Magnetic disks

provide the bulk of secondary storage for modern computer systems. • Each disk platter has a flat
circular shape, like a CD. Common platter diameters range from 1.8 to 3.5 inches. • The two surfaces
of a platter are covered with a magnetic material. • We store information by recording it magnetically
on the platters.
The transfer rate is the rate at which data flow between the drive and the computer
The positioning time, or random-access time, consists of two parts: the time necessary to move the
disk arm to the desired cylinder, called the seek time, and the time necessary for the desired sector to
rotate to the disk head, called the rotational latency.

The data transfers on a bus are carried out by special electronic processors called controllers. The host
controller is the controller at the computer end of the bus. A disk controller is built into each disk
drive.
To perform a disk I/O operation, the computer places a command into the host Controller. The host
controller then sends the command via messages to the disk controller, and the disk controller
operates the disk-drive hardware to carry out the command

Semaphore
Semaphore is a Synchronization tool. • Semaphore are used to solve busy waiting issue. • S ;Process
are accessed in Mutually exclusive manner. • operations: wait() and signal()

Wait: It is used to test the semaphore variable. It decrement the semaphore value. If the value become
negative, then the execution of wait() operation is blocked. 2. Signal: It increment the semaphore
value. • Entry to the critical section is controlled by wait operation and exit from a critical section is
taken care by signal operation

Counting semaphore • The value of a counting semaphore can range over an unrestricted domain.
Binary Semaphore • The value of a binary semaphore can range only between 0 and 1.

To overcome the need for busy waiting, we can modify the definition of the wait() and signal()
operations as follows: • When a process executes the wait() operation and finds that the semaphore
value is not positive, it must wait. • Instead of engaging in busy waiting, the process can block itself. •
The block operation places a process into a waiting queue associated with the semaphore, and the
state of the process is switched to the waiting state. • Then control is transferred to the CPU scheduler,
which selects another process to execute.
A process that is blocked, waiting on a semaphore S, should be restarted when some other process
executes a signal() operation. • The process is restarted by a wakeup() operation, which changes the
process from the waiting state to the ready state. • The process is then placed in the ready queue
The implementation of a semaphore with a waiting queue may result in a situation where two or more
processes are waiting indefinitely for an event that can be caused only by one of the waiting
processes. • When such a state is reached, these processes are said to be deadlocked

Allow at most four philosophers to be sitting simultaneously at the table. • Allow a philosopher to
pick up his/her chopsticks only if both chopsticks are available. • Use an asymmetric solution—that
is, an odd-numbered philosopher picks up first his/her left chopstick and then his/her right chopstick,
whereas an even numbered philosopher picks up his/her right chopstick and then his/her left chopstick

When more than one processes are executing the same code or accessing the same memory or any
shared variable/resource/code in that condition there is a possibility that the output or the value of the
shared variable is wrong so for that all the processes doing race to say that my output is correct this
condition known as race condition.

• As a process executes, it changes state new: The process is being created running: Instructions
are being executed waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur ready: The process is
waiting to be assigned to a processor terminated: The process has finished execution
Process is program in execution
Process state : The state may be new, ready, running, waiting, terminated, and so on. Program
counter: The counter indicates the address of the next instruction to be executed for this process. CPU
registers :The registers vary in number and type, depending on the computer architecture. They
include accumulators, index registers, stack pointers, and general-purpose registers, any condition-
code information. CPU-scheduling information: This information includes a process priority , pointers
to scheduling queues, and any other scheduling parameters.

Also called task control block

Process which enter the system are put into job queue
Process which reside in main memory and are ready and waiting for execution are putinto ready
queue
Process waiting for a io devices are in device queue
Simple layered module micro kernel

Program execution i/o execution file system manipulation accounting

Erreor detection protection resource allocation
Communication

Program is a set of instructions

File management processor memory management job accounting error detection codes device
management

Preemtive allows interrupting a lower priority task and running na higher priority program

When more than one processes are executing the same code or accessing the same memory or any
shared variable/resource/code in that condition there is a possibility that the output or the value of the
shared variable is wrong so for that all the processes doing race to say that my output is correct this
condition known as race condition

When more than one processes are executing the same code or accessing the same memory or any
shared variable/resource/code in that condition there is a possibility that the output or the value of the
shared variable is wrong so for that all the processes doing race to say that my output is correct this
condition known as race condition.

Deadlock conditions
Mutual exclusion
Hold and wait
No Preemtion
Circular wait