Topic 6 June 2016 V3

G18BG Geoscience A
Topic 6
Geological techniques
Contents
6.1. INTRODUCTION TO CORRELATION ............................................................ 139

6.1.1.What is correlation .................................................................... 139
6.1.2. Importance of correlation.......................................................... 139
6.1.3. Stratigraphy and correlation ..................................................... 140
6.1.4. Correlation of well data............................................................. 148
6.1.5. Correlation guidelines .............................................................. 149
6.2.INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGICAL MAPS ...................................................... 150
6.2.1. Definition of a map .................................................................. 150
6.2.2. Coordinates............................................................................... .150
6.2.3. Definition of contour map ......................................................... 151
6.2.4. Topographical base for geological maps .................................. 151
6.2.5. Outcrop/suboutcrop geological maps ....................................... 153
6.2.6. Google Earth and aerial photographs ....................................... 155
6.2.7. Structure contour maps ............................................................ 155
6.3. UNDERSTANDING GEOLOGICAL MAPS ...................................................... 157
6.3.1. Delimitation of stratigraphical units ........................................... 158
6.3.2. Strike and dip ........................................................................... 159
6.3.3. Conformity-unconformity ........................................................ 159
6.3.4. Representation of structural features........................................ 160
6.4.COMPUTER GENERATED MAPS ................................................................. 161
6.5.CROSS-SECTIONS FROM MAPS ................................................................. 162
6.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................... 167
Prerequisite knowledge
• Topics 2-5
• Geometry and spatial vision
© HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY 137

TOPIC 6. GEOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES June 2016 V3
Learning objectives
After studying this Topic, you should be able to:
• Define the concept of correlation and explain its importance and its
basic principles
• Apply the concept of correlation by carrying out simple correlations
using lithostratigraphic and biostratigraphic data
• Describe what a geological and a structural contour map represent
• List and illustrate the different steps needed to draw a simple cross
section and apply them to create a cross section from a given map
138 © HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

June 2016 V3 TOPIC 6. GEOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES
In the present topic we will discuss two main geological techniques: correlation
and geological mapping, and their crucial role in petroleum engineering.
Remember to use the dictionary of geological terms provided in the references

of Topic 1 to help you with the definitions of some words and concepts, and to
check the other references provided for further details on the topic.
6.1. Introduction to correlation

6.1.1. What is correlation
A correlation is a graphical representation of how the rock units (or other

geological phenomena such as fossil zones) observed at one location (e.g. a
well) are related or connected to those found in other locations (e.g. other
wells, or outcrops).
It is important to realise that there are many different types of correlation,

depending on the data used to correlate and the reason for correlating. For
example, a correlation designed to show the age relationship of a succession
of rocks will look quite different from a correlation designed to illustrate the
lithological connections (Figure 6.1).
It is also vital to understand that any correlation is an interpretation of the

available data. Geologists try to use a number of guidelines or considerations
to constrain their interpretation, but the result is still an opinion, and could be
altered by the input of further data (Figure 6.2).
The result of a correlation is an interpretation of the relationship of the rock

units (or other data) to each other, so that it is important to keep in mind what
you actually mean when you draw a line of correlation.
6.1.2. Importance of correlation
Correlation is the basis of our understanding of the distribution and the

arrangement or architecture of our reservoir, and therefore what kind of fluid
flow behaviour we expect.
We use correlation and maps to estimate reservoir volume, porosity

permeability distributions and therefore fluid volume and flow units. Figure 6.1
shows that the volume of each facies (and the connectivity of the facies to
each other) changes with each correlation, highlighting the importance of
realistic correlations in estimating reservoir volumes.
©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY 139

Figure 6.1. Changes in the correlation between the two wells in the first image
(superior corner, left) towards a more complex correlation when we start introducing
more and more new data (more wells in this case). (Figure by H. Lever).
6.1.3. Stratigraphy and correlation
Correlation cannot be undertaken without some basic knowledge of the

principles of stratigraphy. When we are correlating between our known data,
we have some purpose in mind.
There are several ways of representing a correlation between wells or logs,

depending on our purpose.
If we want to find out the real dimensions of the bodies forming our reservoir,
we will draw a realistic correlation scheme, that we will call from now on “real-
distance correlation panel”. This type of correlation panel will represent (at a
certain scale) the real distance between our wells and therefore orientations
similar to reality (depending on the vertical scale) of the beds that we correlate
(Figure 6.2a).
On the other hand, if we are more interested in the continuity of a certain bed,
or in its age, we may correlate using an “even-distance correlation panel”
(Figure 6.2b). An even-distance correlation panel will be a schematic
representation that will not respect the real distance between wells. Therefore,
the orientations of our beds will be different to reality, and may appear to
change between wells whereas in reality they are consistent.

