Developed by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board as a textbook according to

the National Curriculum 2022 for Class Eight from the academic year 2024

Investigative
Science Study
Class Eight
(Experimental Version)

Writers
Dr. Muhammed Zafar Iqbal Nasreen Sultana Mitu
Dr. Mohammad Mizanur Rahman Khan Shihab Shahriyar Nirjhor
Rony Basak Md. Rokonuzzaman Sikder
Dr. Tahmina Islam Dr. Manash Kanti Biswas
Md. Ishhad Sadeque Md. Mahmud Hussain
Saifa Sultana Dr. Md. Iqbal Hossain

Editor
Dr. Muhammed Zafar Iqbal

Translated by
Ramij Ahmad
Muhammad Ali
Medha Roshnan Sarwar

National Curriculum and Textbook Board, Bangladesh

 Published by
National Curriculum and Textbook Board
69-70 Motijheel Commercial Area, Dhaka-1000

[All rights reserved by National Curriculum and Textbook Board, Bangladesh]

First Published: December, 2023

Art Direction
Monjur Ahmed
Nasreen Sultana Mitu

Illustration
Sabyasachi Chakma
Mehedi Haque

Cover Illustration
Mehedi Haque

Graphics Design
Nasreen Sultana Mitu

For Free Distribution by the Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh

Printed by:
 PREFACE
In this ever-changing world, the concept of life and livelihood is changing every moment. This
process of change has been accelerated due to the advancement of technology. There is no
alternative to adapting to this fast changing world as technology is changing rapidly ever than
before. In the era of fourth industrial revolution, the advancement of artificial intelligence has
brought about drastic changes in our employment and lifestyles that will make the relationship
among people more and more intimate. Various employment opportunities will be created in near
future which we cannot even predict at this moment. We need to take preparation right now so
that we can adapt ourselves to that coming future.
Although a huge economic development has taken place throughout the world, problems like
climate change, air pollution, migrations and ethnic violence have become much more intense
nowadays. The breakouts of pandemics like COVID 19 have crippled the normal lifestyle and
economic growth of the world. Thus, different challenges as well as opportunities, have been
added to our daily life.
Standing amid the array of challenges and potentials, sustainable and effective solutions are
required to transform our large population into a resource. It entails global citizens with knowledge,
skill, values, vision, positive attitude, sensitivity, adaptability, humanism and patriotism. Amidst
all these, Bangladesh has graduated into a developing nation from the underdeveloped periphery
and is continuously trying to achieve the desired goals in order to become a developed country
by 2041. Education is one of the most crucial instruments to attain the goals. Hence, there is no
alternative to the transformation of our education system. This transformation calls for developing
an effective and updated curriculum.
Developing and updating the curriculum is a routine and important activity of National Curriculum
and Textbook Board. The curriculum was last revised in 2012. Since then, more than a decade
has elapsed. Therefore, there was a need for curriculum revision and development. With this
view, various research and technical studies were conducted under NCTB from 2017 to 2019 to
analyze the current state of education and identify the learning needs. Based on the researches and
technical studies, a competency-based and seamless curriculum from K−12 has been developed
to create a competent generation capable of surviving in the new world situation.
Under the framework of this competency based curriculum, the textbooks have been prepared
for all streams (General, Madrasah and Vocational) of learners for Class Eight. The authentic
experience-driven contents of this textbook were developed with a view to making learning
comprehensible and enjoyable. This will connect the textbooks with various life related
phenomenon and events that are constantly taking place around us. It is expected that, through
this, learning will be much more insightful and lifelong.
In developing the textbooks, due importance has been given to all − irrespective of gender,
ethnicity, religion and caste while the needs of the disadvantaged and special children are taken
into special considerations.
I would like to thank all who have put their best efforts in writing, editing, revising, illustrating
and publishing the textbook.
If any errors or inconsistencies in this experimental version are found or if there is any suggestions
for further improvement of this textbook, you are requested to let us know.
Professor Md. Farhadul Islam
Chairman
National Curriculum and Textbook Board, Bangladesh
 Index
Page

Chapter 1 : Study of Motion 01

Chapter 2 : Energy 16

Chapter 3 : Structure of Atoms 26

Chapter 4 : Cell Division and Its Types 39

Chapter 5 : Cells, Tissues of Plants and Their Specialties 52

Chapter 6 : Wave and Sound 65

Chapter 7 : Sun, Earth and Moon 76

Chapter 8 : Chemical Reaction 88

 Index
Page

Chapter 9 : Acid, Base and Salt 100

Chapter 10 : Animal Classification System 108

Chapter 11 : Geographical coordinates, Local Time and Regions 129

Chapter 12 : Magnet 144

Chapter 13 : Organ and Organ System in Human Body 154

Chapter 14 : Uses of Chemistry in Everyday Life 164

Chapter 15 : Renewable and Non-renewable Resources 175

Chapter 16 : Natural Resources of Bangladesh 186

A few words for the students-

Students, how are you all? Welcome to the Science subject of Class Eight.

You can see, there is going to be a big change in the way you have been studying
for so long! Your books on all subjects are also a little different this time. You
must have got two books on Science! Along with this ‘Investigative Study’
book you are given another ‘Exercise Book’. If you have a look, you will
realize that there is a big difference between this book and the Exercise book.
Honestly speaking, the way you used to try to learn science by reading different
chapters of textbooks, now this way of learning is completely changing.
Throughout the year, you will go through several new experiences, solve some
new problems. These new experiences and problem solving steps are detailed
in your work book. In solving these problems, you will need to know different
aspects of science at different stages. This ‘Investigative Study’ book will help
you in this regard. At school or at home, wherever you are, you can use this
book to solve problems yourself if needed!

This book covers the topics of Science that you will need to know in Class
Eight. The topics are organized in Sixteen chapters. Many of these things will
be useful to you at different times in the experiences that you will go through
throughout the year.

So let us start, what do you say?

 Study of Motion

CHAPTER 1
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STUDY OF MOTION
1
 Science

CHAPTER
1 STUDY OF MOTION
This chapter deals with the following topics:
5 Basics of Displacement
5 Basics of Velocity
5 Basics of Acceleration
5 Linear and Circular Motion
5 Equations of Motion
5 Graphs of Motion

1.1 Distance and Displacement:

To discuss the motion of an object, we find the change in the object's position with
time. The change in position can occur in various ways—fast or slow, straight or
curved, uniform or non-uniform, etc. Regardless of how the motion occurs, to explain
it, we need to precisely measure the position of our object with respect to time. To do
this, we need a fixed point in relation to which we will measure the position. Finding a
truly fixed point is not easy; on Earth, we can consider the Earth's center as relatively
fixed, but the Earth itself not only spins on its axis but also revolves around the Sun.
Our entire solar system, in turn, revolves around the center of our galaxy and the entire
galaxy is moving due to the expansion of the universe. However, for our everyday
tasks, we can take any nearby point as a relatively fixed point and measure the position
of an object relative to that point.
When we specify a reference point, we can measure the position of an object relative
to it. Imagine in a field, a goat is tied to a post. Here, the post is the reference point.
If we say that the goat is two meters away from the post, it does not specify exactly
where thegoat is. This is because the goat could be in any direction two meters away
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from the post! If we say that the goat is two meters south of the post, then with respect
to the reference point, you can precisely say where the goat is located. In other words,
to know the position of an object, we need to know both the 'direction' and 'distance'
from the reference point.

2
 Study of Motion

To discuss the motion of an object, it is necessary to

understand two quantities in addition to the position
of the object—'Distance' and 'Displacement.' In the
case of a moving object, the amount of ground it
covers is known as 'distance,' which can be along
a straight line or a curved path. Distance has a
quantity, but no direction. On the other hand, in
scientific terms, 'displacement' is a measure of how
far an object has moved from its initial position.
If you go 10 kilometers north and then return Figure: How much distance would the
5 kilometers south, the total distance covered goat travel if it circles the pole and
is 15 kilometers, but the displacement is only returns back to its starting position?
5 kilometers north. Displacement always specifies the direction. The picture below
provides some examples of distance and the calculated displacements for those same
distances.

4
km 3 km 1 km
5 km
1 km
5km

2 km 2km

2 km

Figure:
(a) In the left image, a boy walks 2 km from his starting position and reaches a tree, then
changes direction, walks 4 km and reaches a house. He changes his direction again and walks
3 km to reach a waterbody. He travels a distance of (2 + 4 + 3 =) 9 km in total. The displacement
of the waterbody from his starting position is 5 km in the direction pointed by the arrow.
(b) In this image, we can see parallel roads every 1 km both along the north-south and
east-west directions of the town. A person drives a car along the roads from point A to
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point B, travelling a distance of 12 km with a displacement of 2 km towards the east.

(c)The distance of the waterbody from the house is 2 km in the direction indicated by
the arrow

3
 Science

Food for Thought: ‘The magnitude of displacement is distance’—is this statement

correct or incorrect?

1.2 Speed and Velocity

If you look around you, you will see vehicles like cars, buses, bicycles, or pedestrians
moving on the road. However, they are not all moving in the same way. Some are
moving quite fast, while others are moving slower. To express this in a scientific
way, we use the terms 'speed' and 'velocity'. First, let's learn what speed means.
We have just become familiar with two quantities, distance and displacement. The
amount of distance covered in unit time is known as speed. In other words, if an
object travels a distance of d in time t, then its speed v is:
v=d/t
Since there is no specific direction for distance, speed also does not have a specific
direction; it only has a magnitude.

» Distance refers to the length of space an object has travelled. We use units like
inches, feet, centimeters, meters, etc. to measure distance.
» When we determine the amount an object moves in a particular direction, we
call it ‘displacement’. To denote displacement, we use measurements such as
two kilometers north, five feet to the right, three centimeters upward, seven
meters forward, etc.

Example: We didn’t specify how long it took to travel the mentioned distances in the
examples of the previous image. Let’s assume that it takes 2 hours, 30 minutes and 1
hour to travel distance (a), (b) and (c) respectively and calculate the speed for each.

(a) 9 km is travelled in 2 hours, so speed:

9 km
v = = 4.5 km/h
2 hour

(b) 12 km is travelled in 30 minutes, so speed:

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12 km 12 km
v = = = 24 km/h
30 minutes 0.5 hour

(c) 5 km is travelled in 1 hour, so speed: 5 km/h

4
 Study of Motion

As you can see, when determining the speed of an object, we do not need to
consider the direction of its motion.

However, here you have to remember that this speed is the average speed of the total
time. We don’t know the instant speed at any individual moment in these cases. If in
any special cases the object moves at a uniform speed, only then the magnitude of its
average speed and instant speed can be the same.
If we understand the concept of speed properly, then we can easily understand what
velocity is. If the direction of a moving object is specified along with its speed, then
that’s called velocity. In other words, the distance travelled by an object in unit time to
a specific direction is called velocity. Therefore, to calculate the velocity of an object,
we need to specify the magnitude as well as its direction. If we only consider motion
along a straight line without any deviation, then there is no difference between speed
and velocity. In that case, the magnitude of the velocity is called speed.
Can you recall that when we learnt about speed, we divided the traversed distance by
time to obtain the average speed over that time period. This is true for velocity too.
When we calculate the velocity of an object moving in a specific direction, we get the
average velocity during that time, not the instant velocity of any individual moment.
The value of the average velocity will be the same only if the object is moving at a
uniform velocity.
Remember, when an object changes direction in motion, calculating its average can
confusion us. Suppose an object returns to the exact same point from where it initially
started; then, the total displacement of the object is zero. Therefore, when we divide the
total displacement by the total time to calculate the average velocity, its magnitude
becomes zero, even though the object's velocity was never zero when it was in
motion!

1.3 Acceleration and Deceleration

We have all observed various types of motion around us. Some are going straight,
some along a curved path, some are circular or maybe even oscillating up and down.
However, we are going to confine our discussion here to the simplest of the motions—
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motion along a straight line. Within this motion, there is no difference between speed
and velocity. Moreover, since it is moving along a straight line, the direction of the
motion here is also specific. Therefore, when we talk about velocity in this section,

5
 Science

there is no need to mention the direction of it separately.

The change in the speed of a moving object, either increasing or decreasing, is a very
familiar thing. You have certainly experienced situations where the speed of a bicycle,
car, bus, or train you were on increased gradually from a stationary position, or even the
opposite happened, meaning the speed gradually decreased. The process of changing
velocity over time is called acceleration when it increases and deceleration when it
decreases.
We used ‘displacement’ to measure changes in position. We measured how fast or slow
the displacement is happening to get ‘velocity’. When we determine the amount of
change of this varying velocity with time, we get acceleration or deceleration. In other
words, the change of velocity in unit time is called Acceleration. If the initial velocity
of an object is u, the final is v after time t, then its acceleration a is:

v—u
a =
t
Similar to velocity, we need to specify both the magnitude and direction of an
acceleration.
» The amount of change in velocity per unit time is called ‘acceleration’.
We express acceleration as 2 m/s2 (read as two-meter-per-second-square)
eastward, or 9.8 m/s2 downward, etc. If the final speed is greater than the
initial speed, that is, if the velocity increases or the change is positive, then
it is positive acceleration. If the final velocity is less than the initial speed,
the velocity decreases or changes negatively, and that is called negative
acceleration. Negative acceleration is often called ‘deceleration’.

