Abstract

1.0.
Abstract
The experiment is titled "Determination of Friction Losses in Pipes. “It was

conducted in the Fluids Mechanics Lab, and we were required to calculate the head loss
caused by the flow of fluid through the pipelines. We are considering the velocity of the
flowing fluid, the roughness, and the diameters of the pipes that will be shown the Reynolds
Numbers. So, depending on the Reynolds Numbers, we will calculate whether the flow is
turbulent or laminar. We have four distinct types of pipes in this experiment: straight pipe,
elbow pipe, bend pipe, and 45° angle pipe. We will acquire the result of head loss caused by
friction in the pipe by taking Darcy Weisbach friction factor, velocity of flow in pipe,
diameter of pipe, and length of pipe into account.
1.1. Introduction
A piping system is a network of interconnected pipes and fittings that transmit or transfer
fluids from one point to another. For example, piping systems can be used to deliver water
from water treatment plants or tanks to homes or buildings, steam piping systems in power
plants, milk piping systems in dairy farms, paint piping systems in paint production plants,
and oil piping systems in refineries. The network of pipes includes pipes, fittings, valves, or
even pumps to ensure the best transfer of fluid. Civil engineers are responsible for designing
optimal pipe systems that consider all the variables that can affect the discharge of fluid, such
as the diameter of the pipes and losses occurring within the system. In this experiment, we are
going to look at different flow rate conditions under the influence of the viscosity of the fluid
flowing through a hydraulic piping circuit connected to a TECQUipment Hydraulic Bench.
The water piping systems are made of dark blue circuit with gate valve, and another light
blue circuit with globe valve.
1.2. Aims
 To determine the loss of pressure for various flow rates in a piping system made up of
bends expansion and contraction joints straight pipes.
1.3. Objectives
 To calculate the head loss for the various components of the piping system at various
flow rates.
 To understand that friction factor is a function of Reynold’s number and to compare
the relationship calculated from Blasius's equation for hydraulically smooth pipes.
 To find the head rise across a sudden expansion.
 To find the head fall across a sudden contraction.
 To find the head loss coefficients for the different bends in the piping system.
2.0. Literature review
The flow of fluid through a piping system is subject to two main types of losses, frictional
losses, and pressure head loss. The frictional losses are caused by the viscosity of the fluid
flowing through the pipe and the hardness of the pipe's surface wall, which account for most
of these losses. Minor losses are also considered, such as pipe fittings, direction changes in
the flow direction of the pipe, and changes in the expansion and contraction of the pipe cross
section areas. The total head loss can be calculated by the sum of the two categories below:
 Major head loss
Friction on the wall of the pipes account for these losses. This loss is calculated using:
1. Darcy-Weisbach formula
2. Chezy’s formula
 Minor head loss
This occurs due to:
1. Sudden expansion in the pipeline
2. Sudden contraction in the pipeline
3. Bend of the pipe
4. Obstruction in the pipes
5. Fittings in the pipeline
2.1 MAJOR LOSSES
The major head loss along a length, L, of straight pipe of constant diameter, d is the result of the
fluid's viscous resistance also known as the frictional loss across a pipe. This head loss can be
calculated using the Darcy-Weishbach equation as follows:
Major Losses in Pipe

Major losses are caused by friction resistance. the head loss is given by
1. Darcy’s Weisbach Equation

2. Chezy’s Equation
1. Darcy Weisbach Equation

Where, hf= head loss between sections (1) and (2)
due to friction
Since the flow is steady and uniform
V1=V2
As per Darcy-Weisbach equation
Where, L= Lenth of the pipeline, f’ = Friction Coefficient
D= Diameter of the pipe, V= Average Velocity
2.2.1 Head loss due to sudden enlargement
Whenever there is a sudden expansion in a pipe that is the diameter increases in an abrupt manner
at a specific point in the pipe network, the velocity of water is seen to decrease along the direction
of steady water flow. This drop in velocity implies that there is an increase in pressure
demonstrated by a head rise in the piezometer tubes. As the fluid comes from the small diameter
pipe to enlargement boundary the streamline follows a standard divergent path. This results in the
mechanical energy to be dissipated into intermolecular energy creating in clusters of turbulent
eddies in the corners.
Figure 2: Sudden expansion in pipe (Objectives_template, 2021)
pg. 6
From the momentum equation the following can be deduced:
𝑃1𝐴1 + 𝑃′(𝐴2 − 𝐴1) − 𝑃2𝐴2 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉2 − 𝑉1) → 𝐸𝑞𝑛 1
Where,
𝐴1 and 𝐴2 is the cross sectional areas of the smaller pipe and larger pipe respectively
𝑃1 and 𝑃2 is the upstream and downstream velocity respectively
𝑃′ is the average pressure of eddies current