Figure 6.2.a. Real-distance correlation panel showing the correlation among three
sandy beds in three wells. In this case, we are using the true depth of the wells, so in
this correlation panel, neither the distance among wells nor the dip of the beds has
been modified. 6.2b. Even-distance correlation panel among the same three wells
(Figure by S. Pla-Pueyo). Note how in this case the wells are evenly spaced, or
equidistant. In this case, instead of using the true depth, we are using a reference
horizontal surface (the top of the conglomerate) to determine the depth of our wells in
the correlation panel, so no real distance between wells nor real dip of beds in shown
in this case.

In either of these types of correlation panel, we can decide to use the true
depth of the wells (“true-depth correlation panels”) or we can modify the
vertical position of our wells to make a certain depth coincide with a horizontal
surface (“hung correlation panels”). This horizontal surface is usually given by
a stratigraphic marker or datum, that will be the reference level for the whole
correlation. In Figure 6.2b, the chosen stratigraphic datum is the top of the
conglomerate, so the vertical position of the wells will depend on that surface.
Usually a petroleum geologist is concerned with correlating distinct lithologies,

but they may also be correlating to identify rocks of a similar age, or those
rocks that were deposited as part of the same sequence. Each purpose uses
different data and is a different type of stratigraphy (lithostratigraphy,
biostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy, etc.).
We have already explained in Topic 4 the main disciplines within stratigraphy,

and now we will see how they can be of use for correlating rocks in different
locations. The most useful correlation tools are known as stratigraphic
markers, which are widespread units, fossils or boundaries that may be
recognized and correlated over a wide area, and we will talk about them when
explaining each of the stratigraphic disciplines.
The most commonly used and the most useful in considering the reservoir
characteristics is lithostratigraphy. As it has been mentioned in Topic 4, it
deals with the lithology or physical characteristics of the rock (i.e. sandstone,
mudstone etc). Correlation of lithology gives the arrangement of beds, porosity
and permeability zones, flow units and potential barriers in a reservoir, as well
as volume and extent of the reservoir.
In the lithostratigraphic correlation we care more about the lithology than about
the age of the rocks. Therefore, we may be correlating two bodies of the same
lithology that are totally different in age (Figure 6.3). This type of correlation
can be useful if we are looking for sedimentary bodies that are connected
among them because they are part of the same reservoir. It is possible in this
case to have connected bodies of lithologically similar rock in the subsurface
that are millions of years different in age between two places. This is because
lithological units are time transgressive (the correlation lines may cross time
lines).
Some lithologies are more likely to be laterally continuous and deposited at

roughly the same time than others, which make them excellent marker beds
(lithostratigraphic markers) for use in correlation. Others are more likely to be
laterally discontinuous and very bad correlation markers

Figure 6.3. Correlation among three sandy beds in three wells. The bed has different
ages in each well, because the sedimentary environment in which the sandstone
formed (a sandy beach) remained the same during a long period of time, although it
was changing its location in the landscape (the sea level changed, and therefore the
coastline and the sand formed in the beach changed locations as well).You can see
how this movement through time resulted in beds of the same sandstone having
different ages (Figure by S. Pla-Pueyo).
The next important type is biostratigraphy, for which fossil assemblages and
ranges are identified and used to correlate wells to each other and to a global
chart of fossil ranges for the purposes of dating the rocks.
We use biostratigraphic zones or biozones (see Topic 4 for further details) to

correlate among logs or wells.
There are several types of biozones that we can use to correlate, depending
on the criteria we use to define the time interval of the biozone (Figure 6.4):
• First appearance (or occurrence) of a fossil species in a log or well

• Last appearance or occurrence of a fossil species in a log or well.
• Interval in which certain species appear together (assemblage range)
• Interval of maximum abundance of a certain species (acme range)

Figure 6.4. Main types of biozones (Figure by S. Pla-Pueyo).
There are other criteria, but for the moment we will use these four in our
correlations.
An appearance (or first occurrence or base occurrence) is the level at which a

fossil taxon first appears in the stratigraphy, and is usually caused by the
evolution of that species. (Taxon is a term that refers to the classification of the
fossils, and for our purposes can be equivalent to species. The plural form is
taxa)
A disappearance (or last occurrence or top occurrence) conversely is the last

appearance of a fossil in the stratigraphy, and usually represents the extinction
of a species.
However, we need to be careful, as both appearances and disappearances

can be caused by migration of species into an area, or by changes in
depositional environment and for this reason only some fossils are used in
biostratigraphic correlation.