1.3.1 HOW DOES ACCELERATION HAPPEN?

We have learnt so far that we can determine acceleration or deceleration by measuring
the increase or decrease in velocity over a specified time. However, we haven't yet
discussed why and how acceleration occurs, or in other words, why there is a change
in velocity. We regularly see changes in velocity in our daily lives. If you sit still for a
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while and then start walking, your velocity changes. When a bus or train starts moving,
its velocity changes. When you start pedaling a bicycle, you change your velocity. Even
when a reckless motorbike rider crashes a bike into a light-post, causing it to fall and
stop, there occurs a change in velocity.
6
 Study of Motion

If you think for a moment, you will understand that a change in velocity never happens
on its own; there is always a cause for it. The cause behind changing velocity is
application of force. Without applying outside force, you can never change the velocity
of an object. To ride a bicycle, we apply force on the pedals; for buses or trains, their
engines applies force when they are started; and in the case of our reckless motorbike
rider, the light-post applied force on the bike and stopped it.
Now, let's try to understand what is meant by ‘Force’. The simplest example of applying
force is pushing or pulling something. Another example is when an object is dropped
from above, it tends to fall downward due to another force called gravity. Those of
you who have played with magnets have undoubtedly seen the magnet attracting iron,
which happens due to a type of force known as magnetic force. In cold weather, when
you rub a comb against your hair, you can attract small pieces of paper by it; this is a
type of force called static electric force. If you roll something on the ground, it rolls for
a while and then stops. The force that stops it is known as frictional force. So, if you
keep your eyes and ears open, you will discover many types of forces around you in
various situations.
However, the most important role of force is that whenever there is a need to change
the velocity of an object, we must apply force there. Without applying force, you will
never be able to change the velocity; neither increase it nor decrease it. Alternately, it
is also true that if you ever see a change in a velocity, you can be certain that force has
definitely been applied there.
Now I put forward an important question to you. If the speed, or the magnitude of a
velocity changes, then inevitably the velocity changes. That means without applying
force, we cannot change the magnitude of velocity or speed. Speed does not have a
specific direction, but velocity does. So, if we change only the direction of a moving
object, does that change its velocity? Moreover, if nothing else changes except the
direction of an object, can we call it acceleration?

1.3.2 ACCELERATION IN CURVED PATHS

If we tie an object with a string and spin it around as shown in the picture, does that
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object experience any acceleration? If there is acceleration, what is its value?

The rate of change of velocity with time is acceleration. An object rotating on a circular
path changes its direction with respect to its 'direction' every moment, meaning its
velocity also changes every moment. Therefore, an object rotating on a circular path

7
 Science

Direction of velocity Dire

is an excellent example
c
velo tion of where there is no change
city
Direction of string’s tension
in the object's speed,
of but there is a change in
on
e c ti y
velocity. Hence, there must
r t
Di loci
ve
be an acceleration here. We
know that acceleration is
created by applying a force
on an object.
Those of you who have
tried to spin an object tied
to a string, as shown in
the picture, know that you
have to apply a force by
Rotating objects moving on a circular path has an acceleration towards
the center holding it with your hand
or by applying a force
directed towards the center. The force applied here creates a certain acceleration. To
explain the motion of this rotating object, we only need two quantities: the length of
the string (which is actually the distance from the center) and the velocity of the object.
Therefore, the acceleration is definitely dependent on these two quantities. If we knew
a little bit of Calculus, we could easily determine the equation of this acceleration.
However, since you haven't had the opportunity to learn Calculus yet, we better just
give you the answer. If the velocity is v and the length of the string is r, then the
centripetal acceleration a is:
v2
a =
r
If we learn and remember this simple relationship, we will be able to discover many
fascinating stuffs in science using this. You will see that just by using this one formula,
without knowing anything else, you can calculate the height at which the Bangabandhu
Satellite orbits the Earth!
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1.4 Equations of Motion

You have studied 'Linear Equations' in the previous grade. In this chapter, we will learn
to form equations of motion using displacement, velocity, and acceleration. We will
still be only discussing motion in a straight line here.
8
 Study of Motion

1.4.1 EQUATION OF VELOCITY

Let's assume the initial velocity of an object was u, and due to the presence of
acceleration, the velocity of the object has increased to v after a time t. So, as we have
learnt already, the equation for the acceleration of the object is:

v—u
a =
t
No matter how simple it may seem, it is still an equation. Since the values on the left
side and the right side are equal, we can interchange the left and right sides if we want
and write it as:

v—u
= a
t

Now, multiply both sides by t:

v—u
x t= a x t
t

So, the equation becomes: v — u = at

Now, adding u on both sides, we get,

v = u + at

This is the first equation of motion. If you know the initial velocity and acceleration of
an object, you’ll be able find it’s velocity after a certain time using this equation. Now,
let's see how we can use it to perform various calculations.
Example: An engine of a car creates an acceleration of 2 m/s². If at any moment you
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observe the car moving with a velocity of 3 m/s, what will be its velocity after 4 s?

Answer: Here, let's first examine what information we have. The acceleration of the car
is 2 m/s², denoted by a. Initially, it is moving with a velocity of 3 m/s, denoted by u. We

9
 Science

have given a time of 4 s, denoted by t, and we want to find the changed velocity after
this time, that is, we have to find v.

Therefore, we have learned that, v = u + at

v = 3 + 2 x 4 = 11 m/s

Hence, the calculation shows us that after 4 seconds, the car will have a velocity of 11
m/s.

1.4.2 EQUATION OF DISPLACEMENT

The first thing we generally seem to know about a moving object is how much distance
the object has travelled in a certain time. If an object moves with a constant velocity,
we can obtain the traversed distance simply by multiplying the velocity with time. In
other words, if the velocity of the object is V and it stays in motion for time t, the
distance travelled or the displacement s is:

S = Vt
However, if the object has an acceleration, it means it does not have a constant velocity.
In that case, we cannot use this simple formula anymore. But if the object moves with
a uniform
acceleration, we can substitute the velocity in the above formula by the average velocity.
At first, let's find the average velocity V:
u+v
V =
2

We also just derived another equation of v in the last section. Let’s put that in
here:

u + (u + at)
V =
2

Therefore, average velocity V is:

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1
V = u + at
2

Since, distance travelled is S=Vt, so we can write:

10
 Study of Motion

1
S = (u + at) x t
2

Or,

1 at2
S = ut +
2

We have derived another important equation of motion. Now, let's try using it to perform
calculations.

Example: How far will the car from the previous example travel after 4 s?

Answer: From previous example, we get, acceleration of the car a = 2 m/s2, initial
velocity u = 3 m/s, amount of time t = 4 s. We have to calculate the displacement s.

We learnt that,

1 2
S = ut + at
2

1
S = 3x4 + x 3 x 42
2

= 12 + 16 = 28 m

Hence, according to the calculation, in 4 s the car will travel a distance of 28 m.

1.4.3 THIRD EQUATION OF MOTION

In the previous two equations, we had the variable t representing time. But what
if we don't have a anything to measure time? To use such cases, let's combine
these two equations to derive a new equation that eliminates the need to know
t. We can start with the equation v=u+at, where t is present on the right-hand
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side. And in the equation

11
 Science

1 2
S = ut + at
2
we have t^2 on the right-hand side. So, we can assume that squaring the equation
v=u+at may give us some insights.
Let’s start by squaring both sides of the equation:
v2 = (u + at)2
বা, v2 = u2 + 2uat + a2t2
বা, v2 = u2 + 2a . ut + 2a . 1/2 at2
বা, v2 = u2 + 2a ( ut + 1/2 at2 )
Since, S = ut + 1/2 at2, we can now use this so form the following equation of motion
without the variable t in it:
v2 = u2 + 2aS
Remember this simple equation, because it contains some fascinating scientific insights
we’ve yet to reveal!
Now it’s time to continue to calculations using this formula.

Example: A stone is falling with an acceleration of 10 m/s². Starting with an initial

velocity of 2 m/s, it covers a distance of 3 m. What is its final velocity?

Answer: Here, A stone has an acceleration a = 10 m/s², an initial velocity u = 2 m/s and
a displacement s = 3 m. We need to calculate the final velocity v.

We have learnt that, v2 = u2 + 2aS

v2 = 2 x 2 + 2 x 10 x 3 = 4 + 60 = 64 = 82

v = 8 m/s

Hence, according to the calculations, after travelling a distance of 3 m, the final velocity
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of the stone will be 8 m/s

ୗ Food for Thought : Is it possible to derive the equation v2 = u2 + 2aS if we

find a formula for t from the equation v=u+at, and then put that formula
in the equation S = ut + 1/2 at2?
12
 Study of Motion

1.4.5 GRAPH OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION

We have derived three equations and used them to perform some calculations. At this
point, we learn another important technique, which is expressing equations through
graphical representations. The process of plotting graphs will be explained in your
exercise book and then you’ll have another method in your bag for solving scientific
problems. In this chapter, we have provided three graphs corresponding to the three
equations of motion derived earlier. You can estimate a lot of information from these
graphs.The first graph demonstrates how an object's velocity along a straight line changes
with time. The values for the initial velocity (u) and the acceleration (a) are given above
the graph. If they were not given, we could determine these values from the graph
itself. For example, we can see from the graph that when the time is zero, the velocity is
10 m/s, which means this is
the initial velocity (u). v = u + at
Similarly, the graph shows u = 10 m/s
that in 15 seconds, the
velocity has increased from a = 2m/s2
30
10 m/s to 40 m/s. Therefore,
the acceleration a can be
calculated as follows:
The other two equations
20
of motion are shown in
the following graphs. You
v (m/s)

will notice that when the

displacement is given
with respect to time, it 10
does not increase linearly
but follows a square-
proportional relationship
on a graph.
0 5 10 15
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By using the equations t (s)

Figure: This graph shows the magnitude of velocity (v)
with respect to time (t).

13
 Science

of motion, you determined the value of a specific quantity at a given time or for a
specific displacement. However, a graph provides you with more than just one value of
a quantity at a time, rather it lets you calculate an approximate value for any point on
the axis below!

ୗ Food for thought : Can you estimate the magnitude of velocity after 7.5
seconds from the first graph? Can you estimate the displacement travelled
in 3.5 seconds from the second graph? Can you estimate the velocity of an
object when it has travelled a distance of 25 meters from the third graph?
As you can see, even if you cannot determine the exact values, you can get
reasonably close estimates from these graphs.

Remember, the ability to estimate near approximate values of quantities is an important

skill when learning science.

50
S = ut + 1/2 at2
40 u=0
a = 2 m/s2
30
S (m)

20

10

1 2 3 4 5
t (s)
Figure: The above graph shows the value of displacement (S) with respect to time (t),
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14
 Study of Motion

500
v2 = u2 + 2aS
400 u = 10 m/s
a = 5 m/s2
v2 = (m2/s2)

300

200

100

0 10 20 30 40
S (m)
Figure: The above right graph, the square of velocity (v²) is shown with respect to
displacement (S).
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15
 Science

Chapter 2
Energy

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16
 Energy

Chapter
2
Energy

This chapter deals with the following topics :

5 Work and Energy
5 Concept of Potential Energy
5 Concept of Kinetic Energy
5 Relationship between Mass and Energy
5 Concept of Power

2.1 Work and Energy

We all have seen that an object can be moved by applying force. The amount of the
completed work depends on the amount of the applied force and the distance over
which the object is moved. We use the word ‘work’ in our daily conversation, in the
scientific term, the word ‘work’ has a specific meaning. If an object is displaced in the
direction of the force by applying a certain amount of force, only then it is considered
that work has been done. Imagine, you have moved a brick 5 metres by giving it a
push, while your friend has pushed the same brick with the same amount of force and
has moved it 10 metres. Both of you have applied the same amount of force, but you
have done different amounts of ‘work’ by ‘moving the brick’ to different distances. In
the same way, even if both of you pushed the brick to move it to the same distance, but
with different amounts of force, the amount of completed work would be different. In
other words, in order to determine the amount of work, both quantities, that is, force
and displacement are necessary. In mathematical terms, it can be said that work is the
product of force and displacement.

Work = Force ⨯ the displacement produced in the direction of force

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Or, W = F ⨯ S
The unit of work is the Joule, It is expressed as J.

Energy is needed to work. We are all familiar with the word force. In our everyday
17
 Science

conversation, we refer to
the application of energy
or the application of force
as same. But in science
terms, the word energy has
a specific meaning. The
ability to do work is called
energy. Energy cannot be
created or destroyed; one
form of energy can only be
transformed into another
form of energy. In academic
term, this is known as the
conservation of energy. The Continioous Transfer of Energy
transformation of energy
from one form to another is called conversion of energy.A little while ago, you have
been told about working while moving bricks by applying force. The ability for this
work came from your hands. The energy in your hands has come from the chemical
energy stored in your body. The chemical energy has come from food. If you have
eaten rice or roti, those have come from paddy or wheat plants. If it’s meat, it has come
from some animals like chickens or cattle or goats. Animals have also grown up eating
grass, leaves, or straw. The energy of grass, leaves, or other trees has come through the
process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis requires light, which comes from the Sun.
The Sun gets its energy from a continuous nuclear reaction called fusion. Thus the
transformation of energy from one form to another continues.

Since energy is the amount of work, its unit is also the joule.

2.2 Potential Energy

We have already known various examples of energy. We have also known that the
ability to do work is actually energy. There are some forms of energy that can be stored
through the performance of work. For example, an elastic band or rubber band can be
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stretched and released, which can be used to throw something, similar to a slingshot.
The same type of work can be done with a spring, by stretching or compressing it. A
spring or rubber band does not stretch or compress on its own, but external force needs
to be applied to make it stretch. The work performed to stretch work is stored within

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 Energy

The potential energy stored in the bow shoots the arrow. During the liberation
war, the people of this country fought with bows and arrows along with modern
weapons.
the spring in the form energy. If you want to place an object on a table, you have to pull
it up. It means, you have to apply force on the object to lift it on the table. We know
from the definition of work that work is done when an object is lifted by an upward
force. After placing this object on the table, if you bring it to the corner and release it,
the object will fall down by itself, you do not need to drag it down. If the object falls
on a spring, the spring will be compressed and shortened. We have already known that
in order to shorten (or lengthen) the spring, an external force must be applied. That is,
while falling from above, an ability or force is created in the object to do work. Where
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does this energy come from? When the object was initially lifted up by ‘working’ on the
object, that work has been stored as energy in the object. If the object is brought to the
edge of the table and released, it will fall down due to the force of gravity. You know
that the source of gravity is the earth, it pulls everything down.

