the most common
method of cleaning the surfaces. For the most part, these coatings are coal
tar paints or enamels with melting temperatures above 60° C (140° F).
Proper primers must be used before the application of any type of coating
and the primers should be applied within a limited time after the sand-
blasting is completed. If rust forms or dirt collects on the steel before the
primer is applied, the surface should be re-sand blasted or cleaned.

7- Bottom coatings are usually relatively thick in order to provide maximum

protection. Glass reinforcing may be applied between coats. Most bottom
coal tar coatings are applied by pouring, rather than by any other method.

Bottom coatings may extend from 30 cm (1 ft) to 1 m (3 ft) up the interior

shell surface and up any roof supports. It is preferable to have the bottom
coating applied under roof supports as well as around them. Vapour zone
coatings also require a clean, dry surface for proper adherence.
Appropriate primers must be used and are specified by the individual
paint company.
Plastics as well as coal tar are used for vapour zone coating.

8- Vapour from oil contains hydrogen (more in sour crude, less in sweet
crude) which combines with the iron of the tank roof to form iron
sulphide and to free hydrogen. As iron sulphide scale accumulates,
galvanic action begins between the scale and the deck material. Flexing
of the roof causes pieces of the iron sulphide to break loose. On the tank
bottom galvanic action again takes place between the scale and the
bottom, often resulting in deep pitting and leaks.

12.3.2.1 Emptying and Blanking off the Tanks

1- Before any work is done which might release vapours, all sources of
ignition should be eliminated from the area where flammable vapour may
be present or may travel.

2- Roads should be closed and signs posted to keep vehicles and other
potential sources of ignition away form the area. Particular attention
should be paid to the wind direction in defining the extent of the hazard.

3- Normally, the operations department can be expected to have carried out

any initial cleaning steps, such as hot gas oil circulation or treatment with
chemicals. Furthermore, the operations department should also empty the

Page 11 of 30
 tank to as low a level as possible using the normal system, prior to
handing over the tank for cleaning.

4- Further product removal can then be achieved by either connecting a hose

to the drain valve and pumping the bottoms to a slops tank, or by raising
the oil level by pumping water into the tank and removing the oils
through the normal suction line work. The use of water is particularly
valuable if the tank is tilting or has an uneven bottom.

5- If water is used with certain products, such as motor gasoline containing

an anti-icing additive, aviation fuels or other products with a critical
water specification, such products should always be pumped to slops and
not to the finished product tanks.

6- The presence of sediment or sludge may greatly hinder liquid removal.

This is normally recognized in the initial stages and hot gas -oil or certain
chemicals may be used to counter this, but nothing further should be done
until the tank is opened after the gas-freeing step.

7- Next, all lines to and from the tank should be cleared and flushed with
water or drained.

8- In the water flushing/pumping operations described above, care should be

taken to restrict the flow of slops as well as water, to a velocity of I metre
per second, in order to avoid static electricity hazards.
9- Swing arms, mixing spiders, and any other internal pipework should be
washed through, after which the last remnants of product can be pumped
away. At this stage some liquid may be held up in the legs of floating roof
tanks because of plugged drain holes. This should be borne in mind later
on in the tank cleaning operation, and legs should be checked and
emptied if necessary when personnel first enter the tank. Permanent foam
connections should also be checked for hydrocarbon content which may
result from a burst seal.
10- After the completion of flushing, tank-side valves should then be closed,
caution tabs attached to them, and the lines isolated either by
disconnecting or blanking. Foam and drain lines are exceptions, and may
remain in service until gas-freeing has been carried out.
11- After isolation has been completed, the tank will contain water with a thin
film of product on its surface. This remaining liquid should then be
drained off until traces of product appear; the remnants either being
removed by vacuum truck, pumped by hand into barrels, or allowed to
pass into the petroleum interceptor for skimming off.

Page 12 of 30
 12- Provisions should also be made for the disposal of sediment and for its
removal from the tank compound. Burying of the sediment within the
tank compound is not recommended because of possible contamination of
groundwater and in the general interests of good housekeeping. If
however, the amount of sediment is small, and is not pyrophoric,
consideration can be given to disposal within the compound. When the
expected amount of sediment is great, consideration may be given to
building ramps over bund/fire walls, or using large containers that can be
handled by a crane.
12.3.2.2 Gas Freeing
1- Before allowing people without suitable respiratory protection to enter a
tank, the tank should be freed from flammable / toxic vapours, and the
oxygen level raised to more than 20% v. Gas-freeing is usually done by
either natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation, or, in certain cases, by
steam. Figure 6.5 shows air ventilation arrangements. To a much lesser
degree, inert gas and water displacement methods are used. Raising the
oxygen level can of course only be achieved by either natural or forced
ventilation.