Figure 6.5. Relation between fossil appearance and disappearance in logs and in
wells. Figure by S. Pla-Pueyo).
Moreover, when we are correlating wells, we have to take into account two
different issues:
1) the terminology: because we draw the stratigraphic logs from bottom

(oldest) to top (youngest sediments), the first stratigraphic occurrence of a
species in our well will be the oldest moment in which we find that species,
and the last stratigraphic appearance will be the disappearance of that taxon
from our record. On the contrary, because we drill from the surface
downwards, the first downhole occurrence of a taxon in our well will coincide
with its last appearance in the stratigraphic log, and the last downhole
occurrence will correspond to the first appearance of the same taxa in the
stratigraphic log (Figure 6.5).
2) We need to be careful when sampling the sediments. Sampling from

cuttings reduces the accuracy and introduces contamination problems, so that
core or sidewall core samples are best.
If our only source of biostratigraphic information comes from cuttings then it is

crucial to take the following information into account. While drilling, it is
common to get small fragments of the upper parts of the walls of the well
(younger materials) dropping downwards and mixing with the new ones we are
drilling (lower and older).
Therefore, it could happen that we get a species in the cuttings from younger
sediments that do not belong there, and we may interpret it wrongly, and
locate the first appearance of a species stratigraphically lower than it really is.
Therefore, when drilling, the safest criterion to use is the First Downhole

Occurrence of a species, as we can be sure that it is the first time we are really
drilling that biozone (see Fig. 6.6)
Figure 6.6. Potential issues when using core cuttings data for biostratigraphic
correlations (Figure by S. Pla-Pueyo).
The best fossils to correlate are called biostratigraphic markers, and are those
that have an almost worldwide distribution, and are likely to be deposited in
sediments from many different environments. Examples include the skeletons
of planktonic animals (those that live floating in the ocean, such as
foraminifera, dinoflagellates, radiolaria), and pollen or spores.
The worst fossils or combinations of fossils are those that are restricted to a
single environment, as they will only ever be found in that environment, and
therefore only indicate the presence of that environment and not the age of the
rock.
The main rule to keep in mind with biostratigraphic interpretations is that the
time lines should never cross (see Figure 6.7).

Figure 6.7. Correlation among sandy beds in three wells using biostratigraphic data.
Notice how the correlation lines do not cross the time line (Figure by S. Pla-Pueyo).
The third type of stratigraphy that we are likely to encounter in wells is

chronostratigraphy, which is the dating (usually by radiometric dating) of
samples, giving them absolute ages (in millions of years before present).
The fourth type, that needs to be combined with chronostratigraphy and/or

biostratigraphy, is magnetostratigraphy. As explained in Topic 4,
magnetostratigraphy relies on the preservation of previous orientations of the
Earth's magnetic field in deposited sediments to help correlate and date
successions.
Figure 6.8. Magnetostratigraphic correlation between three wells bearing absolute

dates and the Global Polarity Time Scale. (Figure by H. Lever)..

Although it is unlikely to be encountered in oil industry wells, it is useful to

understand how it works. Same polarity intervals will be correlated (usually
normal polarity intervals represented in black, and reverse polarity intervals in
white), and with the aid of absolute dates (chronostratigraphy) or relative dates
(biostratigraphy), our log may be correlated to the global magnetic polarity time
scale (GPTS).
Magnetostratigrpahy is particularly useful in sedimentary successions where

there are few fossils available for dating, such as non-marine (or continental)
successions like the red coloured sandstones known as red beds
6.1.4. Correlation of well data
The basic data used in correlation in petroleum engineering comes usually

from well logs, including lithological information but more commonly wireline
log curves.
When correlating two wells, there are two patterns that can be interpreted as
requiring structural changes between wells. One is the presence of repeated
sections in one of the wells (that may indicate a reverse fault transecting the
well) or missing sections (that can be due to erosion in the affected well, or to
the action of a normal fault transecting the well).
The data sets used in correlation tend to vary with the purpose of the
correlation. For example, biostratigraphic data or chronostratigraphic data can
be used, or information from seismic sections can be integrated into a
correlation. Seismic data is the only laterally continuous data available from
the subsurface (Figure 3).
Before the data from two different wells can be compared or correlated, it is
imperative that the data (usually a suite of wireline logs) are displayed at
comparable vertical scales and logging scales. There is no standard suite of
data for correlation: any data can be correlated, but the widest possible range
of data will give the best opportunity to check, verify, compare and validate
correlation interpretations.
Wireline logs are acquired and logged using Measured Depth (MD) in the well
bore. If the well is vertical, then this can be used as a True Vertical Depth
(TVD). However, in the (usual) situation where the well is deviated, then the
logs must be converted to allow for the deviation.
In order to then compare the logs, the vertical depth must be corrected to
some datum to align the logs. Usually, depths are calculated below sea level,
or subsea, giving True Vertical Depth Subsea (TVDSS). Different logs are
used for different purposes:
• Gamma Ray (GR): measures natural radiactivity, providing information

about the lithology.