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 Science

Thus, from some examples, we have learnt that when we do ‘work’ by applying force
on certain objects, that work can be stored as energy. In the term of science, the general
name for this energy is ‘potential energy’. In the case of spring, this energy has come
from the work done against the ‘elastic’ behaviour of the object. That’s why it is called
‘elastic potential energy’. On the other hand, the energy in the object lifted onto the
table came from the work done against ‘gravity’. Therefore, it is called ‘gravitational
potential energy’.
Therefore, we see that when we lift something up, potential energy is stored within it.
But is it possible to know how much potential energy is stored in it? In fact, it is not a
difficult job. The amount of work done on the object is the same as the potential energy
stored. We also know how to measure the amount of work. The amount of work done
can be measured by multiplying the amount of force applied and the amount or distance
lifted up.
Let’s, at first, determine the amount of the force. Objects fall downwards just because
they have weight. If we don’t apply a force of exactly the same weight of the object in
the upward direction, the object cannot be lifted up. In the discussion on the mass of an
object in the previous class, you were informed that weight is the same as the force of
gravity acting on an object. That is to say, the greater the mass of an object, the greater
its weight. When you will study about the gravitational force, you will see, if the mass
of an object is m kg, then we get the weight of that mass by multiplying it by 9.8 m/s².
Not only that, you will see that this number, 9.8 m/s², has not come out of nowhere; this
number is the acceleration due to the force of gravity.
This acceleration is called the gravitational acceleration or the acceleration due to
gravity and is abbreviated as g.
Now we will be able to calculate the gravitational potential energy:
Gravitational potential energy = Work done against gravitational force
= Gravitational force × displacement
= Weight × displacement
= Mass × gravitational acceleration × displacement
Now, if we express gravitational potential energy as ‘E’, mass as ‘m’, gravitational
acceleration as ‘g’, and displacement as ‘h’, it can be written as: E = mgh
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That is, if an object of mass m is lifted up to a height h, potential energy mgh will be
stored in it. From this it is understood that the higher we lift the brick, the more work
will be done i.e. the more ‘energy’ will be stored.

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 Energy

2.3 Keinetic Energy

Let’s go back to the example of pushing a brick by applying a force. Imagine there
is a brick of mass m on a table, and you have pushed it a distance of s with a force
F. Therefore, the amount of work we have is W=FS. However, we have learnt so far
that when work is done on an object, the work is stored as energy. But after pushing
the brick, we don’t see any sign of stored energy anywhere! If we lifted the brick to a
height h instead of pushing it horizontally, then the work w done would be stored as
gravitational potential energy with at least an amount of mgh.
If you think a little, you will understand that the work was not wasted. When you
pushed the brick rubbing across the floor, the friction created heat, and maybe some
noise was also produced. Thus, the work you had done was transformed into thermal
energy or sound energy. Due to the conservation of energy, it must be transformed in
some form or another
Now imagine that you have somehow created a completely frictionless floor where no
friction occurs to push a brick. On this floor, if you push a brick of mass m to a distance
d with a force F, your work will not transformed into any thermal or sound energy. Then
where will we find the energy that the work has generated? If you think a bit, you will
understand that when you apply a force, the object will experience acceleration and
its velocity will increase. When you release the brick, it will continue to move at this
velocity without slowing down.
The energy generated inside an object for its velocity is called kinetic energy, and
the energy we are familiar with in our daily lives is probably this kinetic energy. For
example, if you place a hammer on a brick, nothing happens to the brick. But if you
bring the hammer down too fast with a strong velocity, the brick may shatter into
pieces. There is no force inside a stationary hammer but there is a lot of energy within
a moving hammer. If we want, we can also determine the quantity of kinetic energy
generated for a given velocity. To do that, we need to know the acceleration of a mass
when a force is applied to it. When we figured out the gravitational potential energy we
observed that the weight or gravitational force is mg,
where m is the mass and g is the gravitational acceleration. This applies not only to
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gravitational force or acceleration but to all forces and accelerations. Therefore, if a

force F is applied to an object with mass m, then its acceleration a can be determined
by the following formula:
F = ma

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 Science

Now, we can determine the amount of kinetic energy E generated inside an object for
the work W.
Kinetic energy = work done on an object
Or, E = W
If a force F is applied to the object and it moves a distance S, then the amount of work
done is W = FS.
So, E = FS
Substituting F = ma, E = maS
We observed in the third equation of motion: v2 = u2 + 2aS and it was mentioned
that within this equation, there lie some fascinating scientific discoveries waiting to be
uncovered. This time it will come out!
Starting from steady state, u = 0
So v2 = 2aS
Or: : aS = ½ v2
By substituting the value of aS in the equation E = maS, we get, E = ½ mv2
That is, the work W has created a kinetic energy of ½ mv2 inside the object of mass m.
You see when work is done, it is not lost rather creates energy!

Vehicle manufacturers regularly check vehicle damage due to kinetic energy.

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You have certainly noticed that kinetic energy depends on the square of the velocity. In
other words, if the velocity doubles, the kinetic energy quadruples (increases fourfold).
For this reason, there is a significantly higher risk of danger when driving at higher
speeds.

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 Energy

Example: A person weighing 60 kg is running at a velocity of 3 m/s. What is his/

her kinetic energy?
Solution: Here we will at first identify what information is known. The person’s
mass is 60 kg, which is the value of m. The person is moving with a velocity of 3
m/s which is v, and it has been asked what the kinetic energy, E, will be.
So, we have learnt E = ½ mv2
E = ½ ⨯ 60 ⨯ 32 = 270 J

That is, the calculation says that the person’s kinetic energy is 270 J.
At the very beginning of this chapter, we have learnt about the concept of energy along with
the ‘conservation of energy’. There are various ways to show the formula of conservation
of energy. Let’s try to see how this conservation works between the force of gravity and
kinetic energy.

In order to discover more fascinating scientific insights, let’s once again utilize the third
equation of motion in the context of kinetics: v2 = u2 + 2aS Assume an object of mass ‘m’
starting from a stationary position, (i.e. u = 0) and after falling a distance ‘h’ due to the
the force of gravity, the velocity of an object is v. That is, here we can write a=g and s=h.
Substituting these values into the equation of motion, we find:

v2 = 02 + 2gh
বা, v2 = 2gh
বা, 1/2v2 = gh (Dividing both sides by 2)
বা, 1/2mv2 = mgh (Multiplying both sides by ‘m’)
Therefore, on the left-hand side, we have got kinetic energy, and on the right-hand side,
we have got potential energy. The equation further states that the amount of potential
energy consumed is exactly equal to the amount of kinetic energy gained. This is the
conservation of energy!
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3.4 Relationship between Mass and Energy

The source of all energy on earth is Sun. It has been radiating light, heat and sometimes
energetic ion particles into our solar system for about five billion years, and will
continue to radiate energy in this way for another five billion years. If the source of this
23
 Science

energy were chemical reactions, the sun would have run out of fuel long ago. But the
source of the sun’s energy is nuclear reactions. This is why, we have been getting this
huge amount of energy from the sun for so long and will continue to do so in the future.
Burning 1 gram of coal usually produces about 3000 Joules of chemical energy,
much of which is lost in various ways. Compared to that, the nuclear energy from 1
gram of matter is 9,00,00,00,00,00,000 joules (13 zeros after nine). That’s because
nuclear energy comes from Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2. Here E is energy, m
is mass, and c is the speed of light. In this simple equation, c plays the most significant
role because its value is 30,00,00,000 meters/second. And if we square it, it becomes
16) 90,00,00,00,00,00,00,000 zeros after nine) which is not a small number at all. The
country’s first nuclear power plant at Rooppur will be powered by E = mc2.
It is indeed true when mass is converted into energy, an unimaginable amount of
power can be obtained, as expressed by the equation E = mc². But the process is
not very simple or no mass can be easily transformed into energy at your instant
wish. The technology behind it is very complex, and so far, it has been possible
to extract this power through nuclear reactions involving only a few specific
fundamental particles
There are two types of Fission Fusion
3
nuclear reactions through 2
H
H
235
which energy can be U
obtained, namely, fission
and fusion. In the fission Energy
Energy 4
He
process, a large nucleus 141Ba 92
Kr
splits into two smaller
nuclei, and the mass that
is lost in this process is Neutron

released as energy as E = Neutron

mc2. This process will be During fission, a large nucleus breaks up to form smaller
used to create energy nuclei, while in fusion, smaller nuclei join to form a larger
in our Ruppur nuclear nucleus.
power plant. In the fusion
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process, two small nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus, and once again, the
mass that is lost is released as energy as E = mc2. Energy is created in this process
in the sun. Efforts are being made in various laboratories on Earth to continuously
generate energy in controlled environments through fusion reactions. If it is

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 Energy

successful, it is expected that the world’s energy needs will be completely met.
We have been discussing the conversion of energy from the beginning. So
questions may come to your mind, if mass can be converted into energy, is the
reverse true? Can energy be converted into mass? You will be delighted to know
that energy can indeed be transformed into mass under special circumstances.

2.5 Power
We see various types of work happening all around us which are performed by humans or
machines. It takes different amounts of time for different people (or machines) to do the same
work. Some work is done ‘fast’, while some work is done ‘slowly’. Faster work means it takes
less time to do the work. Slower work means it takes more time to do the same work. The
opposite is also true. By measuring how much work is done in the same amount of time, we can
get an idea of the efficiency of the work. In scientific terms, a quantity named power is used to
measure the ability to do work. Power can be obtained by dividing the total work by the total
time. Since the amount of work is energy, work can also be measured by energy. The amount
of energy obtained in a unit of time is called power.

Power = Work/Time Or, Power = Energy/Time

The unit of power is called Watt which is expressed as W. You have definitely seen
15 W or 30 W written on the electric lamp, right? At the beginning of this chapter, we
have learnt about the conversion or transformation of different forms of energy. When
we write 15 W on a bulb, it means that the bulb consumes 15 J of electrical energy per
second and produces 15 J of light energy. Electric bulbs waste some energy as heat in
addition to light energy. Tube lights 60W 15W 6W
waste less heat energy than filament
bulbs, and LED bulbs waste even less
heat energy than tube lights.
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A 60 watt filament light bulb produces similar

amount of light as a -15watt tube light or a -6watt
LED light bulb.

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Chapter 3
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Structure of Atoms
26
 Structre of Atoms

Chapter
3
Structure of Atoms
This chapter deals with the following topics:
5 Structure of atoms, atomic number, mass number
5 Concept of electron in atom
5 How ions are formed
5 Difference between Cation and Anion
5 Determination of chemical formula using cations and anions
5 Concept of isotopes and importance of isotopes in our life

3.1 Structure of atoms

Everything you can see or that is
around you but you can't see with the
naked eye is made up of tiny particles
called atoms. Atoms are so tiny that Nucleus
they cannot be seen with the naked
eye, even with the most powerful
microscopes we know. Naturally, you
might have a question in your mind,
how the atom is formed or what it
Electron
actually contains. The simple answer
is that the atom has two main parts: 1)
Proton
the nucleus at the center of the atom
and 2) the electrons revolving around Neutron
the nucleus outside the nucleus. In the
nucleus, there are positively charged Structure of an atom
protons and neutral neutrons. The
electrons orbiting around the nucleus carry a negative charge. When an atom has an
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equal number of protons and electrons, the total charge is zero, and it is called a neutral
atom. The mass of the neutron and proton is approximately two thousand times more
than the mass of electrons. Therefore, the mass of an atom is essentially the mass of
its nucleus. Atoms can gain or lose a necessary number of electrons to enhance their

27
 Science

stability. Then the atoms are no longer charge neutral and are called ions. Different
atoms have different structures because each of them contains a different number of
protons and electrons. Basically, for this reason, different elements show different
properties.

3.1.1 Origin and advancement of the concept of atoms and atomic model
Now, you all understand that everything is made up of really tiny particles. Scientists
and philosophers have given different opinions about these small particles. Back in
the 5th century BC, Leucippus and Democritus stated that each substance is made up
of a certain number of these tiny particles. According to their view, these particles are
indivisible which cannot be divided
again. Democritus named these tiny
Nucleus Electron particles atoms. The word 'atom'
comes from the Greek word 'atomos,'
Proton which means 'indivisible.'

Two of their contemporaryy

Neutron philosophers, Plato and Aristotle,

had a different perspective. Aristotle

believed that everything is made up
Orbit of electron of four elements: fire, earth, air, and
water and these elements could be
Electron, proton and neutron of a helium atom
divided randomly. However, he did
not consider any experiments to prove
the ideas. During the 18th and 19th centuries, many scientists attempted to explain the
structure of atoms using different atomic models. Those models had certain limitations
but they played a crucial role in developing the modern atomic model that we use
today. The most notable scientists who contributed to the development of the atomic
model are John Dalton, J. J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and Niels Bohr.
Based on experimental proofs, English scientist John Dalton said in 1803 that the atom
is the smallest particle of matter and cannot be divided further. However, as we now
know, atoms are not indivisible, and neither are the smallest particles of matter. Atoms
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can indeed be divided. Atoms are composed of very small particles known as electrons,
protons, and neutrons.
Other scientists later came up with different models to address the shortcomings
of Dalton's model. Among these, the atomic models proposed by Rutherford and
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 Structre of Atoms

Bohr gained the most acceptance.

Rutherford and his colleagues conducted a significant experiment to determine the
exact structure of an atom. From the results of their experiment, Rutherford concluded
that all the positive charge and mass of an atom are confined to a small nucleus at its
center. He also stated that most of the space inside the atom is empty and the mass of
the negatively charged electrons orbiting the positively charged center is negligible.
He compared this rotation of electrons to the rotation of the planets around the sun
in the solar system. However, Rutherford did not specify any particular orbits for
electrons. Later in 1913, scientist Bohr suggested specific orbits for the negatively
charged particles. You must have understood from the above discussion that atoms
can be broken and if we break an atom, we get electrons, protons and neutrons. At
the center of the atom is the nucleus. There are positively charged protons and neutral
neutrons inside the nucleus. Most of the mass of an atom is in the center or nucleus of
the atom. Since the radius of the nucleus is about a million times smaller than the radius
of the atom, all the space between the electrons and the nucleus is empty. In fact, most
of the space in an atom is empty.