2- Pure oxygen should never be used for ventilation because it enhances the
explosion hazard.

3- If pyrophoric iron sulphide is present, special precautions are necessary

during gas-freeing as the introduction of air may cause the deposits to
ignite.

12.3.2.3 Tank Cleaning

1- Tank cleaning is usually done with the aid of portable machines. Some
tanks that require frequent cleaning may be fitted with fixed cleaning
guns. These guns clean the tanks with a rotating high pressure water jet.
The water jet rotates in such a way that all pans of the tank are reached.
The impact of the water jet loosens all adherent oil and dirt.

2- Oil or chemicals may be used for jetting instead of water. The

accumulated oil and water mixture is removed from the tank bottom
together with a large part of the basic sediment and water by pumping.
The remaining basic sediment and water has to be removed by hand and
for this purpose some tanks have a special removable plate in the lower
course of the shell plates.

Page 13 of 30
 3- After the tank or vessel has been emptied (as far as possible), certified as
gas-free and the work permit has been issued, cleaners are allowed to
enter that tank and commence work.

4- There are various cleaning methods possible, and a selection or

combination of methods may be made depending on each particular case.
In most instances, the use of water is widely applicable, and this is used
in conjunction with pumps and nozzles, some with hand-held hoses, and
others through fixed jets. If the tank cannot be maintained gas-free, (e.g.
it still contains a large quantity of sludge), cleaning jets are used.

12.3.2.4 Cleaning of Fixed-Roof Tanks

Cleaning with hand-held fire-hoses and high capacity fixed tank cleaning
equipment is unsafe if the tank contains crude, gas oil, or lighter fractions.

This is because high electrostatic space charges may be created by water getting
into the product remnants which could lead to incendiary discharges.

Electrostatic charges are high only if oil is present in the mist created by the jet.
Hoses therefore may only be used if there are definitely no pools of oil present
in the tank. This may be difficult to ensure if large quantities of sludge are
present. However by filling the bottom of the tank with water, it may effectively
float off any oil present.

Page 14 of 30
Figure 12.5 Air Ventilation of Tanks

Page 15 of 30
12.3.2.5 Cleaning of Floating-Roof Tanks
1- Cleaning with hand-held fire-hoses and high capacity fixed tank cleaning
equipment is safe, provided the roof is settled on its legs, and the leg
settings do not exceed 2 metres. The flat pancake shape of the vapour
space does not allow space charges to build up to dangerous voltage
levels.
2- If the bottom sediment can no longer be pumped, gas oil or any other
suitable light oil may be used to make the bottoms less viscous. This can
be done by installing a pump (not combustion engine drive) in the tank
pit, connecting the suction to a source of light oil, (e.g. a road tanker), and
discharging via a rubber hose through a tank manhole. (Note: if the tank
is not gas-free, any circulation of the oil should follow the rules given
previously).

3- When the washing oil becomes fairly viscous, the oil is pumped out via
the drain, or via the suction hose of a second pump, (not combustion
engine driven) and the process is repeated until further cleaning in this
way is no longer effective.
At this stage, all leg drain holes of floating roof tanks must be checked
and cleared if necessary. In addition, if the tank contains heating coils,
they should be checked for product in the heating coils and cleared if
necessary.

4- If pyrophoric iron is present, the internal surface of the tank should be

kept wet to prevent spontaneous ignition.
5- In some cases, large quantities of sludge often remain which defy
removal by methods other than manual, and the above process may well
be limited in its effect. In practice two possibilities remain, either manual
removal, or the use of water hoses from tank manholes which will, break
down the sludge further for removal by vacuum truck or sludge pump.
Manual removal requires cleaners wearing air-supplied breathing
apparatus and equipped with wooden tools, squeegees etc. However,
water jetting in a fixed-roof tank can be unsafe because of the following
two factors:

a. The tank vapour space can re-enter the explosive range as a

consequence of sludge disturbance;
b. Pools of liquid hydrocarbons may still be present, and create charged
mists capable of causing an incendiary spark.