• Dipmeter: Identifies the dip of the rock units crossed, including faulted
contacts. 'Rock units' in this context includes beds and features such
as cross-bedding within beds (so that current direction can sometimes
be obtained from dipmeter information). Changes in dip can indicate
deformation, faulted contacts or stratigraphic changes.
• Other useful information is given by resistivity and sonic and caliper
logs.
More details about wireline correlation will be explained in the course

Geoscience B.
6.1.5. Correlation guidelines
There are a few guidelines that you should always take into account when
correlating logs:
1) Always correlate from the base upwards, this is how the rocks were
deposited
2) Always correlate from the large scale changes to the small scale. Worry
about the formation tops and markers first, before correlating minor changes
and beds
3) Always correlate both the top and bottom of a bed or formation
4) Check for missing and repeated sections
5) Units that pinch out (the natural ending of a bed due to lateral changes in
lithology) between wells are indicated by merging correlation lines (> or <)
6) Volcaniclastics such as ash or tephra layers (lava, eruption deposits) are

excellent marker beds, as they will be the same age everywhere, making them
a chronostratigraphic marker, and they will often have a characteristic log
signature
The previous guidelines work for correlating wells too, and we can add an
extra line just for the correlation between wells: Never correlate the top or
bottom of a well, as these are artificial boundaries
created during drilling.

6.2. Introduction to geological maps

6.2.1. Definition of a map
A map is a 2D plan view of an area. The map can show numerous different
types of data. For example, topographic maps show height of the land surface
above sea level (Figure 6.9). Other data can be represented on the map, such
as temperature, infrastructure, depth, thickness, geology and any other
quantity that varies with space. All maps represent an area, and usually show
their location by reference to some kind of grid system, either a regional or
worldwide grid (such as latitude and longitude), or a local established grid over
a field.
In an oil and gas field context, the area covered by a map is usually the limits
of the field. In all contexts, a map will cover a given area and contours will stop
at the boundary of that area. This boundary is artificial as the surfaces or
trends of data will obviously continue beyond the designated boundary of the
map.
Maps are the primary tool used to summarise, interpret and communicate
spatial data. Because a map is a two dimensional representation of what is
usually a three dimensional set of data, some imagination is required to both
interpret drawn maps, and to draw your own. Geologists and geophysicists are
usually adept map makers because they are very good at picturing in their own
minds the 3D relationships that are expressed by the 2D map representation.
In these more computer orientated days, of course, many modern mapping or

GIS packages include the ability to display 3D surfaces which can be rotated
and viewed from any perspective. It is however often difficult for someone
viewing one of these maps to be aware of the quality of the map, which relies
on the density and quality of the data used to generate the map. Therefore, it
is always useful to see a map that shows the data input as well as the
generated surface, so that viewers do not fall into the trap of considering a
field well described because there is a prettily coloured map available.
6.2.2. Coordinates
A coordinate system is used on a map to locate specific points at which data

can be plotted (usually noted as x and y). The specific coordinate system used
to locate the map can be geographical (longitude and latitude in degrees,
minutes, seconds), metres (using a Universal Transverse Mercator, UTM,
projection), metres or feet using a local platform coordinates (displacement
relative to an origin, usually the platform reference point), some local national
coordinate system (e.g. British National Grid), or some global positioning
system such as WGS84.

The data to be mapped are conventionally referred to a z, giving us a

Cartesian Coordinate System (x,y,z). Data from vertical wells can be plotted at
the well location, however data from deviated wells is plotted at the x,y
coordinates that corresponds to the actual location of that data at the depth of
concern – the relevant northing and easting can be calculated from the well
deviation survey (part of the well completion report).
Both z data and also the grid coordinates used refer to some kind of datum. A
datum is any fixed location or line from which measurements can be taken. In
the case of the map coordinates, the datum may be a fixed point (such as the
platform) or it may be a fixed line such as a latitude or longitude of one global
coordinate system. In the case of data, the datum is the agreed reference
level, for example for elevation (height and depth) data, the datum is usually
taken as sea level. Other types of z data use units of measurement that refer
to a datum and do not need to be explicitly stated.
6.2.3. Definition of contour map
Data on a map can be represented as isolated points or locations, such as well

locations or platform positions, or it can be represented as an interpreted
gradient of a data type across the map area, by means of contours.
Contours are lines of equal values, that is, each contour line has a single data
value. Contour lines separate areas of higher value data on one side and
lower value data on the other side. Contouring is the art of drawing these lines
of equal value through a scattered set of discrete data points, to create an
interpretation of the gradient of the data in the area mapped.
Contour lines can be created by hand (manually) or by computers. They can

be used to represent changes in the topography, to describe a geological
horizon in the subsurface (depth), variations in thickness of formations,
variations in temperature, pressure or any other value of interest to us.
6.2.4. Topographical base for geological maps
A base map is the 2D representation of the area being mapped. It is common

to find topographical maps used as the base to draw a geological map. The
topography of an area is given by the differential elevation of discrete points
within that area.
Elevation is the height above sea level, or the depth below sea level. Mean
sea level is the datum usually used to express elevation data. Elevation is
always positive above sea level, and negative below sea level. Elevation can
be expressed in feet or in metres. In a topographical map, each line will be
joining points with the same elevation.