3.1.2 Atomic number and mass number

You already have some idea about the structure of atoms. It is also important to have
some idea about the concepts of atomic number and mass number to gain a better
understanding of the structure of atoms.

Atomic number
· The atomic number of an atom is the total number of protons present in its nucleus.
It is represented by the English letter Z.
· Different atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, so the atomic
number is the same.
· Atoms with different elements have different atomic numbers, which helps to
differentiate one element from another element.

For instance, a hydrogen atom has only one proton, so its atomic number is 1.
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On the other hand, an oxygen atom has 8 protons, giving it the atomic number 8.
Since the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons, we
can say that a hydrogen atom has 1 electron and an oxygen atom has 8 electrons.
What other information can you get from the atomic number of an atom? For

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 Science

example, can we know the number of neutrons in an atom from on its atomic
number? The answer is no. It is not possible to know the number of neutrons in
an atom from its atomic number. To know the number of neutrons, we need to
know both the atomic number and the mass number of the atom.

Mass number
5 The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in that
atom. It is represented by the English letter A. For instance, a carbon atom has 6
protons and 6 neutrons, making its mass number 12.
5 Atoms of the same element may have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons. On the other hand,, the mass of an electron is very negligible.
Therefore, the atomic mass of an atom is approximately equal to its mass number.
5 As both protons and neutrons are found inside the nucleus of an atom, they are
collectively called nucleons.
As mentioned earlier, if we know the atomic number and mass number of an
atom, we can determine the number of neutrons in that atom.
For example, if any atom has the atomic number Z = 9 and the mass number A = 19,
then that specific atom has 9 protons and 19 - 9 = 10 neutrons.

3.1.3 (Notation of Atom) Mass Number

Each atom has a specific symbol, ((Number of protons + Symbol of

number of neutrons) Carbon
such as H for hydrogen, O for
oxygen and C for carbon. To Atomic Number
denote an atom, we need to know (Number of protons)
the symbol, atomic number and
mass number of the element. The Notation of carbon
mass number is written at the top of
the symbol and the atomic number
at the bottom. For example, the notation of carbon is shown on the side.
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3.2 Isotopes
You already know that an atom of an element has a certain number of protons and

30
 Structre of Atoms

electrons. However, as an element can have different number of neutrons, their mass
numbers can be different. For example, each hydrogen atom has one electron and
one proton. Most hydrogen atoms don't have any neutrons. However, there are some
hydrogen atoms that have one neutron, which gives them a mass number of 2. On the
other hand, there are also hydrogen atoms that have two neutrons, so their mass number
is 3. So, it's possible for a hydrogen atom to have three different atomic numbers.
When atoms of an element have the same number of protons and electrons but different
mass numbers, they are called isotopes of that element. That’s why hydrogen has three
isotopes. The diagram below shows the three isotopes of the hydrogen atom. Normally,
isotopes of an atom don't have different names, but hydrogen has three different names
for its isotopes. Similarly, most carbon atoms have 6 protons and 6 neutrons in their
nucleus. But there are some carbon atoms that have 7 or 8 neutrons. So, three different
mass numbers of carbon (12, 13 and 14) are possible. Thus, carbon-12, carbon-13 and
carbon-14 are the three isotopes of carbon.

Electron Proton Neutron

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

Isotopes of hydrogen

3.2.1 Properties and uses of isotopes

Isotopes of an element have the following properties:

(a) Isotopes of a particular element have the same number of electrons and protons,
so their electron configuration are the same. Since the electron configuration
is responsible for all the electrical and chemical properties of an element, there
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is no difference in the chemical and electrical properties of different isotopes.

However, isotopes can be distinguished from one another because they have
different masses.
(b) Isotopes have different physical properties because they have different
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 Science

numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.

The isotope of an element that is more stable than the others is more commonly
found in nature. The stability of an isotope refers to the stability of its nucleus.
Unstable isotopes emit different types of light rays and particles through a process
called radioactive decay. These special isotopes called radioactive isotopes. These
radioactive isotopes are used in a variety of activities. Some uses of isotopes are
discussed below.

Medical use
Radioactive isotopes are very useful in the field of medicine for diagnosing and
treating different illnesses and diseases. Some of their applications are mentioned
below.
(a) Iodine-131 isotope is used to diagnose diseases of the thyroid gland.
(b) Thyroid function can also be tested using technetium-99 isotope.
(c) If there is a problem in a narrow artery, it can be detected by sending a
radioactive isotope through the blood flowing through the artery. Similarly, the
location of the affected cells is determined by sending radioactive isotopes into
the body of a person with cancer. Radioactive isotopes are also used to destroy
cancer cells.
(d) Medical equipment can be sterilized using the irradiation from radioactive
materials.
Agricultural use
Crystal sensitive to
Radioactive Rays

Radioactive Rays
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Plants with Photograph with

Conversion to light
radioactive isotopes CCD camera

Use of isotopes in agriculture

32
 Structre of Atoms

Some important applications of radioactive isotopes in agriculture are:

(a) Isotope radiation is used to control insects and parasites that can harm crops.
(b) Radioactive isotopes help increase crop yields. They can be used to determine the
type and amount of fertilizer required for different crops.

Use of isotopes in food preservation

Use of radioactive rays for bacteria-free food

Radiation from radioactive isotopes can be used to control bacteria and other organisms.
As a result, radioactive isotopes can be used to sterilize food and fruit.

Use in geological research

You may have heard news about the discovery of fossils that are several crores of years
old. How do scientists know the age of these fossils? Scientists know this studying the
decay of isotopes. By examining the ratio of stable and unstable isotopes, the age of the
fossil can be calculated.

Use in power generation

Uranium-235 is used as fuel in nuclear reactors to generate electricity in nuclear power
plants. When a slow neutron hits the heavy nucleus of Uranium-235, it splits into
smaller nuclei, producing a significant amount of thermal energy. This heat energy is
then used to generate electricity with the help of generator a generator.
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33
 Science

Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant

A new nuclear power plant is being constructed in Rooppur, located in the Iswardi
upazila of Pabna district in Bangladesh. This power plant is expected to produce 2,400
megawatts of electricity.

3.2.2 Effects of radioactive isotopes

You have already learned about the various uses of radioactive isotopes. However,
these isotopes can be very dangerous to us in uncontrolled conditions. The alpha,
beta, and gamma rays emitted by radioactive isotopes can lead to cancer by
causing genetic changes in us. During World War II, atomic bombs were dropped
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, resulting in the immediate deaths of millions
of people. Many others suffered long-term complications and eventually dies due
to radiation exposure. In 1986, the Chernobyl accident in Russia also caused the
loss of numerous lives and extensive damage to the local environment.

3.3 Rules of electron configuration in atoms

The levels of rotation of electrons around the nucleus are called orbits. These orbits
extend outward from the nucleus. Each orbit can hold a specific number of electrons.
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Now the questions are, what is the maximum number of electrons that can be in an
orbit? And what are the rules of their configuration?

34
 Structre of Atoms

Rules
1) The maximum number of electrons in an orbit is 2n2 (Where, n = 1, 2, 3, 4... is the consec-
utive number of orbits. The corresponding orbits are also known as K, L, M, N...).
1st orbit: 2n2 = 2(1)2 = 2×1 = 2; Can have maximum 2 electrons
2nd orbit: 2n2 = 2(2)2 = 2×4 = 8; Can have maximum 8 electrons
3rd orbit: 2n2 = 2(3)2 = 2×9 = 18; Can have maximum 18 electrons
2) A new orbit cannot begin until the previous orbit is completely filled.
Note that these orbits are called energy levels because each orbit has a specific energy for the
electron. You may notice the follow- N Orbit, n = 4
ing example to clearly understand the M Orbit, n = 3
electron configuration in an atom. L Orbit, n = 2
K Orbit, n = 1
A lithium atom has 3 electrons. Out of
these, two electrons occupy the first
orbit, while the third electron is in the Nucleus
second orbit. Similarly, a carbon atom
has 6 electrons. 2 of them are in the
first orbit and the remaining 4 are in
the second orbit.
Now let's look at the electron configu-
ration of sodium atom. Sodium atom Different orbits within an atom
has 11 electrons. Can you guess now
How many orbits will the electrons
of sodium be in? The answer is, the
electrons of sodium will be in 3 orbits
and its electron configuration can be
expressed according to the sequence
Li C
of orbits as: (2, 8, 1). That is, 2 in the
first orbit, 8 in the second orbit and 1
in the third orbit.
The electron configurations of some
other elements are shown along with Electron configuration of Lithium (Li) and Carbon (C) atoms
their atomic number and symbol in
Table-1 below. See the examples and write the electron configurations of the elements men-
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tioned in Table-2.

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 Science

Element Atomic Symbol electron Element Atomic Symbol electron

number configuration number configuration

Hydrogen Hydrogen 1
2 He 2 H
Boron Boron
7 N 2, 5 5 B
Sulphur Sulphur
8 O 2, 6 16 S
Argon Argon
17 Cl 2 , 8, 7 18 Ar

3.3.1 Electron configuration of elements and their properties

You have already got an idea about the atomic number, symbol, and electron configuration
of elements. The properties of elements mainly depend on the configuration of
electrons in their atoms. Atoms are of different properties such as active, inactive
(inert), metallic, non-metallic, conductive, non-conductive due to the difference in their
electron configuration.

For example, if the last orbit contains the maximum number of electrons it can hold,
then the orbit is considered to be completely filled. This type of atoms is classified
as inactive. For instance, a helium atom has 2 electrons, which occupy the first orbit.
Since the first orbit can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons, the helium atom is
inactive. Similarly, in the case of neon (Ne-10) gas, 8 electrons in the last orbit have
completely filled its second orbit, so this gas is also inactive.

3.4 Formation of ions

Sometimes an atom with one or more atoms more or less in its last orbit can become
fully or partially filled and stable similar to the nearest inert gas. These atoms lose
or accept one or more electrons from the outermost energy level to achieve a stable
electron configuration similar to their nearest inert gas. When atoms lose negatively
charged electrons, they become positively charged and are no longer neutral. When
atoms gain electrons, they become negatively or positively charged. These charged
atoms are known as ions.
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When an atom loses one or more electrons from its outermost energy level and gains a
stable electron configuration similar to that of the nearest inert gas, it transforms into
a positively charged ion. This type of ion is called a cation. Let's consider the sodium
atom as an example. Sodium has 2 electrons in its first energy level, 8 electrons and 1
electron in its second and third energy levels respectively. If the sodium atom loses one
36
 Structre of Atoms

electron in its third energy level, the second energy level becomes the new outermost
energy level, and it becomes filled with 8 electrons. In this way, sodium gains a stable
electron configuration similar to its nearby inert gas, neon. When a second atom capable
of accepting an electron comes close to sodium, sodium easily loses an electron from
its third energy level.

When the outermost energy level of an atom gains one or more electrons and attains a
stable electron configuration like the nearest inert gas, it transforms into a negatively
charged ion. This type of ion is known as an anion. Now let's look at an example of the
formation of an anion. The electron configuration of a chlorine atom, with an atomic
number of 17 is: 2, 8, 7. Is chlorine stable? Undoubtedly not. It requires 8 electrons in
its outer shell to gain stability. In order to attain 8 electrons in the third energy level,
chlorine can either release 7 electrons from its outermost level or gain an additional
electron from elsewhere. In terms of energy, it is much easier for chlorine to gain an
electron in its third energy level rather than giving up 7 electrons. It can easily accept
an electron from a sodium in contact with a sodium atom. After accepting the electron,
the chlorine atom transforms into a negatively charged ion called an anion.

This is how atoms transform into ions by gaining or losing electrons. Chemical bonds
are established through the attractive forces between cations and anions with opposite
charges. This is how compounds are formed from the atoms of two different elements.
You will learn more about this in your next class. Below is an example of how sodium
chloride is formed. As you see, in the first step, sodium gives up an electron to become
a sodium ion with a positive charge, which is represented as Na+. Similarly, in the next
step, chlorine gains an electron, to become a negatively charged chlorine ion. Hence, it
is represented as CI-.

Na Na+ + e-
F + e- F-
Na + F Na+F- or NaF

Sodium fluoride is a useful compound. It is used in water and toothpaste to

prevent tooth decay.
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3.4.1 Rules for writing chemical formulas of compounds with the

help of cations and anions:
If you know the name of an ionic compound, you can also write its chemical formula.

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 Science

First, the elements in the compound are to be separated into anions and cations. For
that you need to know how many electrons can be given up to become a cation or
how many electrons can be gained to be an anion to make a full orbit nearby. Then,
write the two ions along with their charges. Since the entire compound is charge
neutral, the quantity of ions taken determines how much they will neutralize each
other's charges. Two examples are shown below.

Lithium Oxide:
Lithium (Li-3) and oxygen (O-8) combine to form lithium oxide compounds. Lithium
can fill the last n = 1 energy level by giving up an electron. So, its cation is Li+. On the
other hand, oxygen can gain two electrons and fill its last n = 2 energy level. So, its
anion is O2-. Therefore, two lithium atoms and one oxygen atom combine to form the
charge neutral lithium oxide Li2O compound.

Magnesium oxide:
Magnesium (Mg-12) and oxygen (O-8) combine to form lithium oxide compounds.
Magnesium can fill the last n = 2 energy level by giving up two electrons. So, its cation
is Mg2+. On the other hand, oxygen can gain two electrons and fill its last n = 2 energy
level. So, its anion is O2-

Therefore, one magnesium atom and one oxygen atom combine to form the charge
neutral lithium oxide (MgO) compound.