Page 16 of 30
 6- The potential hazards should always be evaluated for each specific case
by an experienced operator. The decision to proceed either manually or
with water jets can therefore only be taken as a result of a local
assessment.
7- If complete oil removal is difficult, do not start to use water hoses until
the tank is pronounced gas-free. There should be continuous forced
ventilation while jetting, preferably using an air-extractor on a roof
manhole with a flexible trunk extending to the bottom part of the tank.
The forced ventilation may prevent explosive levels being reached, but
vapour concentrations must be continuously monitored at several
different places. If vapour concentrations rise to 10% LEL, jetting must
stop until the atmosphere is again gas-free.
8- If forced ventilation is difficult, ensure that no pools of oil are present.
This may be achieved by flooding the bottom of the tank with water, and
pumping away the surface oil to slops. Provided no pools of oil are
present, the mist formed by jetting is unlikely to create an explosion
hazard.
9- Close attention must be paid to the appearance of the tank floor, and
jetting stopped if oil pools re-form. Continuous checking of the tank
vapour space is still a necessary safety measure, and work must stop if
vapour concentrations rise to 10% LEL.
10- Finally the cleaners should enter the tank, wearing air supplied breathing
apparatus, and using wooden tools, push the remaining sludge to the
drain, pump suction, or tank manhole. Ventilation should continue during
this period and frequent gas tests taken. If the concentration exceeds 10%
LEL, consideration should be given to stopping the work because higher
concentrations may be present elsewhere in the tank. In any case
personnel should leave the tank if the concentration approaches 50%
LEL.
Because of the difficulties in measuring vapour concentrations in such a
large space, the levels recommended above should be interpreted with
caution. In practice, any sign of gas should be considered a hazard and
the source investigated.

11- Heating coils, roof supports and other internals should then be cleaned by
hosing with gas oil.
12- The next step is further cleaning of tank walls, bottom and internals with
water jets. The washing is usually done with a 10 bar water stream.
Because of static hazards, this procedure may be unsafe if there is a
possibility of vapour release creating an explosive atmosphere as a result

Page 17 of 30
 of disturbing any remaining sludge. Special care is therefore still required
at this stage to ensure that the tank vapour concentration is checked and
kept gas-free. The scale or sediment will contain a high proportion of
rust, and will have to be collected and removed.

This is usually done manually after the water has been discharged into the
drainage system. Care should be taken that any pyrophoric iron is
keptavet during removal.
13- Where vacuum trucks are available for general cleaning duties such as
cleaning small tanks, oil-catchers, oil-sewers, etc., such vehicles can also
be used for sludge removal from a tank. The advantage of this method is
that the sludge is transferred directly from the tank into a transport
medium, so that double handling is avoided. The relatively small capacity
of the vacuum tank however, (typically 6m3), makes it unsuitable for
cleaning jobs where large amounts of sediment have to be removed.

12.4 Hazardous Conditions and Safety Procedures

There are several causes of accidents which occur during tank inspection and
cleaning:

1- Prominent among them are explosions due to the inadvertent ignition of

an explosive air-vapour mixture within the tank. Conditions for creating
explosive air-vapour mixtures in the vapour space of tanks storing
petroleum products are seldom present under operational conditions. This
is due to the fact that the upper and lower explosive limits for mixtures of
hydrocarbons lie close to each other, approximately between 1 % and
10% for normal petroleum products. Tables are available giving the
explosive limits and other combustion data for a range of compounds. It
should be noted that the upper explosive limits of the lighter
hydrocarbons are somewhat higher than those of the heavier products.

2- A hazardous condition may also occur outside a tank, due to gases

expelled during ventilation. When a tank, vessel, or confined space,
which has contained a volatile hydrocarbon, is being ventilated, e.g. prior
to cleaning or repair, the large volume of vapourlair mixture which is
released may travel beyond the limits of the usual safe distances.
Continuous checks should therefore be made on wind direction and
speed, and volume of discharge.

Page 18 of 30
12.4.1 Explosive Air-Vapour Mixtures

In general, the vapour spaces of both crude and light product tanks will contain
air-vapour mixtures which lie above the upper explosive limit. Only during the
filling of an entirely empty tank is it certain that an explosive mixture will be
present during a short period.