Figure 6.9 is an example of a topographic map and can be used to

demonstrate how topographic maps record the landscape. This Ordinance
Survey map shows part of the Pentland Hills area near Heriot-Watt University
Riccarton, with elevation data recorded as orange contour lines.
Follow the contours around the map and notice how they curve around hills
(Figure 6.9A), and follow rivers up valleys.
Note that steep slopes are shown by closely spaced contours, and gentle
slopes are indicated by widely spaced contours.
Note how if you trace a route down a hillside, across a valley and back up the
next hill, you cross the same contour twice in the bottom of the valley.
Look back and forwards from the 3D visualization in Figure 6.9B to the 2D
map in Figure 6.9A to accustom yourself to working out where the high and
low points are on a contour map.
Ordinance Survey maps contain a great deal of other data as well, discrete
data like houses, tracks, lakes, vegetation and archaeological sites.
Figure 6.9. Topographical (height above sea level) contour map and 3D
representation of the same area. A: Ordnance Survey topographic map of part of the
Pentlands Hills near the Riccarton Campus of Heriot-Watt University. The contour

lines are spaced at 5 m intervals, with every 25m contour in bold to help distinguish
the complex topography.
Figure 6.9. continued. Topographical (height above sea level) contour map and 3D
representation of the same area. B: 3D visualisation of the same map, to help
illustrate where hills and valleys are located, and the relative slope steepness as
indicated by the contour spacing on the 2D map. Reproduced by kind permission of
Ordnance Survey. © Crown Copyright. NC/00/542
6.2.5. Outcrop/suboutcrop geological maps
Geological maps are 2D representations of the geology of a definite area.
They may represent different geological features, such as lithostratigraphic

units, structural features (folds and faults) or even geomorphological features
(e.g. elevated areas, karstic zones, etc).
Geological maps produced for the land show the surface geology, which are
the rocks that outcrop at the surface of the earth (Figure 6.10).

Figure 6.10. An example of a geological map (© British Geological Survey).
Representing a geological surface is done using elevation contours. However,

sometimes it is useful to have a map of the geological units present at a
particular depth, or below a truncating feature like an unconformity or a fault in
the subsurface.
These types of maps are called subcrop maps, and can be useful in
determining local highs (hard rocks) and lows (soft, easily eroded rocks) of the
unconformity surface, as well as likely source rocks for local sediment
deposition above the unconformity.
In subsurface mapping, we sometimes use the depth in a well at which we find

a bed of rock, instead of the elevation of the bed regarding the sea level. In
this case, the value is not expressed as a negative value, but as a positive
value that increases with increasing depth. This can make maps confusing, so
the type of value being used should always be clearly stated on the map (and
also, very importantly, which units are being used). On maps, only True
Vertical Depths (TVD) should be used, usually this would be True Vertical
Depth Sub-Sea (TVDSS). In the example (Figure 6.11), the values are
expressed as depth in metres. Where is the highest point on the map?

125 119
120
124 13
00 130
130
140
142
130 128
98
110
100
123
141 120
108
130
140
130 141
126
Figure 6.11. Example of a contoured depth map.
6.2.6. Google Earth and aerial photographs
Aerial photographs have been traditionally used to aid the elaboration of

geological surface maps. They provide a vision of the landscape from above,
providing reference points to delimit contacts between rock bodies in the field
or to follow extensive and prominent beds that can be seen in easily in the
landscape.
Google Earth is another tool that can help with the mapping, but it has to be
used carefully. It is easy to forget that although it shows the changes in colour
of the landscape from above, that are not necessarily related to changes in
lithology. Moreover, we still need a topographical map to give us the elevation
reference, and therefore, the 3D information, as Google Earth images are just
2D photographs.
6.2.7. Structure contour maps
Maps can represent structures using structure contours. Structure contours

are used to connect points of equal elevation as opposed to contours on
topographical maps which connect points of equal height. Structure contours
are also known as strike lines because they run parallel to strike. They are
commonly used to contour subsurface horizons of interest.