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 Study of Motion

Chapter 4
Cell Division and Its Types
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39
 Science

Chapter
4 Cell Division and Its Types
This chapter deals with the following topics:
5 Cell division and genetics:
5 What is cell division and its types
5 Mitosis and meiosis cell division and cell cycle
5 Phases of mitosis cell division and their control
5 Importance of mitosis cell division
5 Phases of meiosis cell division and their control
5 Importance of meiosis cell division
5 Abnormal cell division and its consequences
5 Cell division and irreversible flow of DNA
5 Roles of DNA in determining genetics

Cells are the structural unit of the body of all living beings. The body of living beings
can be either unicellular, like bacteria, amoeba, or plasmodium, or multicellular, like
humans, banyan trees, and whales. The body of all living beings except unicellular
organisms are made up of numerous cells. Every living being reproduces and multiplies
cells through cell division. The physiological process in which one cell produces more
cells is called cell division. Cell division is a normal and important process. Through
cell division, a single cell can divide and transform to a complete organism by producing
numerous cells. The process by which the unicellular eukaryotes usually divide is
called amitosis. Multicellular organisms divide in two processes: mitosis and meiosis.

Importance of cell division:

Cell division is essential for the physical growth, reproduction, and maturity of living organisms.
All cells are created through the process of division from their parent cells. Cell division also
plays a crucial role in healing the body when it gets hurt or damaged. Again, cell division in
gametes is one of the means for the reproduction of living organisms. Through this process,
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daughter (newborn) cells with new characteristics are formed, which also play an important
role in the adaptation, appearance and continuation of the living organism.

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 Cell division and its types

Structure of a cell:
In class seven, you learned about the structure of plant and animal cells. Then, you saw
that the two main components of a cell protected by a cell membrane are cytoplasm and
nucleus. The dense opaque organelle in the centre of the cell is the nucleus while the rest
outside the nucleus and wrapped by the cell membrane is the cytoplasm. The nucleus is
enclosed by the nuclear membrane. Inside the nucleus, there are chromosomes made up
of DNA, the genetic material of the organism. Normally, a long chromosome is coiled
on protein particles called histones and remains as an open lattice called chromatin.
That’s why, it cannot be understood individually. It is only visible during cell division
when it coils up and contracts.

Cell Chromosome
Nucleus
Chromatid

Centromere

Cytoplasm

Nucleotide Chromatin

Histone

DNA
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Structure of a chromosome

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4.1 Cell Division in Unicellular Organisms: Amitosis

Nucleus

Cytoplasm DNA Separation of

Two Daughter
Replication Cytoplasm
cells
Amitosis cell division

Unicellular eukaryotes reproduce through a direct division process called amitosis

or binary fission. This type of cell division occurs in eukaryotic organisms such as
bacteria or blue-green algae. This process is highly efficient for the rapid proliferation
of single-celled organisms as it does not require any special preparation of the cells
for division and it allows for a quick increase in the number of cells. In amitosis cell
division, the DNA of the chromosome is replicated inside the nucleus when the cell
matures. The cell nucleus undergoes changes and transforms into a dumbbell shape
and starts to shrink around the middle. At the end of contraction, the original elongated
nucleus of the mother cell separates into two daughter nuclei. There is no guarantee
that the DNA in the two nuclei will be divided precisely and equally in this process, so
the two nuclei may be different. Along with the nucleus, the cytoplasm also shrinks in
the middle and divides into two cells. In this type of division, both the nucleus and the
cytoplasm of the mother cell divide directly to create two daughter cells. That’s why, it
is called direct cell division.

4.2 Cell Division in Multicellular Organisms

We are multicellular organisms. Our body contains around one trillion cells. There
are different types of cells in our body, such as: blood cells, muscle cells, skin
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cells, stomach cells, etc. Each of the different types of cells has its own structure
and function. All these cells come from a special type of cell called stem cell. All

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 Cell division and its types

animals and plants require stem cells. An animal that is not fully developed is
called an embryo. Stem cells in the embryo can develop into different types of
cells.
All stem cells have certain characteristics: Stem cells divide and produce more
stem cells. Stem cells also have the ability to develop into different types of cells.
A stem cell divides into two new cells; each new cell is identical to the original
cell. When mature, these cells also divide. This ensures the supply of stem cells to
the embryo. A growing embryo and its organs need lots of stem cells to flourish.
In the laboratory, starting with a few stem cells, scientists have been able to
create millions of cells within months. Scientists are researching the problem of
how stem cells change into other types of cells.
Now, we will learn about cell division in multicellular organisms.
The process by which the cells of multicellular organisms divide is called mitosis.
Again, meiosis cell division occurs in the reproductive mother cells of sexually
reproducing organisms. Mitosis occurs in the tissues of the growing regions of the
plant body such as root and tip of the stem, embryo bud, embryo root and leaf.
Again, in the anthers and ovules of angiosperm (flowering) plants, cells divide in
the meiosis process.

Cell Cycle
The cell that initiates the process of cell division is known as the mother cell, and the
newly formed cell is called the daughter cell. The cycle through which a mother cell
is formed, grows and divides into two daughter cells is called a cell cycle. The cell
cycle is divided into two main phases: the dividing stage known as the mitosis phase
(M phase) and the intermediate non-dividing stage is called interphase. Approximately
90-95% of the cell cycle is spent in the interphase stage and the remaining 5-10% is
spent in the mitosis stage or M phase. The interphase stage can be further divided into
three phases: G1 (30-40% of the time), S (30-50% of the time), and G2 (10-20% of the
time). G1 (Gap 1) is the first phase after one cell division that prepares for the next cell
division cycle. During this phase, the cell increases in size and monitors its surroundings
to determine whether it should proceed with division. The next S (Synthesis) phase
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is replication stage in which the DNA is replicated to create an exact copy of each
chromosome. In the subsequent G2 (Gap 2) phase, any errors in DNA replication are
corrected. This phase occurs before the start of the mitosis process. In this phase, each
chromosome has its exact replica attached to the centromere and are called chromatids.
After the end of G2 phase, mitosis begins, as described below.
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 Science

It is important to know how this cell

cycle is controlled, because if the cell G2
cycle occurs without any control, cells Mitosis
can move from one phase to the next Synthesis M
before they are ready. It is very harmful Mitosis
S
to cells. Disruption of the normal control DNA
of the cell cycle can lead to serious Replication
diseases such as cancer. Naturally, Interphase
you may wonder how the cell cycle is
controlled, that is, how the cell knows G1
when to grow, when to replicate its Cell increase
DNA, or when to divide. The cell cycle
is mainly controlled by some regulatory
proteins. These proteins ensure that the Cell Cycle
previous phase is completed before the
cell can move on. These proteins also
control the cycle by signalling the cell to start or delay the next phase of the cycle.

4.2.1 Mitosis
The process of creating two daughter cells from a mother cell to build a multicellular
organism is called mitosis. In this process, the cytoplasm, nucleus and chromosomes
are equally divided in both the cells and the cells have the same number and quality of
chromosomes as the mother cell. That is, mitosis enables a somatic cell to divide and
generate two daughter cells that are identical to the original mother cell. This type of
division happens in the body cells of organisms that have a true nucleus. As a result of
this division, animals and plants increase in length and width by increasing the number
of cells.
You have already learned that mitosis does not occur in unicellular prokaryotic
organisms. Also, mitosis does not occur in the mother cells of multicellular organisms,
animal nerve cells, matured red blood cells and platelet of mammals and in the cells of
permanent tissues of plants.
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Phases of Mitosis Cell Division

Mitosis cell division is a continuous process. This division is usually completed in
two stages.

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 Cell division and its types

While reading about the cell cycle, you have learned that each chromosome in the cell
is made one replica at a time in interphase in preparation for the process of mitosis. The
steps in the process of mitosis are:

(a) Prophase: The first stage of mitosis is prophase. In this stage, the nucleus of the
cell gets bigger. At the start of prophase, the replica of the cell along with its each
chromosome in the cell is connected to the centromere and they are called chromatids.
At this stage, the fibrous spindle apparatus begins to form at the two poles of the
nucleus. Meanwhile, inside the nucleus, the chromatids coil up tightly like springs,
getting shorter and fatter. During this stage, the nucleolus and nuclear membrane inside
the nucleus continue to disappear.

(b) Metaphase: At this stage, the chromosomes are arranged in the middle point (in
the equatorial region) of the bipolar fibre-enriched spindle apparatus built inside the
nucleus. The centromere of each chromosome is located at the equatorial region, while
chromatids arms are positioned towards the poles. The chromosomes appear the shortest
and fattest at this stage. Towards the end of this stage, the centromere splits into two,
forming two daughter centromeres, and the nuclear membrane completely disappears.

(c) Anaphase: At this stage of cell division, because of the division of the centromere
of each chromosome, the two chromatids become separate. These two chromatids are
called daughter chromosomes and each one has a centromere attached to it. The daughter
chromosomes start moving from the intermediate or equatorial region towards opposite
poles. As they move towards poles, the centromeres of the daughter chromosomes lead
the way and the chromatid arms follow them behind. During this stage, the spindle
fibres almost disappear. This phase ends when the daughter chromosomes reach the
poles of the cell.

(d) Telophase: Telophase is the final stage of mitosis cell division. In this stage, the
daughter chromosomes reach the opposite poles. The chromosomes start to become
narrower and longer again. The nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear, creating
two daughter nuclei at the two poles. The structure of the spindle apparatus starts to
disappear and eventually disappears completely.
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(e) Cytokinesis: The process by which the cytoplasm of a dividing cell splits into
two is called cytokinesis. At this stage, along with the division of the nucleus, two
grooves are formed on either side of the nuclear membrane in the middle part of the

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 Science

Cytokinesis
Along with the division of
the nucleus, two grooves
are formed on either side of
the nuclear membrane in the
middle part of the cell. This Interphase
groove gradually deepens and Each chromosome in the cell
unite and ultimately divides is made one replica at a time
into two cells. in preparation for the process
of mitosis.

Telophase
The daughter
chromosomes reach
Differnt
the opposite poles Steps of
and start to become
narrower and longer Mitosis Prophase
The chromatids
again.
coil up tightly
like springs,
getting shorter
and fatter.

Anaphase
The daughter
chromosomes start moving
from the intermediate or
equatorial region towards Metaphase
opposite poles. The centromere splits into
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two, forming two daughter

centromeres, and the nuclear
membrane completely
disappears.

46
 Cell division and its types

cell. This groove gradually deepens and unite and ultimately divides into two cells. The
equal distribution of the cytoplasmic organelles leads to the creation of two complete
daughter cells.

Importance of Mitosis Cell Division

Mitosis cell division is very important for the growth and stability of the cell population.
The significant importance of mitosis cell division is given below:

1. In multicellular organisms, physical growth is accomplished through mitosis cell

division from only one cell called a zygote.

2. The normal size, shape, volume and quality of the mother cell is maintained in the
daughter cell through mitosis cell division.

3. Mitosis cell division ensures a balance between the nucleus and cytoplasm of cells.

4. All cells in the body have the same number and type of chromosomes because of the
process of mitosis cell division.

5. Mitosis cell division helps to fill in any gaps that occur in a multicellular organism.

6. Certain very important cells have a limited lifespan and are constantly depleted.
They reproduce in the process of mitosis cell division.

Control of Mitosis Cell Division

In mitosis cell division, the number of cells increases from one to two, and then from
two to four. Mitosis cell division process is regulated by various internal and external
factors of the organism. When cell division becomes uncontrolled due to the presence
or absence of certain factors in different physiological conditions, it can lead to the
development of tumours, which can later turn into cancer. Research has shown that
pathogens, chemicals, or radioactivity can act as external influencers in uncontrolled
mitosis cell division. Cancer can potentially affect almost all organs in the body, such
as the liver, lungs, brain, breasts, skin, and colon.
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4.2.2 Meiosis
When a cell has two sets of chromosomes, it is called diploid. Humans are diploid
because each human cell has a total of 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of these 23 pairs,

47
 Science

23 chromosomes come from the

father's sperm cells and the other 23 Parent Cell
chromosomes come from the mother's
egg cells. You can understand that
Meiosis
sperm cells and egg cells are different Meiosis
from other human cells. They have
only 23 chromosomes instead of 23
pairs, and they are called haploid. Egg Sperm
When we talked about mitosis, we
saw that daughter cells are exactly Diploid
like the mother cells. So, we can
never get diploid to haploid by Haploid
Zygote
mitosis cell division and for that
we need a different type of cell division Creation of Zygote
called meiosis.

Before undergoing cell division in the process of meiosis, a diploid mother cell goes
through the interphase stage, which is similar to mitosis. Similarly, during the S or
replication phase of the cycle, each of the chromosomes replicates itself.

Phases of Meiosis Cell Division

The process of meiosis cell division can be divided into two main stages: Meiosis1-
and Meiosis2-. In the first stage, Meiosis1-, two cells are formed, each containing
one chromosome from each pair of chromosomes. The second division is similar
to mitosis division. That is, each cell produced in the first division divides again
in two and produce a total of four daughter cells. Meiosis1- phase can be divided
into four main phases: Prophase1-, Metaphase1-, Anaphase1- And Telophase1-.
Similarly, Meiosis2- stage can be divided into four stages: Prophase2-, Metaphase2-,
Anaphase2- And Telophase2-.

The figure shows the transition of a diploid cell containing the same pair of
chromosomes to different stages of Meiosis 1- And Meiosis 2-. In case of humans,
it would start with 23 pairs of chromosomes instead of one pair. During the
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interphase stage of the cell cycle, before the meiosis process begins, each of the
two identical chromosomes of a diploid cell produce one more replica.