Explosive mixtures may also sometimes occur in fixed-roof tanks when

emptying, due to the ingress of air into the vapour space. This also applies to
floating-roof tanks when the roof is allowed to settle on to its legs.

Other products, such as gasoline and kerosene, can give rise to hazardous
atmospheres under normal storage conditions, and, in a few cases, even heavy
products may be considered hazardous, particularly if they are stored at
temperatures above their flash points. In general, oil products are hazardous
when the vapour pressure lies between 0.1 and 1.3 psi at storage temperature.

From this it can be seen that there is little danger of gas oil, diesel oils and fuel
oils forming explosive mixtures under normal conditions. Nevertheless the
procedure of gas testing, isolation of lines, and the issuing of gas-free and entry
permits must be carried out.

Although crude oil and light product tanks will not contain explosive air-vapour
mixtures under normal working conditions, the situation is quite different when
such tanks have to be cleaned. Gas-freeing by ventilation will bring the air-
vapour mixture in the tank through the explosive range and eventually below
the lower explosive limit.

However, as long as traces of liquids remain in the tank, it is quite possible that,
as a result of gradual evaporation, or of vapours being freed by the cleaning
measures, the explosive zone is re-entered. This is one of the greatest dangers of
tank cleaning, and frequent use of the combustible gas detector (explosimeter),
is therefore essential. In order to reduce the risk of vapour concentrations rising
to dangerous levels, good ventilation should be maintained at all times while
men are working inside the tank.

12.4.2 Ignition Sources

In addition to the presence of an explosive mixture, a second condition is

necessary for an explosion or fire; that is, a source of ignition in the vapour
space. Sources of ignition are:

Page 19 of 30
 1. Static electricity.
2. Pyrophoric (self ignition) iron sulphide.
3. Sparks by metal-on-metal impact.
4. Use of electrical equipment.
5. Unsafe procedures, such as smoking in tanks.
12.4.2.1 Static Electricity

Static electricity is generated when any material moves relative to a different

material. Generation of static charges occur in such operations as the filtering or
agitating of liquids, or in vapour mists in which droplets of different sizes lead
to the generation of space charges. This latter aspect is of particular importance
in tank cleaning, when jets are often used to spray water or other fluids in the
tank. These jets can create highly charged mists when rebounding off an oily
internal tank surface. Once a space charge has been established, it is then
possible that a dislodged piece of scale or even a slug of liquid from the jet, can
act as an insulated conductor and pick-up charge whilst falling / travelling
through the mist. When the charged object approaches an internal tank surface
an incendiary spark is possible. In a non-gas-free tank an explosion may result.

All liquids in motion are capable of generating electrostatic charges. Under

certain conditions, non-conducting liquids, for example hydrocarbons, may
accumulate high static charges. Therefore, all equipment used in gas-freeing,
cleaning and repairing work must be efficiently bonded and earthed. This also
applies to the lines and hoses used for removing tank residues and mechanical
ventilation exhausters, steam nozzles, jetting equipment and CO2 inserting lines.

Steam is sometimes used for gas-freeing and cleaning of tanks, particularly the
smaller sizes. Steaming is considered safe providing the steam is dry at the point
of entry into the tank or vessel. Wet steam can give rise to high electrostatic
space charges. Also, wet steam lines may contain slugs causing an incendiary
spark, as described above. If this happens in the initial steaming period, before
the steam has inerted the tank vapour space, an explosion may occur. Because
of the location of some tank farms it is often difficult to ensure that it remains
dry unless some form of superheating is employed and checks of steam quality
are made in the vicinity of the tank being cleaned.

If superheated steam is used, care must be taken to ensure that the steam
temperature does not exceed the auto-ignition temperatures in the region of
200° C.

Page 20 of 30
The actual size and shape of the tank plays an important part in the level of
charge that can be reached in the vapour space due to the effect of cleaning jets.
For floating roof tanks, with the roof standing on its legs, the flat pancake shape
of the vapour space does not allow the generation of dangerously high space
charges with normal cleaning equipment. The different geometry of fixed-roof
tanks, however, may lead to space charges high enough to create incendiary
sparks, which is hazardous. The tank and equipment must be efficiently bonded
and earthed, even if the space charges are considered to be at a safe level.