Figure 6.12A shows a dipping bedding plane and its elevation above sea level.
The next figure (6.12B) shows the structure contours for the dipping surface
projected onto the bedding plane. Figure 6.12C shows how these structure
contours are projected on to the map view and Figure 6.12D shows the map
view of the structure contours. As you can see, a plane with a constant strike
and dip has evenly spaced straight structure contours. A folded plane or a
plane with an irregular dip will have folded or varyingly spaced structure
contours.
Figure 6.12. Structure contours for a dipping surface

6.3. Understanding geological maps
Although there are some geological maps that focus only in a specific feature,
most of the geological maps you will encounter will have a topographical base,
and will be showing the lithostratigraphy and the structural features of an area.
Figure 6.13. This is the Geological map for Snowdon Area, Wales, UK (© British
Geological Survey). The map includes a cross section, correlation, stratigraphic
column and key.

Thus it is important that you understand how this information is represented,

so you can read the map and use it for your own purposes. Geological maps
contain a number of components, not just the geological map. Figure 6.13
shows a complete geological map with a cross section, key and stratigraphic
column. All the information is needed to understand the geological history of
area.
6.3.1. Delimitation of stratigraphical units
The first information placed onto a geological map when mapping

lithostratigraphic units is where the contacts between different lithologies are in
the landscape.
The location of the contacts between lithostratraphic units are found through
observations of the change in rock type in different spots, marking them in the
map, and then joining the different spots with a line. The line will give us the
contact between two lithostratigraphic units. Where the geologist is certain of
the contact between lithostratigraphic units, the boundary will be marked with a
solid line. When there is some uncertainty of the boundary, a dashed line will
be used to represent the boundary. See figure 6.14 for the map symbols used
for lithostratigraphic boundaries.
Figure 6.14. Symbols commonly found on a geological map.

6.3.2. Strike and dip
The orientation of a bed in a geological map will be deduced from the shape of
the lower and upper contact of the bed when intersecting the topographical
lines.
If the line is parallel to the topographical lines, we can infer that the bed is
horizontal (all of the points will be approximately at the same elevation)
whereas if the line crosses topographical lines (lines of same elevation), the
bed is dipping.
The best way of knowing if the bed is dipping to one way or the other is looking
at valleys, ravines or gullies, as they are eroding the surface and exposing the
beds. Dipping beds cross a valley in a “V” shape, which will be more or less
steep (exaggerated) depending on whether the bed is dipping down or up
valley (Figure 6.15).
A B
Figure 6.15. Illustration of dipping beds in valleys. A) Beds dipping down valley
producing a “V”’ shape. B) Beds “V” up valley.
This information will be useful for us to determine the lateral extension and the
boundaries of the bed.
In general, the geologists will indicate the orientation of the beds in the map
using the symbols indicated in Figure 6.14, so we will not need to find out by
ourselves.

6.3.3. Conformity-unconformity
It is important to know if the contact between two lithostratigraphic units is

conformable or not. Remember unconformities represent a significant period of
time without deposition. The rocks below an unconformity often have different
strike and dip directions, or may be folded. Thus it is important that you can
recognise these features on a map. Figure 6.16 shows an example of a map
with an unconformity. Unconformities are sometimes marked on a map with a
dashed line. In all cases, unconformities will be marked on the stratigraphic
column found on a geological map.
Figure 6.16. A) Unconformity in block and map view. B) An example of a unconformity

on a geological map for Alabama © U.S. Geological Survey.
6.3.4. Representation of structural features
Folds and faults are the main structural features that will be represented in a
geological map.
In the case of the folds, there are symbols to express whether the fold is a
syncline or an anticline (see Figure 6.14), while the faults will be drawn
differently if they are normal or reverse. Please see Figure 6.14 for a complete
list of symbols used in geological mapping.
Sometimes maps have limited data, and therefore outcrop patterns can be a
useful way of determining the structure present. Folds on maps can be
recognised by the repeated outcrop patterns that they create on a geological
map.

An anticline will have repeated rock sequences that are dipping away from
each other, whilst for a syncline the repeated rock sequences will dip towards
each other.
Plunging folds also produced repeated rock sequences similar to upright folds
however they are slightly different due to the limbs of a plunging fold closing
around the axial trace. The limbs of the anticline close in the direction they
plunge whereas for a syncline the limbs open in the direction which they
plunge. Figure 6.17 shows the outcrop patterns on a geological map which
represent folded sequences.