5 Prophase1-: Chromosomes pair up and exchange DNA with each other

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 Cell division and its types

Diploid cell:

Interphase Chromosomes are copied

Prophase 1 Chromosomes pair up and exchange

DNA with each other

Chromosomes are arranged

Meiosis 1
Metaphase 1
at the equatorial region

Chromosomes are attracted

Anaphase 1
towards the two poles

Telophase-1 and The middle part of the cell

Cytokinesis shrinks.

Divides into two

Prophase 2
daughter cells.

The chromosomes of the daughter cells are

Metaphase 2
arranged at theequatorial region
Meiosis 2

Chromatids are attracted

Anaphase 2
towards the two poles

Telophase-2 and Middle part of the cells

Cytokinesis shrinks
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Divides into four

haploid cells

The process of meiosis cell division

49
 Science

(crossing over).
5 Metaphase1-: Chromosomes are arranged at the equatorial region.
5 Anaphase1-: Chromosomes are attracted towards the two poles.
5 Telophase1- and Cytokinesis: The middle part of the cell shrinks.
5 Prophase2-: Divides into two daughter cells.
5 Metaphase2-: The chromosomes of the daughter cells are arranged at the
equatorial region.
5 Anaphase2-: Chromatids are attracted towards the two poles.
5 Telophase2- and Cytokinesis: Middle part of the cells shrinks and divides
into four haploid cells.

Importance of Meiosis Cell Division

Meiosis cell division has an immense importance in the organism world. A few
key points are mentioned below:

1. Meiosis results in the formation of gametes or reproductive cells in diploid

organisms. As reproduction occurs through the union of reproductive cells
in the sexual process. That’s why, reproduction is not possible in organisms
without meiosis cell division.

2. In order to maintain the uniqueness of the species in heredity, chromosome

number must be accurate. The chromosome number remains unchanged in
meiosis cell division.

3. The crossing over of gametes in meiosis cell division has resulted in diversity
in the biosphere (living world).

4.3 Roles of Chromosomes and DNA in Determining Genetics

What physical traits do you possess? Some of you have curly hair, while others
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have straight hair. Some might have long hair, while others have short hair.
Some may have black hair, while others have brown eyes. These different
characteristics in your bodies are determined by the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
present in the chromosomes of your cells. All the information that determines the

50
 Cell division and its types

characteristics of an organism is stored in DNA. DNA carries traits directly from

parents to their offspring, and this process is known as genetics. DNA plays a
crucial role in controlling the characteristics of chromosomes and in maintaining
the linage of genetics. Only DNA acts as the agent of genetics and keeps continue
the chain of genetics. During meiosis cell division, the DNA located on the
chromosomes is directly carried from the parents to the next descendants. This
is why, chromosomes are referred to as the physical basis of genetics. You will
know more details about this topic in higher classes.

Male and female child

The first 22 chromosomes in male
and female reproductive cells
are the same. However, the 23rd
chromosome can be different for
male and female reproductive
cells. In female egg cells, the
23rd chromosome is always
X, while in male sperm cells, it
can be either X or Y. When the
male and female cells unite, the
23rd pair of chromosomes can
be either XX or XY, depending
on whether the male contributes
an X or Y chromosome. If the
23rd pair of chromosomes is XX, Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
the child is female, while if it
is XY, the child is male. If you look at the attached images of chromosomes, you will see that
the X and Y chromosomes are different in size. The Y chromosome is much smaller than the
X chromosome.
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 Science

Chapter 5
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Cells, Tissues of Plants and Their Specialties

52
 Cells, Tissues of Plants and Their Specialties

Chapter Cells, Tissues of Plants and Their Specialties

5
Plant Physiology :
5 Cells, tissues of plants and their specialties
5 Organs of plants and their functions
5 Diffusion, transpiration and transportation in plants
5 Plant tissue culture and its use

You have already known that cells are the structural units of the living organisms. The
body of lower-level plants is composed of one cell. All physiological functions of the
plants in this class are carried out by this single cell. However, higher-level plants have
more complex structures and functions. Higher-level plants function in combination of
various organs. Different organs also have different functions, such as one organ might
transport water and minerals, another provides rigidity, and another helps the plant
grow. Cells can also vary in size depending on their specific function. Since one cell
alone can't perform all the functions, many cells collaborate to carry out the necessary
physiological functions. When a bunch of plant cells collectively perform essential
physiological functions, they are called tissues

5.1 Tissue and Its Types

You might have noticed that plants germinated from seeds grow up slowly. During this
time, as more leaves appear, the stem also gets bigger and stronger, and roots start to
form. Which type of tissue performs these functions? Are they the same or different?
We will now discuss these issues a bit.
Plants grow because of cell division. So, based on how the cells in the tissue divide, all
types of tissue can be divided into two categories: Meristematic Tissue and Permanent
Tissue. These two types of tissue have some differences, which are as follows:
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5.1.1 Meristematic Tissue

Organisms grow because of continuous cell divisions in certain groups of cells. The
cells that have the ability to divide are called meristematic cells and tissues made up of

53
 meristematic cells are called Meristematic Tissues.

Plant Tissue
Characteristics:
Some of salient features of the
Meristematic Tissue are given Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue
below:
1. The cells are alive and
relatively small. Simple Tissue Complex Tissue
2. The cells of the meristematic
Parenchyma
tissue are usually rectangular, Xylem
Tissue
oval, pentagonal or hexagonal.
Collenchyma
3. The cells in the meristematic Phloem
Tissue
tissue have thin cell walls
Sclerenchyma
made of cellulose. Tissue
4. The nucleus of the cell
is relatively big, and the Types of Tissue
cytoplasm is dense.
5. The cells of the meristematic tissue usually do not have vacuoles.
6. As the cells are densely packed, there are no intercellular spaces between them.
7. Cells do not have stored food, secretions or waste products.

Functions:
1. Plants grow in length and width through division of the meristematic tissue.
2. Permanent tissue is formed from the meristematic tissue.
3. The wounds get filled through division of the meristematic tissue.

5.1.2 Permanent Tissue

When the meristematic tissue of a plant is completely formed and stays permanently in
a certain place of the plant and does not divide again, it is called permanent tissue. The
cells of this tissue are fully developed and have the right shape and size.
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Characteristics:
Some of characteristics of the Permanent Tissue are given below:
1. The walls of the cell are chubby and quite thick.
2. The vacuoles are relatively big.
3. The nucleus is smaller than usual and positioned to one side of the cell.

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 Cells, Tissues of Plants and Their Specialties

4. The cell wall displays different patterns or designs.

Functions:
The main function of the permanent tissue is to participate in conduction and convection.
Permanent tissues can be divided into two types: Simple and Complex.
Simple Tissue
Each cell in some permanent tissues has the same size, structure and shape. These
tissues are called simple tissues. There are three types of simple tissues. They are:
(a) Parenchyma Tissue:
These tissues are present in all parts of the plant. The cells of this are alive, have thin
walls, and are filled with protoplasm. These tissues have intercellular spaces. The cell
walls are thin and made of cellulose. The main functions of parenchyma tissue are
providing structure to the body, preparing and storing food, and transporting food.
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
Tissue Tissue Tissue
Intercellular
spaces

Cross-section Cross-section Cross-section

Thin wall Thick Thin
wall wall
Nucleus

Protoplasm

Cell
vacuole Thick wall

Transverse section Transverse section Transverse section

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Three types of simple tissues

(b) Collenchyma Tissue:

These tissues are composed of a special type of parenchyma cells. The cells of
this tissue are alive, filled with protoplasm, and have a lengthened shape. The cell
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 walls of collenchyma tissues are thick because they contain carbohydrates named
cellulose and pectin. This tissue gives the plant body strength and elasticity, for
which the stems of plant can bend instead of breaking down.
(c) Sclerenchyma Tissue:
The cells in this tissue are tough, long, and have thick walls. Sclerenchyma tissues
do not contain protoplasm. Although protoplasm is initially present in the cells,
they soon decay and become dead cells. This tissue contains a type of organic
polymer called lignin and is structured for mechanical function. These cells
provide rigidity to the plant body.
Complex Tissue
Some permanent tissues are composed of more than one type of cells that work together
and perform similar functions. These tissues are known as complex tissues. They are
also called transport tissues because they carry out the transportation functions in
plants. There are two types of complex tissues:

(a) Xylem Tissue:

Xylem tissue is one of the tissues that
give rigidity to plants. Xylem tissue
supplies water and other mineral salts
from the root through the plant’s stem
to the upper leaves.

(b) phloem
In the stem of a plant, phloem tissue
and xylem together form bundles
of transport tissue. Xylem provides
water and raw materials for making
food while phloem transports the Xylem Phloem
food that is prepared in the leaves to
various parts of the plant body. Xylem Cambium Phloem
The tissue between xylem and phloem Vascular tissue of a plant
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is called cambium. This tissue forms

new xylem and phloem tissue as a meristematic tissue and helps in the growth
of plant’s stems

5.2 Importance of plant’s organs and their functions

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 Cells, Tissues of Plants and Their Specialties

The main structural organs of a plant are roots, stems and leaves which are made up of
various tissues. Why are roots and stems essential for plants? Why do plants need roots
and stems? Water is transported through pipes to different parts of the different floors
of a tall building. Similarly, plants require a system to transport different substances
in order to carry out their biological functions. Plants that have this type of transport
tissue are known as vascular plants. These plants absorb water and minerals salts from
the soil using their roots. The water then moves up through the stem to reach higher
branches and other parts of the plant. In the presence of sunlight, plants utilize water
and carbon dioxide to produce sugars, and this process also generates oxygen. Oxygen
is required for respiration of the carbohydrates into plant's body. Plants release the
extra oxygen into the air, which makes a habitable environment for humans and other
animals.

5.2.1 Stem
We see various types of trees around us. The part of the tree that we see above the soil
is mainly the stem of the tree. The bark of a tree typically appears brown or grey, while
the young branches are green. The stem provides structure to the plant and performs
essential functions like holding leaves, flowers, and fruits. The part from which
leaves are formed is called a node, and
the section between two nodes is called
an internode. The stem can be different
for different plants or for different parts
of a tree. What appears as a flower bud
is actually a type of soft stem. Initially,
the stem is soft and the branchers are
weak, but they gradually grow stronger
over time. Eventually, the stem becomes
very hard and can be used as timber. They
have a thick outer layer called bark. The
stem gives the plant a specific shape and
structure, offering protection. Moreover,
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tree branches also aid in propagation. Here

it is to be remembered that every season a
tree grows in roots, tips and sides. Lateral
Cross section of a teak wood stem shows
(side) growth causes stems, branches and
rings

57
 trunks to thicken and form the rings we see in cross-sections of tree trunks. A ring
marks a cycle of seasons or a year.
Certain metamorphosed underground stems like potatoes and ginger take on various
shapes and sizes by storing food. The tasty sugarcane juice we enjoy comes from the
juicy stems that store food. Similarly, prickly cacti use their stems to store water.

5.2.2 Root
The part of the plant that is connected to the soil, stores food, and absorbs water and
mineral nutrients from the soil is known as the root. Roots have tiny hair-like structures
called root hairs. Root hairs are formed in such a way that they can easily absorb
significant quantities of water and dissolved
mineral salts from the soil.

There is a root cap at the tip of each root,

which is basically a tough covering of cells
that shields the root against injury. Plant roots
can be classified into two main types. The
part of the root that penetrates deep into the
soil is the main root while branch roots spread
out closer to the surface. They perform the
job of absorbing water and minerals from the
soil. When water and mineral elements enter
the main root through root hairs, lateral roots
and branch roots, a liquid pressure is formed
in the root cells. As a result of transpiration pull, water and minerals are then
transported from the roots to the upper branches and leaves of the plant with
the help of the stem.

5.2.3 Leaf
When we look at a plant, the most prominent part we notice is its leaves. Leaves are the
most vital organ of the plant. Leaves contain chlorophyll, the most crucial element for
plant’s survival. The food that plants need to survive is made in the leaves. Plants have
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leaves of various colours, sizes and shapes. The structure of leaves is related to their
function. Many leaves are flat and wide so that they can absorb the maximum amount
of sunlight. Trees, like mango, jackfruit, blackberry, and banyan, have single or simple
leaves. On the other hand, plants like rose, neem, and moringa have multiple small
laminae, so they are called compound leaves. Certain plants have needle-like leaves,

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 Cells, Tissues of Plants and Their Specialties

while others have prickly leaves.

Evergreen trees, like pine trees,
have green leaves all year round.
The outer layer of a leaf is a
wax-like coating called cuticle,
which helps prevent the loss
of the excessive water from
leaves during extremely cold
or dry weather. The next layer
is the epidermis. In addition to
their role in food production
and respiration, leaves also
contribute to the plant's
reproduction. Those of you who
have seen the leaves of air plant
(kalanchoe pinnata) must have
seen that new plants can grow
from the leaves.
Apart from these three main
parts - stem, root and leaf, a
plant has the following two
other parts too:

5.2.4 Flower
You all must agree that the most charming, scented and colourful part of a plant is the
flower. The flower is a special type of modified stem or a section of a stem for plant’s
reproduction. Flowers produce colours and fragrances to attract pollinators. Different
flowers have different fragrances, but two flowers never emit the same fragrance. A
typical flower of a higher-level plant is made up of five main parts: receptacle, sepals,
corolla, stamens, and carpels. Out of these five parts, stamens, and carpels are the
most crucial as they directly participate in reproduction. A flower that contains all five
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parts is referred to as a complete flower. If any of these parts is missing, the flower is
called an incomplete flower. When a flower has both stamens and carpels present at the
same time, it is called a bisexual flower. Examples of bisexual flowers are hibiscus and
datura. On the other hand, if either the stamen or carpel is absent in a flower, it is called
a unisexual flower. Gourd or pumpkin flowers are examples of unisexual flowers.
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 Stigma

When both stamens and carpels are absent in a flower, it is called a neuter flower.