The use of cathodic protection for tanks, vessels or pipelines may be a source of
danger. To prevent sparks on the bridging of insulating flanges or contact with
earthed equipment, the power supply to any tank or pipeline which is
cathodically protected should always be disconnected by an authorized person
before any work is permitted. In order to allow time for depolarization, this
should be done at least 24 hours before any work is commenced. The tank,
vessel or pipeline should then be bonded to earth before the work is
commenced.

12.4.2.2 Pyrophoric Iron Sulphide

Pyrophoric iron sulphide is formed by a chemical reaction between a sulphur

compound, such as H 2S, and iron oxide (for example on the steel of a tank's
inner surface), in an atmosphere virtually free of oxygen. This product remains
innocuous so long as it does not dry out.

A hazard associated with pyrophoric iron sulphide may arise when the tank has
been used for a continuous period in storing sour crude or some gasolines.
When scale from such a tank is permitted to dry out, oxygen in the air may
cause the scale to ignite spontaneously. This source of ignition can be controlled
by dissipating the heat to prevent a temperature rise until the atmosphere in the
tank is below the flammable range. This may be accomplished by wetting all
interior surfaces with water or steam. The wetting also tends to isolate these
pyrophoric deposits from oxygen present during ventilation.

While steam may be used to wet pyrophoric deposits it must be either dry or
superheated at the point of entry into the tank. For large tanks, steam supply is
often inadequate, and water has to be used to wet pyrophoric deposits. In non-
gas-free fixed-roof tanks, water jets are dangerous and should not be used for
this purpose. However, wetting can be safely achieved by filling the tank with
water and using fog nozzles.

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12.4.2.3 Spark Formation By Striking of Metal Objects

Great care is required when handling equipment on tank roofs or when

removing manholes from non-gas-free tanks. In order to prevent the occurrence
of incendiary sparks should articles be accidentally dropped, damp sacks should
be placed on the roof and immediately below shell manholes. These sacks
should be kept continuously dampened during the work and removed
immediately on completion.

Light metal (e.g. aluminium, magnesium) are particularly dangerous in this

respect because they can produce high energy sparks on impact with other
metals or concrete. In view of this, it is recommended that aluminium water jet
nozzles, hose connections, etc. should not be used in flammable atmospheres.
Furthermore, the casing and connecting flanges of airblowers and extractors
should preferably not be made of aluminium.

12.4.2.4 Electrical Equipment

When work has to be carried out in a non-gas-free atmosphere inside tanks, only
the use of approved battery powered lights and air operated lighting equipment
should be allowed. No other electrical appliances such as tools, handlamps, etc.
should be used.
Floodlights should be installed outside the tank away from areas where vapours
may enter. Only when it is certain that no explosion or fire hazard exists in the
tank or vessel may any other electrical appliances (portable and transportable)
be used. Such appliances must be adapted for a supply not exceeding 42V AC
or 110V DC. The isolating safety transformers or rectifiers, subject to the issue
of a relevant permit, should be placed outside the tank or vessel.
The condition of electrical appliances should always be checked before issue
and after use.. When in use for some time they should be periodically checked.
The equipment should not be used when in any way defective.

12.4.2.5 Smoking In the Tank

This hazard is by no means imaginary, especially when the cleaning job is

performed by casual workmen employed by contractors who are not trained in
refinery or oilfield work. Continuous strict supervision in this respect is
necessary. As a precautionary measure workmen should not be permitted to
carry matches or lighters in the tank farm area.

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12.4.3 Gases Discharged During Gas-Freeing

Hydrocarbon vapours are generally heavier than air and although they can
sometimes be easily and safely dispersed by a light breeze, a flammable
concentration may travel a considerable distance in a still atmosphere. Thus
when a tank, vessel, or confined space, which has contained a volatile
hydrocarbon, is being ventilated prior to cleaning or repair, the large volume of
vapourlair mixture which is released may travel beyond the limits of the usual
safe distances. Continuous checks should therefore be made on wind direction
and speed, and volume of discharge.

Particular attention should be paid to gases discharged from an eductor during

gas-freeing. Measures should be taken to eliminate all sources or ignition from
the vicinity of the eductor exhaust.

12.4.3.1 Petroleum Gases

In order to avoid any hazard to health through inhalation of toxic vapours,

special care should be taken to ensure that hazardous areas are not entered by
anyone except in an emergency. This includes personnel carrying out the gas-
freeing procedure and other person who may happen to pass through the area. In
emergencies, personnel must be provided with breathing apparatus and
protective clothing. This is also applicable if inert gas has been used for purging
and it is in the process of being replaced by air or hydrocarbon. In this case,
there is a danger of asphyxiation in the area outside the tank.