Figure 6.17. Block models and their map view for a) syncline B) anticline C) plunging
anticline D) plunging syncline. Little arrows in the axial plane show the plunging
direction in C and D.
6.4. Computer generated maps
The use of digital maps for geological and engineering purposes is extensive
in the present, but it is crucial to bear in mind that the maps require real data,
that sometimes need to be collected in person, as in the case of the geological
maps.
In the case of contour maps, computer contouring involves a number of

different algorithms and software packages. The idea is that the computer
uses one or more algorithms over a defined grid to determine where contour
lines should go. The resulting surface is always consistent with the data, and
can be used as a defense against ‘overly interpretive’ mapping.
However, because the computer is limited by the data that we provide, and the
data distribution is not even, computer mapping techniques have the tendency
to produce features that are not actually present, but are an artefact of the
technique used to generate the surface.
Computer mapping can be biased by user input data. For example, we can
generate a computer map that contains trends in a particular orientation, if we
know that all the structures or sedimentary bodies are orientated in this
direction.
The important contribution of computer mapping techniques is the systematic

quantification of errors (by also mapping the possible deviations from the
mapped surface). Although useful, this alone is not sufficient reason for
abandoning the manual methods.
6.5. Cross-section from geological and structural contour

maps
Maps are representations of the geological structure present in the subsurface,

as a plan view. Another way of representing the structural relationship of the
rock units is to draw a cross-section. Cross-sections are related to
correlations, in that they show the vertical or stratigraphic relationship of rock
units as well as their structural shape or arrangement. Cross-sections can be
derived from geological maps and structure contour maps, as well as from well
logs as in correlations.
One important consideration when drawing cross-sections is the vertical

exaggeration of the cross-section. When drawing correlations, we are naturally
interested in the stratigraphic relationships, so the vertical scale of our
correlation is set at whatever scale we feel is necessary to clearly see these
relationships.

However, when drawing a cross-section, what we are trying to see is the

structural relationship of the rock units, not the stratigraphic relationships. If we
draw the cross-section with a different vertical to horizontal scale (that is, with
some vertical exaggeration), then the structure that we see in the cross-
section will not truly represent what is present in the subsurface. In general, if
we use a smaller scale in the vertical direction, the structure will appear
distorted (Figure 6.18). Therefore we encourage structural cross-sections to be
drawn with a 1:1 scale, no vertical exaggeration, so that the view seen is an
accurate representation of the subsurface structure.
You may find after doing a cross-section at 1:1 that in order to show your
interpretation of the structure more clearly, you want to draw cross-sections or
diagrams using an exaggerated vertical scale. This is fine, but you must
always indicate on the diagram what scales have been used and preferably
also state the degree of vertical exaggeration (exaggeration factor V=2,3…10
and so forth, being the factor needed to convert the true value represented by
a distance (say one centimetre) on the vertical scale to what the same
distance on the horizontal scale means).
Figure 6.18. Demonstration of how vertical exaggeration can distort the shape of a
structural feature such as a fold.
Drawing a Cross-Section from a Structure Contour Map
1) Decide the location of the cross-section (Figure 6.19 (1))
A) You want the best place to illustrate the structures present. You may
wish to draw several intersecting cross-sections to illustrate the
changes in each direction. True dips will only be seen on cross-
sections drawn perpendicular to strike or parallel to the dip direction.
B) There are some standard usages for cross-section orientation: from

left to right on your page, cross-sections normally run W-E and S-N.

C) Draw the cross-section line on your map, labelling the end points
clearly.
Labels are usually A-A', B-B' etc.
2) Set up your cross-section framework on some graph or plain paper

(Figure 6.19 (2))
A) Decide what vertical exaggeration to use (start with no vertical

exaggeration, unless you have a reason to use a different vertical
scale).
B) Draw the vertical scale, horizontal scale and cross-section end-

points on your paper. The scales can be taken directly from the map
scale.
3) Transfer elevation data (Figure 6.19 (3a & 3b))
A) Place a strip of paper against the cross-section line, and mark the
locations of the end points on the strip. Then mark (and label) the
locations along the strip where a structure contour crosses the cross-
section line.
B) Place the strip on your framework, lining up the end points. For each
point marked on the strip where a structure contour crosses the cross-
section line, place a dot at the correct elevation according to your
scales within your framework.
C) This can be done with a ruler rather than a strip of paper, or by

folding the map along the cross-section line and directly transferring
the data.
4) Create the surface (Figure 6.19 (4))
A) Join the dots to create a smoothed surface for the structure. Note
that when creating the top or base of an anticline or syncline, the
surface will gently curve over, but not go higher or lower than the next
contour value (or that contour would be seen on the map).
5) Add structures (Figure 6.19 (5))
A) Faults that intersect the surface can be added as displacement of

the strata. Note that (if available) dips should be carefully plotted, the
dip angle appearing on your cross-section will only be the same as
measured dips values if the cross-section is not vertically exaggerated
and is drawn perpendicular to structural strike. Cross-sections drawn
not perpendicular to strike will have lower apparent dips.