Petals
Stigma
Pistil Style Anther
Ovary Stamen
Filament

Sepal

Pedicle Thalamus
Bisexual flower

5.2.5 Fruit
Fruits are a distinctive feature of flowering plants. When we think of fruits, we usually
mean sweet fruits like mangoes, berries, jackfruits, lychees, bananas, grapes, apple etc.
However, all the things that we eat as vegetables, such as gourds, pumpkins, luffas and
pointed gourds are actually fruits. In the previous chapter you have learned about the
process of fertilization in the ovary of flowers for the purpose of reproduction. Once
this fertilization is complete, the formation of fruit begins. After fertilization, the organ
formed by the ovary singly or being matured with other parts of the flower is called
fruit. When only the ovary of a flower develops into fruits, they are called true fruits. For
examples mangoes or blackberries. On the other hand, when other parts of the flower
including the ovary, develop into fruits, they are called false fruits (also accessory fruits).
Examples of false fruits
Seeds
are apples, elephant
apple etc.
When the seed is Ovary
fertilized, each ovule
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develops into a seed.

Each seed contains a
small and undeveloped Style
plant called an embryo. Stigma
The ovary surrounding

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 Cells, Tissues of Plants and Their Specialties

the ovules develops into such a fruit that contains one or more seeds. It is seen in the
tomato in the image above.

5.3 Plant Physiology

In every plant cell, many biological functions are constantly performed such as water
absorption, osmosis, diffusion, transpiration, transport, photosynthesis, etc. Plants
require energy to perform all these biological functions. Plants get energy from
food. You already know that plants prepare their own food through a process called
photosynthesis. Among these food-making elements, plants get water and minerals
from the soil using their roots. They also use their leaves and stems to collect carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere. The food that plants make moves to different parts of
the plant, helping it grow physically. These functions are carried out in an organized
and controlled way. In this chapter, let’s learn more about these biological functions in
plants.

5.3.1 Diffusion
You might have noticed that when the leaves of a tree planted in the tub droop because
of lack of water, they become fresh again after you water the tub. This happens because
of diffusion.
When there is a shortage of water in the leaf's mesophyll tissue, the diffusion pressure
deficit causes water-deficient cells to take water from nearby cells. This helps the
plant's transport system work effectively. When a substance spreads evenly from a more
concentrated area to a less concentrated area at the same temperature and atmospheric
pressure, it is called diffusion. The force that drives a solvent to move from a higher
concentration solution to a lower concentration solution is called diffusion pressure.
This diffusion pressure deficit in the leaf’s mesophyll tissue causes water-deficient cells
to draw water from neighbouring cells. In this way the transport system in the plant
remains effective.
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Importance:
Diffusion plays a very important role in water absorption of plants. All the physiological
functions take place through diffusion system. For example, during photosynthesis,
plants take in carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen. This function is

61
 accomplished through diffusion. Additionally, water that is absorbed by the plant is
released from the plant's body in the form of water vapours through transpiration,
which also involves diffusion.

5.3.2 Transpiration
Plants absorb their required water mainly through their roots and only a small amount
of this water is used for different biological functions of plants. About 99% of the
water comes out mainly through stomata of the plant in the form of water vapours. The
physiological process through which the extra water evaporates from different organs
of the plant is called transpiration.

Stoma (plural stomata) is a type of pore or hole. In leaves, soft stems, sepals and petals
of flowers, the stoma is surrounded by two guard cells. Photosynthesis requires the
stomata to be open to take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. As a result, large
amounts of water escape through the stomata as water vapour. A constant flow of water
from the roots to the leaves continues due to transpiration. Plants can control excess
heat by evaporating water in this process. But at the same time, the process of releasing
excess water can cause the plant to suffer from dehydration. We all know that farmers
must always ensure adequate irrigation system to protect their crops.

Importance:
Transpiration is a vital
process for plants as Stoma
it plays an important Guard Cell
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role in supplying Adjecent Cells

water to all the cells
and transport the
food made through
photosynthesis to A stoma surrounded by two guard cells

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 Cells, Tissues of Plants and Their Specialties

different parts of the plant. The pull caused in the plant's outer tubes due to transpiration
helps the root hairs to absorb water. Additionally, the transpiration pull helps in lifting
up water and food juices, absorbing salts, and delivering minerals to leaves and other

parts of plants.

5.3.3 Transport System of Plants

Transport in plants refers to the movement of water and minerals absorbed from the soil
and food prepared in the leaves. The water inside the cells and the minerals dissolved
in it are together called cell sap. The cell sap travels to the plant's leaves through xylem
vessels due to transpiration pull and other processes. When water reaches the leaves,
food is produced there. Phloem tissues take the responsibility of transporting the
prepared food to different regions of the plants.
Plant’s roots absorb water and minerals. This cell sap enters the root through the root
hair in osmosis process. Osmosis is the movement of a liquid with lower concentration
into a liquid with higher concentration through a semipermeable membrane. Water and
minerals absorbed through the root hairs move from one cell to the neighbouring cells
in the root hair through the osmosis process. From that cell Water and minerals go back
to the neighbouring cells. In this way water and minerals move from cell to cell and
eventually reach the xylem vessels. Then they reach the mesophyll tissue of the leaf
with the current of transpiration through the transport tissue of the stem.
Food is produced there through photosynthesis. Food made from leaves is transported to
different parts of the plant through the sieve-tubes of the phloem. A sieve tube is a thin-
walled tube-shaped living cell without a nucleus. Longitudinally they are connected to
each other and form a long tube like structure in the plant body. The transverse wall
between the two sieve tube cells disappears in places and takes on a sieve-like shape.
As a result, food can easily move from one cell to another. Thus, nutrients are supplied
throughout the plant through the phloem for sustaining life.
If the xylem vessels or sieve tubes of the phloem become blocked for any reason, the
plant will inevitably die. That is why, it can be said that transport is an essential process
in a plant’s life.
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5.4 Plant Tissue Culture and Its Use

Cell division in plants naturally produces tissues as needed, which take part in various
physiological functions of plants. Thanks to advancements in science, it is now possible
to create plant tissue through artificial methods. Tissue culture refers to the process of
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 growing a required mutrients. tissue that is isolated from a divisible organ of a plant
(such as terminal bud, auxiliary bud, young leaf, or petal) under sterile conditions,
along with the necessary nutrients. In other words, tissue culture is the cultivation of
plant tissues in the laboratory by providing the Tissue culture allows for the production
of a large number of seedlings from a healthy plant. This method of producing many
seedlings from very small tissues is also known as micropropagation. Micropropagation
is playing a revolutionary role in creating disease-free plants, producing seedlings,
preserving nearly extinct plants, achieving faster seedling production, and artificially
reproducing plants through embryo culture technology.
Bangladesh has already achieved several successes through tissue culture. Different
types of local and exotic orchid seedlings are being produced in the country. Besides
banana seedlings, wood apple seedlings, jackfruit seedlings etc. have also been
successfully produced. Various pulses and goundnuts have been produced. Disease-
free strawberries, stevia, and banana seeds and seedlings produced by tissue culture are
also on the list.

Improved potato seedlings have been developed

through tissue culture in Rajshahi
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64
 Study of Motion

CHAPTER 6
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WAVE AND SOUND

65
 Science

CHAPTER
6 WAVE AND SOUND
This chapter deals with the following topics:
5 Vibration or Oscillation
5 Basics of Waves
5 Types of Waves
5 Wave Variables
5 Sound and its Motion

6.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

In the previous grade, we learned about a special type of motion called Periodic Motion,
where an object moves back and forth in the same position repeatedly. For example,
if we tie a stone to a string and let it swing
back and forth, the stone returns to its starting
position over and over. This is a demonstration
of periodic motion. In fact, if there were no
friction or any other form of energy loss, the
stone would swing indefinitely in the same
way. In this type of motion, the movement
keeps repeating because the energy of the stone
transforms from potential energy to kinetic
energy to potential energy again and continues
transforming between the two. Initially, when
the stone was hanging from the string, it was
in a stable position called equilibrium. In this
equilibrium position, the stone have neither
potential nor kinetic energy. Now, when we
When you tie a string to a small stone,
pull the stone at one side, it is slightly raised
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pull it to one side and then release it

from its initial position, which accumulates
potential energy within it. Now, when the stone on one side, it oscillates and remains
is released, it cannot fall directly down due to in a state of transformation between
being tied with a string, so it tries to move potential energy and kinetic energy.
forward to reach the lowest point. During the
motion, the potential energy decreases, and it is transformed into kinetic energy. When
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 Wave and Sound

it reaches the lowest point, that is, at the point where it was in equilibrium, the stone
does not contain any potential energy. But now all of the energy have transformed into
kinetic energy, which makes the stone reach and move at the highest speed. Notice
here, that the stone reached the point where it was in equilibrium, but we cannot call
this state an equilibrium anymore since there is kinetic energy inside the stone now.

The natural state of an object hung from a spring is the equilibrium position. When we pull the
object downward, potential energy accumulates within it. When released, it starts oscillating
up and down. Here, the stored potential energy first transforms into kinetic energy to move it
upward, then in turn, it compresses the spring and transforms into potential energy. Then the
potential energy converts back into kinetic energy, thus continuing the oscillation causing the
spring to compress and expand repeatedly.

Due to this kinetic energy, the stone continues to rise on the other side and gradually
loses its kinetic energy. When it reaches up to the highest point again, it stops, and there
is no kinetic energy in it left in it. All the energy transforms into potential energy. The
stone then changes direction and slowly starts moving towards the other side and this
way repeats the entire cycle of motion. In others words, energy alternately transforms
between potential energy and kinetic energy in the stone continuing the cycle of motion.
This type of motion is known as Simple Harmonic Motion. This is one of the most
significant type of motions observed on Earth.
Similarly, if we attach a mass to a spring, pull it down and release, it oscillates up and
down. This is another example of Simple Harmonic Motion. When we elongate the
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spring by pulling it down to its lowest position, we create potential energy within it. If
we release the mass, this potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy and again,
as in the previous example, this kinetic energy is completely transformed back into
potential energy when it reaches the maximum height. The spring generates potential
energy and kinetic energy within it when its equilibrium position changes, to either

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 Science

rarefaction or compression. As the above image demonstrates, the mass undergoes a

continuous transformation between potential and kinetic energy, and oscillates up and
down.
In simple harmonic motion, the maximum distance a moving object reaches in one
direction from the equilibrium position is called the amplitude. The period of simple
harmonic motion remains
constant under a certain condition, and it cannot be increased or decreased. To change
the period, one has to change the specified conditions. For example, mathematically for
a simple harmonic oscillator of length l, we can write the period of oscillation T as:
l
T = 2π
g

Here, g is the acceleration due to gravity. From this formula, you can say that by
changing only the length of the string, you can change the period of oscillation.
In this case, the length of the string is the specified condition under which the
period remains unchanged.

6.2 BASICS OF WAVES

You have all seen ripples in water.
When somethings falls into a pond,
it creates circular waves that spread
in all directions from the point of
the disturbance. When a boat moves
through a river, its bow creates
a wave that travels forward and
eventually crashes at the shore. If
you tie a rope at one end and flick
it from the other end, you will see
a wave travelling along the length When we drop something into a pond,
of the rope. Similarly, if you compress a long water waves spread in a circular shape.
spring and release it, you can see the compression
propagating through the spring. All these examples represent different types of
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waves. In each of the cases, we have applied some form of energy to create a wave
that propagates through a medium and carries that energy from one place to another.
However, the notable aspect of waves is that even though the medium carries the
energy from one place to another, the medium itself does not change its position. In
our examples, the rope, water, or spring, none of them actually changes their location,

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 Wave and Sound

but the wave motion travels through them. Sound, which we are quite familiar, is also
a type of wave. We cannot see sound, but it uses air as a medium to transmit from one
place to another, while the air itself remains stationary.
» A wave is the process of transmitting energy from one place to another
through a medium, where different parts of the medium vibrate at their
respective positions, transmitting the energy forward but does not change
position itself.

6.2.1 WAVES & SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Those of you who have thrown pebbles into a pond and created ripples in the water will
have a better understanding of the concept of energy transfer through waves. When we
throw a pebble into the pond, the pebble flies with a certain velocity, which means it
carries a certain amount of kinetic energy. As the pebble hits the surface of the water,
this energy is transferred to the particles of water in that area and creates a disturbance at
the point of contact. This disturbance creates a ripple in the adjacent particles of water,
which in turn creates a ripple in the particles next to them. This ripple continues to
spread, and we can see the formation of a circular ripple expanding from the center like
a wave. If you observe a
water hyacinth floating
on the water, you will
notice that when the water
wave passes beneath it,
the plant floats up and
down with the water but
doesn't move ahead with
the wave. This means that
the medium itself did not
displace, but only carried
the energy of the wave One end of the spring is stretched or compressed to create a
forward oscillating in its longitudinal wave through it.
place.
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Now you’ll find it easy to understand the relationship between waves and simple
harmonic motion. If you focus on a specific point within a medium when a wave travels
through it, you will observe that the point undergoes a simple harmonic motion by
oscillating in place. When a specific point in the medium undergoes simple harmonic
motion, it generates that motion in the adjacent points and they do to the next points
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 Science

and so on, thus creating a wave. The simple harmonic motion is not the wave itself, but
each point of the wave undergoes separate simple harmonic motions.
Although we have talked about a medium in the context of wave, there are some waves
that don't require a medium for their propagation. Light is an example of one such wave,
and we know that light from the Sun
reaches the Earth without any medium
in space. In this chapter, we will confine
our discussions to the waves requiring a
medium for their propagation.