𝑉1 and 𝑉2 is the upstream and downstream velocity respectively
Since 𝑃1 = 𝑃′
𝑃2𝐴2 − 𝑃1𝐴2 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉1 − 𝑉2) → 𝐸𝑞𝑛 2
From the continuity equation,
𝑄 = 𝐴2𝑉2
Substituting the continuity equation in the above equation we get,
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑉2(𝑉1 − 𝑉2) → 𝐸𝑞𝑛 3
Applying the Bernoulli equation between 1 and 2:
𝑃1
𝜌𝑔 + 𝑉1
2𝑔 = 𝑃2
𝜌𝑔 + 𝑉2
2𝑔 + ℎ𝐿
𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝜌𝑔 = 𝑉1
2 − 𝑉2
2𝑔 − ℎ𝐿
Substituting the eqn 3 into the Bernoulli equation we get the head hL for the sudden enlargement:
ℎ𝐿 = (𝑉1 − 𝑉2)2
2𝑔
pg. 7
2.2.2 Head loss due to sudden contraction
Whenever there is a sudden contraction in a pipe that is the diameter decreases in an abrupt
manner
at a specific point in the pipe network, the velocity of water is seen to increase along the direction
of steady water flow. This rise in velocity implies that there is a decrease in pressure demonstrated
by a head fall in the piezometer tubes. As the fluid comes from the larger diameter pipe to
contraction boundary the streamline converges gradually. Nonetheless, immediately downstream

of the area contraction junction, the stream tube's cross-sectional area becomes the smallest and is
less than that of the smaller pipe. A vena contracta is formed which is a part of the stream tube
when the stream narrows before widening again to fill the pipe. After the vena contracta, the flow
pattern is identical to that of a sudden expansion.
Figure 3: Sudden contraction in pipe (Objectives_template, 2021)
Using the same principle as in the sudden enlargement scenario we get:
ℎ𝐿 = (𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉2)2
2𝑔
Using the continuity equation the above can be expressed as follows:
ℎ𝐿 = (𝐴2
𝐴𝑐
− 1)
2 𝑉2
2𝑔 = ( 1
𝐶𝑐
− 1)
2 𝑉2
2𝑔
pg. 8
Where
𝐴𝑐 is the cross sectional area of the vena contracta
Cc is the coefficient of contraction equal to 𝐴2
𝐴𝑐
Hence the head loss for a sudden contraction is as follows:
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐾 𝑉2
2𝑔
Where K is the loss coefficient due to sudden contraction and is equal to ( 1
𝐶𝑐
− 1)2
2.2.3 Head loss due to bends
This is the amount of energy lost as a result of the bend. The direction of flow changes when a
bend is added to a pipeline. The flow splits from the bend's walls as a result, resulting in the
production of eddies. Friction and momentum transfers generated by a change in flow direction
are both responsible for pressure losses in a bend. Both of these variables are influenced by the
bend angle, curvature ratio, and Reynolds Number. It has been found that as the radius ratio
increases, the bend loss coefficient decreases. In this practical we are acquainted with standard
90° elbow, 90° mitre, 100 mm radius bend, 150 mm radius bend and 50 mm radius bend.
The head loss due to bend can be expressed as follows:
ℎ𝐵 = 𝐾𝐵
𝑉2
2𝑔
Where K is the loss coefficient due to b

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1.0.

The experiment is titled "Determination of Friction Losses in Pipes. “It was

2.1 MAJOR LOSSES

calculated using the Darcy-Weishbach equation as follows:

Major Losses in Pipe

1. Darcy’s Weisbach Equation

1. Darcy Weisbach Equation

Since the flow is steady and uniform

As per Darcy-Weisbach equation

Where, L= Lenth of the pipeline, f’ = Friction Coefficient

D= Diameter of the pipe, V= Average Velocity

2.2.1 Head loss due to sudden enlargement

mechanical energy to be dissipated into intermolecular energy creating in clusters of turbulent

eddies in the corners.

Figure 2: Sudden expansion in pipe (Objectives_template, 2021)

From the momentum equation the following can be deduced:

𝑃1𝐴1 + 𝑃′(𝐴2 − 𝐴1) − 𝑃2𝐴2 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉2 − 𝑉1) → 𝐸𝑞𝑛 1

𝑃1 and 𝑃2 is the upstream and downstream velocity respectively

𝑃′ is the average pressure of eddies current

𝑃2𝐴2 − 𝑃1𝐴2 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉1 − 𝑉2) → 𝐸𝑞𝑛 2

From the continuity equation,

Substituting the continuity equation in the above equation we get,

𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑉2(𝑉1 − 𝑉2) → 𝐸𝑞𝑛 3

Applying the Bernoulli equation between 1 and 2:

2.2.2 Head loss due to sudden contraction

contraction boundary the streamline converges gradually. Nonetheless, immediately downstream

pattern is identical to that of a sudden expansion.

Figure 3: Sudden contraction in pipe (Objectives_template, 2021)

Using the same principle as in the sudden enlargement scenario we get:

Using the continuity equation the above can be expressed as follows:

𝐴𝑐 is the cross sectional area of the vena contracta

Cc is the coefficient of contraction equal to 𝐴2

Hence the head loss for a sudden contraction is as follows:

Where K is the loss coefficient due to sudden contraction and is equal to ( 1

2.2.3 Head loss due to bends

The head loss due to bend can be expressed as follows:

Where K is the loss coefficient due to b

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