Continuous supervision is therefore essential during the gas-freeing operation to

ensure safety of personnel and equipment. The supervisor should stop the
operation during very still air conditions or during electrical storms.

When a portable air compressor is used to supply air to the eductor, care should
be taken that the compressor be placed at a safe distance outside the bund wall
upwind of the source of the vapour. Distinction should be made between the
hazards from: petroleum, hydrogen sulphide, organic lead compounds, benzene
(benzol), and lack of oxygen.

When the percentage of petroleum vapours in an air-vapour mixture lies below

the lower explosive limit, there may nevertheless still be a hazard through
inhalation of petroleum vapours.

As a general rule, it is considered that exposure to petroleum vapour

concentrations of less than 0.1% volume over a long period is unlikely to be
damaging to the health of personnel. There are, however, many cases known

Page 23 of 30
where even lower concentrations have had an adverse effect on persons who are
particularly susceptible.

12.4.3.2 Hydrogen Sulphide Gas

Besides the danger caused by the presence of petroleum gases in certain

concentrations, hydrogen sulphide gas (H 2S) may also constitute a serious
hazard.

Concentrations, even as low as low ppm of H 2S may cause unconsciousness

and even death. Before a crew is allowed to enter a tank it is necessary to
ascertain the extent of any hazard present. In certain circumstances suitable air
supplied breathing apparatus and life-lines must be worn. The men should be
under constant supervision by two others stationed outside the tank holding the
life-lines, one of whom should also have air supplied breathing equipment at the
ready.

It should be stressed that the odor of hydrogen sulphide is not a reliable guide to
its presence as with exposure to the gas, the sense of smell is very rapidly lost.

Lack of oxygen may result from chemicals absorbing or replacing oxygen in the
tank air, or from inert gas often used to exclude or to reduce the possibility of
explosions.

Air in clean tanks which are closed for an extended period may become
deficient in oxygen because of rusting (oxidation) of the metal of the tank.
Improper or inadequate ventilation during tank work may also result in a lack of
oxygen. No tank should be entered without breathing apparatus unless the
oxygen content is 20% or above.

Page 24 of 30
12.5 Safety Procedures

12.5.1 General Safety Instructions

The above mentioned hazards can be minimized by following safety procedures

that are summarized below. They should be adhered to for all operations that
involve the entering of personnel into tanks.

1. All lines to and from the tank must be disconnected or blanked off.

2. A gas-free and oxygen certificate must be obtained or air-supplied

breathing apparatus specified as appropriate.

3. Before entering the tank, a permit, signed by the supervisor, must be

issued. The permit should list all safety measures and the necessary
protective clothing and equipment, and should also be endorsed only for a
specific time period. .

4. During a thunder-storm nobody should be allowed on the roof or inside

the tank. If an explosive mixture could still be present, operations should
be stopped, and, if there is time before the storm, the tank should be
closed.

5. If work has to be done in non-gas-free tanks, there should always be two

people present outside the tank for control of the air source (usually an air
compressor), the air supply to the respirators, and for any emergency
assistance to personnel in the tank.
There should also be two independent air supply respirators, preferably
self-contained, ready for immediate use in an emergency. One of the
persons outside the tank should have one set at the ready, and be stationed
at a tank manhole, keeping personnel in the tank under observation. If the
personnel inside cannot remain within view of the outside observer, they
must be joined inside by another person.

6. A fresh activated carbon type filter should always be connected in

between compressor and respirators to absorb any obnoxious vapours. If
there is a chance of temperatures near freezing point, air driers will also
be needed. These should be connected between the compressor and the
filter.

7. The air compressor should be located upwind of the tank being cleaned.
A wind sock should be kept flying to indicate changes in wind direction.

Page 25 of 30
8. Sludge of pyrophoric nature, (as could be the case in gasgline and crude
tanks, and in tanks which have contained sour stocks), should be kept wet
and, as soon as possible, taken out of the tank pit to a place for final safe
disposal.

9. The maximum working temperature inside a tank should not be above

40°C unless special precautions are prescribed in the permit. The
temperature can be decreased by ventilation. It should also be noted that
the readings of combustible gas detectors tend to be low at high
temperatures (40°C) and cautions required in the interpretation of results
in hot weather.