B) Without actual dips for fault surfaces, faults can be drawn vertical, or
given an interpretive dip depending on what kind of fault is inferred, or
if there is a gap marked in the surface, a dip angle can be suggested
from that.
C) Some useful formulae to note:

I: For calculating Apparent Dip (for use when your cross-section
is not perpendicular to strike):
Tan (apparent dip) = Tan (true dip) Sin (angle between strike
and cross-section).
II: For calculating Exaggerated Dip (for use when your cross-
section is being drawn with vertical exaggeration):
Tan (exaggerated dip) = (exaggeration factor) Tan (apparent
dip)
6) Using thickness (Figure 6.19 (6))
A) The basal surface of a geological unit can be drawn in if thickness

information is supplied, by dropping the drawn surface by the given
thickness of the unit. Variable thicknesses can be transferred by a
similar method to transferring the structural contours.
B) Well data can be used if the cross-section is deliberately placed to

go through one or more wells. Cross-sections that are based on well
information tend to have zig-zag paths (although it is wise to maintain a
directional trend), but can still have map-derived top surfaces placed
on them.
7) Consistency
Make sure that your cross-section is consistent with your map – that
the faults show similar offsets, the dips are the same, and also that the
geological setting you envisaged while drawing the map or interpreting
the map is the same as the setting illustrated by your cross-section.

Figure 6.19. Demonstration of how to create a cross-section.

6.6. Bibliography
Allaby, M. A. 2013. Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences. Oxford
University Press.
Mathews, M., Simons, N, Menzies, B. 2009. Short course in geology for civil
engineers. London: ICE Publishing (ICE virtual library)
Markner-Jäger, B. 2008. Technical English for Geoscience. Springer.
Plummer, C.C., Carlson, D.H. and Hammersley, L. 2013. Physical Geology.

14th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill
Rogers, N. (Ed.). 2008. Our Dynamic Planet. 1st ed. Cambridge University
Press.

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G18BG Geoscience A

6.1. INTRODUCTION TO CORRELATION ............................................................ 139

© HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY 137

After studying this Topic, you should be able to:

138 © HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

Remember to use the dictionary of geological terms provided in the references

6.1. Introduction to correlation

A correlation is a graphical representation of how the rock units (or other

It is important to realise that there are many different types of correlation,

It is also vital to understand that any correlation is an interpretation of the

The result of a correlation is an interpretation of the relationship of the rock

6.1.2. Importance of correlation

Correlation is the basis of our understanding of the distribution and the

We use correlation and maps to estimate reservoir volume, porosity

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY 139

6.1.3. Stratigraphy and correlation

Correlation cannot be undertaken without some basic knowledge of the

There are several ways of representing a correlation between wells or logs,

140 © HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY 141

Usually a petroleum geologist is concerned with correlating distinct lithologies,

We have already explained in Topic 4 the main disciplines within stratigraphy,

Some lithologies are more likely to be laterally continuous and deposited at

142 © HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

We use biostratigraphic zones or biozones (see Topic 4 for further details) to

• First appearance (or occurrence) of a fossil species in a log or well

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY 143

Figure 6.4. Main types of biozones (Figure by S. Pla-Pueyo).

An appearance (or first occurrence or base occurrence) is the level at which a

A disappearance (or last occurrence or top occurrence) conversely is the last

However, we need to be careful, as both appearances and disappearances

144 © HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

1) the terminology: because we draw the stratigraphic logs from bottom

2) We need to be careful when sampling the sediments. Sampling from

If our only source of biostratigraphic information comes from cuttings then it is

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY 145

146 © HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

The third type of stratigraphy that we are likely to encounter in wells is

The fourth type, that needs to be combined with chronostratigraphy and/or

Figure 6.8. Magnetostratigraphic correlation between three wells bearing absolute

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY 147

Although it is unlikely to be encountered in oil industry wells, it is useful to

Magnetostratigrpahy is particularly useful in sedimentary successions where

6.1.4. Correlation of well data

The basic data used in correlation in petroleum engineering comes usually

• Gamma Ray (GR): measures natural radiactivity, providing information

148 © HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

More details about wireline correlation will be explained in the course

6.1.5. Correlation guidelines

3) Always correlate both the top and bottom of a bed or formation

4) Check for missing and repeated sections

6) Volcaniclastics such as ash or tephra layers (lava, eruption deposits) are

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY 149

6.2. Introduction to geological maps

In these more computer orientated days, of course, many modern mapping or

A coordinate system is used on a map to locate specific points at which data

150 © HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

The data to be mapped are conventionally referred to a z, giving us a

6.2.3. Definition of contour map

Data on a map can be represented as isolated points or locations, such as well