10. Until a tank is declared gas-free, only approved battery powered lights
and air operated lighting equipment should be permitted.
11. Portable lights used outside the tanks should preferably be placed away
from possible vapour travel. If this cannot be done, these lights should be
of an explosion-proof type, connected to extension cords equipped with
connectors or switches approved
for hazardous locations. Such equipment should be thoroughly inspected
prior to its use.
12. Only tools that are specifically covered by the work permit should be
used in tanks that are not gas-free.
13. Cleaners etc. should always wear protective clothing whilst working with
products of a corrosive nature, both inside and outside the tank. This
should consist of plastic gloves, boots, and face-mask with helmet, and
preferably, also PVC-coated clothing.
Specific requirements should be stated on the work permit.
14. Fire fighting equipment should always be on site during cleaning in
accordance with the permit. Personnel should be trained in handling the
type of equipment prescribed.
15. Pumping equipment should be preferably air-.or steam-driven, If this is
not possible, care should be taken that:

 The equipment is installed at the windward side;

 The flammable vapours will not be released at ground level;
 The area around the equipment is properly tested for flammability
before any equipment is connected;
 Spark arrestors and overspeed prevention devices are fitted if
applicable.

Page 26 of 30
 16. Smoking inside a tank should never be allowed even when the tank has
been declared gas-free and clean.

17. The power supply to any tank that is cathodically protected should be
disconnected at least 24 hours before any work is permitted, in order to
allow time for depolarization.

18. If work has to be done inside a tank, vessel or other confined space,
which is gas-free and well ventilated and where entry is permitted
without breathing apparatus, there should always be two persons present.

19. If a tank being cleaned remains unattended, e.g. during lunchtime, at

night, or during the weekend, warning signs must be posted.

20. If either steam or water jets are used during the gas-freeing or early
cleaning stages when the tank is not gas-free, certain precautions are
essential to avoid static electricity hazards.

21. If tanks are cleaned at night, exits should be clearly marked by suitable
means in case of power failure.

22. Before the last manhole of a tank is closed, the supervisor should
ascertain that no people, tools or materials have been left behind and that
all work has been satisfactorily completed.

12.5.2 Protective Clothing

1- Boots of good quality (with safety toe-caps), in good condition, and made
of material resistant to water and oil should be worn by tank cleaners.
Boots should be discarded if the safety toes become exposed, because of
the possibility of causing an incendiary spark. It is also good practice to
wear gloves made of materials resistant to water and oil, because
excessive exposure may irritate and burn the skin. Acid-proof rubber,
neoprene, vinyl, etc., are acceptable as resistant materials. Protective hats
must always be worn.

2- If there is a danger that clothing can get badly splashed or soiled, special
protective clothing (e.g. PVC overalls) should be worn with suitable
face/eye protection. When cleaning leaded gasoline tanks, the Octel
recommendations on clothing should always be followed.

Page 27 of 30
 3- If at any time normal clothing. (e.g. cotton overalls), becomes
contaminated with oil or sludge, such clothing should be removed
immediately. The clothing should be kept away from any source of
ignition, because vapour given off by such clothing may be flammable. A
bath with soap and water should be taken promptly, and clean clothing
should be put on. Oil contaminated clothing should not be kept in locker
rooms or stored in lockers. It should be dry cleaned and not laundered to
ensure removal of all contamination.

4- Tank cleaners should take a bath with soap and water at the end of each
day's work, and when the tank cleaning job has been completed. In the
event of hands, etc. becoming contaminated, cleaners should wash with
soap and water, preferably hot, as soon as possible.

12.5.3 Respiratory Protection

 Protective respiratory equipment for tank cleaners should provide a

positive air pressure in a full-face piece mask or hood throughout the
breathing cycle.
Canister type masks are not permitted for working in confined spaces or
tank cleaning because they do not provide proper protection against
vapour concentrations above 2%, nor do they protect against oxygen
deficiency.

 Positive air pressure may be supplied to the full-face piece mask in one of
the following ways:

1. From a positive-pressure blower either hand-operated or (preferably)

motor driven, the discharge of which is connected to the mask by means
of a low-pressure hose-line.

2. From an air compressor with activated-carbon filter and, if necessary, air

driers. The discharge of this equipment is connected by an intermediate-
pressure air line to a reducing valve worn by the cleaner. A low-pressure
air line connects the low-pressure side to the mask.

3. Use of air from plant air lines or from compressors supplying power tools
should not normally be permitted because the air from such sources is not
free from toxic contaminants, nor is the supply under control of the tank
crew. If, however, absolutely no other source of air supply is available
and air from plant lines etc. is used, it should be purified, e.g. by carbon
filter.

Page 28 of 30
 4. From one or more high-pressure breathing air cylinders fitted with
reducing valves.

5. From a high-pressure breathing air cylinder carried by the tank cleaner.

Because of the limited air supply this self-contained equipment is
recommended only for tank entries of short duration, such as for
inspection, gas testing or to provide emergency assistance.

If an air supply, other than an air cylinder carried by the cleaner, is used,
measures must be taken to ensure that, in case the air is interrupted, the people
inside the confined space will have enough time to get out safely.

Such measures could consist of placing a pressure vessel between source and
mask, or keeping a second air compressor running. If a 'Bloman' apparatus is
used, men can breathe with the blower stopped, but must leave the tank in such
a case.

Where air is supplied from a blower or compressor, such equipment should

always be located to the upwind side of the tank, and should not be near an
engine exhaust or other source of contamination.

After the full-face piece mask has been adjusted to the face and tightened, it
should be tested for leaks/gas-tightness. This is accomplished by closing the end
of the tube with the palm of the hand, or pinching the tube to cut off the air, and
inhaling. If the mask collapses against the face, the fit is satisfactory.
If it does not, leaks should be located and eliminated. Under no circumstances
should anyone remove his mask while inside the tank.

Face pieces of the mask sets should be cleaned with soap and water at least at
the end of each day, and after completion of the job. They should then be dried
and tested by a competent person to ensure that the valves are not sticking.

Other parts of the mask sets including hoses and life-lines should be cleaned
after completion of each job and protected against excessive heat.

12.5.4 Eye-Protection Equipment

Eye protection equipment, of a full-coverage type, should be worn during the

scraping of scale, cutting of rivets and the spreading of sawdust or other
absorbent. Such equipment should be cleaned frequently and should be washed
and sterilized upon completion of each job.

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12.5.5 Use of Life-Lines

Under very special circumstances, e.g. for inspection purposes, tanks and
confined spaces which have not been gas-freed or which are deficient in
oxygen, may be entered. The use of an air-supplied breathing apparatus, body
harness and life-line attached to the person(s) entering, (if safe to do so) is
required.

The free end of the life-line should be secured to a fixed object outside the tank
and should be attended by two persons, one of whom will keep the personnel in
the tank constantly within his vision. The observer may pass tools, but he must
have no other job which will take his attention away from the personnel in the
tank, or which will interfere with his attempt to withdraw a victim by use of the
life-line, or will require his leaving the vicinity of the tank for any time
whatever.

In case of emergency, the outside observer must never enter the tank until he is
relieved at his post. It is his job to summon aid immediately (various alarms,
such as a whistle, may be used), to attempt to remove the victim by use of the
life-line and to perform all necessary rescue functions from the outside. Upon
arrival of help, he may enter the tank for rescue work only when he is assured
that outside assistance is adequate. Such observers should be well trained in
basic First Aid principles, such as rescue breathing techniques. Rescuers
entering the tank must be protected with the safety facilities required by the
situation I.e. life-line and harness and proper personal
protective equipment.

Life-lines can often be a hindrance and may well prejudice effective emergency
action under certain conditions. In small spaces containing fittings (e.g. steam
coils, stirrers, swing arms, etc.), or in large floating-roof tanks with many legs,
entanglement of a life-line may make it extremely difficult or even impossible
to extricate an unconscious person. While as a general principle the use of life-
lines should always be considered in confined spaces, a local management
decision may be made not to use them, if, by doing so, a less safe situation is
created. However, a life-line, fitted for quick attachment to a harness, should
always be available at the tank entry point.

Tank cleaning operations, especially in the preliminary stages of preparation

and gas-freeing, should always be under direct supervision. A competent
person, aware of the hazards of the operation and fully conversant with the
cleaning procedure and with the use and fitting of protective equipment should
be in attendance throughout the entire operation. This particularly applies when
such work is performed by contractors.

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