6.2.2 TYPES OF WAVES

You surely realized by now that the
most important aspect of waves is the
transference of energy through a medium
from one place to another without itself
changing its position. The particles of
the medium can undergo two types of
vibrations. When one end of a spring
is firmly fixed at a place and the other
end is moved back and forth at regular One end of the rope is flicked up and down to create a
intervals, you will observe a wave transverse wave along it.
with alternate compressions and
rarefactions propagating through the spring. This compressions and rarefactions are
called the oscillation of the spring. If you pay a little attention, you will notice that the
wave created inside the spring corresponds to the direction of the oscillation of the
spring. This type of wave is called a longitudinal wave. Sound is also a longitudinal
wave that propagates through the air by compression and rarefaction.
Now, imagine that if one end of a long rope is fixed tightly and the other end is flicked
up and down on with regular intervals, what do you think will happen? You will observe
a wave propagating through the rope also in this case, however, this time the rope will
rise upwards and come downwards, taking the wave along with it. Notice that here the
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oscillation or vibration of the rope occurs perpendicularly to the direction along which
the wave travels. This type of wave is called a transverse wave. The ripples on water
are an example of a transverse wave. Even though we can see light, we cannot see its
wave but that is also a type of transverse wave. Can you identify the transverse and
longitudinal waves among the different types of waves around you?
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 Wave and Sound

» When the wave propagation and the oscillation of its medium happens
in the same direction, it is called a longitudinal wave. When the
medium of the wave oscillates perpendicular to the direction of the
wave, it is called a transverse wave.

6.2.3 WAVE VARIABLES

The images demonstrate a longitudinal and a transverse wave. The two waves appear
distinctly different, but there is a significant similarity between them, which is that
their medium undergoes periodic oscillation. In the transverse waves, the highest part
above the point of equilibrium during vibration or oscillation is called the crest and the
lowest part below is called Wavelength
Crest
the trough. Similarly, in
the longitudinal waves,
the part that remains
more compressed than
the equilibrium state is
called the compression,
Trough
while the portion that
remains more stretched is
called the rarefaction. The
distance between the start
of one crest to the end of Rarefaction Compression
the next trough is called
a ‘wavelength’. Since Wavelength
wavelength is a distance, The length between the start of one crest to the end of the
it is measured in typical next trough is a ‘wavelength’
units of length or distance,
such as, centimeters, meters, etc. In mathematics and scientific notation, the Greek
letter λ (lambda) is commonly used to represent wavelength.
You may have noticed that both in the cases of the rope or the water wave, it takes
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some time for energy to propagate through the medium. In the case of sound or
light, we can't perceive it properly but even there, it takes time for the wave to travel
from one place to another. The time required by the wave to move a distance of one
wavelength is called a ‘period’. Since it is a measure of time, general units of time
such as second, minute, etc. are used for it. The English letter T is the symbol typically
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 Science

used to denote period in mathematical expressions. On the other hand, the number of
wavelengths passing through a particular point in one second is called the ‘frequency’.
In mathematical notation, frequency is represented by the letter f and is measured by
the unit Hertz (Hz). Therefore, we can say that the higher the frequency, the more
oscillations there are in a wave. We can also say that the lower the frequency of a wave,
the longer its period, because frequency represents the number of cycles per second, so:
1
f =
T
Since the unit for T is second (s), it is clear that Hertz is actually represented as s-1 or
‘per second’. Therefore, when we say the frequency of a wave is 100 Hertz, it means
that if we observe a specific point within the wave, we will see its amplitude oscillating
100 times per second.
You may have noticed by now that we used several variables of waves before in the
study of simple harmonic motion. Both waves and simple harmonic motion have
a period of oscillation, both can have a measurement of frequency and the idea of
amplitude is applicable to both cases as well. However, the wavelength is a variable
relevant only in the study of wave, not for simple harmonic
motion. Similarly, the velocity of a wave refers only to the wave's propagation and does
not apply in the case of simple harmonic motion.
The distance travelled by a wave in one second is its velocity. Since a wave traverses
a distance of f number of wavelengths per second, that means, it traverses a distance fλ
per second. Therefore, the velocity of a wave v is:
v=f λ m/s
Wave Velocity = Frequency × Wavelength
Since the speed of a wave is specific for a specific medium, the more the frequency the
wave, the less the wavelength will be, and conversely, the greater the wavelength, the
lower the frequency will be. The frequency of a sound wave determines its intensity,
and the frequency of light waves determines the color of the light. Red light has a
higher frequency, so its wavelength is relatively shorter. On the other hand, blue light
has a lower frequency, so its wavelength is relatively longer.
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6.3 ORIGIN OF SOUND

Everyone has presumably seen a metal plate sometime. If you’ve ever dropped a metal
plate, then you know what a clanging noise it makes. If you can find such a plate now,
then hold one end of it firmly with your hand and strike the middle with a spoon. You

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 Wave and Sound

will hear a metallic sound. If you look at it closely, you will notice that the plate is
vibrating. Now, if you place your hand on the plate to stop the vibration, you will notice
that the sound stops as well. So we can understand that there is a relationship between
vibration and sound. If you touch your throat while speaking, you will feel a vibration.
This happens because we produce the sound for speech by vibrating a membrane
called the vocal cord. ‘Sound’ can be generated from the vibration of any object, which
humans or other animals perceive through their ears.
Sound is actually a longitudinal wave created by
the propagation of vibration from an object through
a medium adjacent to it. Although vibrations of all
frequencies are not audible, that is, they are not
sounds. Typically, humans can hear frequencies
ranging from 20 Hertz to 20000 Hertz. The ears of
some other animals can be even more sensitive and
perceive sounds beyond human ears can. Vibrations
with frequencies lower than 20 Hertz are called
subsonic vibrations and with frequencies higher than
20,000 Hertz are called ultrasonic vibrations. Cat can sense 48 Hz to 85,000 Hz
6.4 VELOCITY OF SOUND
We have just learned that waves have velocity. Since sound is also a wave, it has a
specific velocity through a specific medium. Since compression and rarefaction occur
differently in different mediums, the speed of sound also varies depending on the
medium. You have already learned that in solid substances, the particles are tightly
bound together as a unit block. That is why the vibration very quickly propagates through
a solid substance to the other end. That is why the speed of sound is the highest in solid
mediums. On the other hand, the particles in a fluid substance are loosely connected
to each other. Therefore, when there is a vibration at one end of a fluid substance, it
takes a little longer for that vibration to reach the other end. So, the speed of sound is
lower in fluid mediums than the solids. Gaseous substances have their particles in a
relatively free state, so it takes the longest time for compression and rarefaction created
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in one end of a gas to reach the other end. In other words, the speed of sound in gaseous
mediums is the lowest. So you can see that the same sound travels at different speeds
through different mediums. The speed of sound through the air is 332 m/s; in water, it
is 1481 m/s which is about four times higher, while in iron, the speed of sound is 5120

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 Science

m/s which about three times higher than in water!

Example: A sound of a certain frequency can be produced by vibrating a tuning

fork. If a tuning fork with a frequency of 830 Hz is vibrated, what will be the
wavelength of the resulting sound? (Assume the speed of sound in air is 332 m/s)
Solution: Here, the frequency of the tuning fork f = 830 Hz, and the wavelength
of the wave, λ =40 cm=0.4 m, we need to find the wavelength λ of the sound.
Since, velocity of sound, v=f λ Or, λ = v/f So,
332
λ = = 0.4m
830

Since sound is a type of wave propagates in the form of vibrations, so when sound
waves encounter an obstacle, they bounce back or reflect just as other waves do. When
that happens, sometimes the same sound can be heard again. This phenomenon is
called an echo. For this reason, when we produce a sound in a large empty space, it
creates a type of reverberation or resonance and we hear the sound as a rumble. Even
if sound is produced against a large wall or in
front of a mountain at a considerable distance,
clear echoes can be heard. Echoes can also
be produced at the mouth of a deep well. To
produce an echo, sound has to travel the distance h = Depth
from the source to the obstacle and travel back
the same distance. That is, the sound has to
travel twice the distance between the source and
the obstacle. If we can precisely measure the
difference in time between the original sound Submarine measuring the depth from the
and the echo, then we can determine the speed echo time of a sonar.
of sound from that. So, if the obstacle is located at a distance d from the source, and the
time difference of between the sound produced and the echo is t, then:

Distance Twice the distance between source

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2d
Speed of Travelled & obstacle
= = =
sound v Time difference between original
Required Time t
sound & echo

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 Wave and Sound

Example: A person cannot distinguish between two sounds heard within 0.1 seconds
of each other. What should be the minimum distance from the source to the obstacle to
hear an echo?
Solution: After the sound is produced, it has to take at least 0.1 seconds to reflect and
return to the point of the source. Assuming the speed of sound to be 332 m/s, we can
calculate that the sound needs to travel at least 332 x 0.1 = 33.2 m. Since the sound
needs to travel twice the distance from the source to the obstacle to produce an echo,
the actual distance will be half of 33.2 m, which is approximately 17 meters.

Alternatively, if we already know the speed of sound through the medium, we

can calculate the distance d of the obstacle from the source by determining the
time it takes for the reflected sound to return as d d = vt/2

(Velocity of Sound in the medium × Time

Distance between
= difference between Sound and Echo)
Source and Obstacle
2

That means, by measuring the difference in time between a sound and its echo, we can determine
the distance of the obstacle. In fact, this is the method used to navigate underwater submarines.
The device used to precisely measure this distance is called a sonar. Even in nature, bats use
this method to determine the distance to their prey or that of obstacles during movement. Sonar
is also used to measure the depth of oceans. Scientists use the same method to determine the
depth of the underground water level or that of various mineral substances.

Example: If you stand a certain distance away from a mountain and clap your
hands, and you hear the sound of another clap exactly 6 seconds later, can you
determine how far you are from the mountain? (Assume the speed of sound in
air is 332 m/s.)
Solution: Here, the given speed of sound in air, v = 332 m/s and the time elapsed,
t = 6 s. We need to find the distance d.
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We know, d =vt/2=(332 × 6)/2=996 m

So, the distance of the mountain from the source of sound is 996 meters.

vt 332 x 6
d = = = 996 m
2 2
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Chapter 7
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Sun, Earth and Moon

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 Sun, Earth and Moon

Chapter
7 Sun, Earth and Moon
This chapter deals with the following topics:
5 Creation of the Moon
5 Position of Sun, Earth and Moon
5 Penumbra and umbra
5 Solar Eclipse
5 Partial, total and annular solar eclipses
5 Momentary effects on the environment: animals and birds and temperature
5 Solar observation and research opportunities, Analemma
5 Lunar eclipse: Total and partial lunar eclipses
5 Red moon
5 Distance between Earth and Sun
5 Perihelion, Aphelion
5 Change in Earth's rotation axis

In our previous class, we learned a lot about solar and lunar eclipses. In this chapter, we
will discuss solar and lunar eclipses in a bit more detail. During an eclipse, the sun or the
moon gets temporarily covered in the sky. The Earth's orbit around the Sun is not exactly
circular, but rather slightly flattened or elliptical. As a result, the distance from the Sun
to the Earth is not always the same. It takes the earth 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 47
seconds to complete one full revolution around the sun. We call this amount of time a
year on the earth. Just
as the earth revolves
around the sun, the
moon also revolves
around the earth in
an elliptical orbit.
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However, the moon's

orbit is inclined 5˚tilt
(tilted) by about 5°

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compared to the earth's orbit. It takes a little over 27 days (27.3 days) for the moon
to go around the earth once. However, it takes an additional two days to complete a
lunar month because the earth covers a slightly greater distance around the sun in 27.3
days. The earth has to wait for two more days in order to move to its new position after
crossing this distance to observe the new moon at the beginning of the lunar month.
Earth's revolution around the sun and the moon's revolution around the earth cause
various natural phenomena, some of which are discussed below.

7.1 Origin of Moon

There are several different theories about the origin of the moon. But the most accepted
hypothesis today is the 'collision' theory. Analysis of the moon’s soil brought back from
the moon after the mission to the moon has found surprising similarities with the earth's
soil. That is why it is assumed that during the initial period of the formation of the solar
system, there was a terrible collision between the Earth and a planet about the size of
Mars called 'Theia'. In that collision, a part of the Earth was ejected and began orbiting
the Earth, which we now call the Moon. Those of you who have looked closely at the
moon must have noticed that the moon always orbits with one side facing the earth, so
we always see one side of the moon and never the other side.

7.2 The Position of Sun, Earth and Moon

The sun is approximately 109 times larger in diameter than the earth. Again, the moon's
diameter is only 27% of the earth's diameter. This means that sun's diameter is around
400 times larger than that of the moon. On the other hand, the average distance between
the earth and the sun (1,500 lakh km) is 400 times greater than the average distance
between the earth and the moon (3.84 lakh km). During solar and lunar eclipses, the
sun, the earth and the moon remain in the same straight line. As a result, sometimes,
earth's shadow falls on the moon, which is called a lunar eclipse. Again, moon’s shadow
falls on the earth, which is called a solar eclipse. These shadows are formed when the
earth or the moon blocks sun’s light. If the light source is a point, it produces sharp
shadows. However, as the sun is so large, it casts two types of shadows- the penumbra
and the umbra.

Penumbra
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When an object blocks a portion of the light source and creates a shadow, but
another part of the light source falls in this shadow and partially illuminates it,
it is called a penumbra. This is why this shadow is partially dark. Naturally, the
penumbra covers a large area.
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 Sun, Earth and Moon

Penumbra
Umbra

During a solar eclipse, the sun, the moon and the earth remain in the same straight line. As a
result, the penumbra and umbra of the moon fall on the earth surface. A total solar eclipse is
shown here.

Umbra
When an object completely blocks the light from a source due to the position of the
object and creates a shadow, it is called an umbra. This shadow is dark in nature.
During an eclipse, the umbra region is covered by complete darkness for a period of
time. The umbra occupies a smaller area than the penumbra.

7.3 Solar eclips

When the moon comes between the sun and the earth as moon orbits the earth, the moon
blocks sun's light from reaching the earth. As a result, the shadow of the moon falls on
certain areas of the earth. This event is called solar eclipse. During a solar eclipse, the
sun, the moon, and the earth are aligned in the same straight line. Solar eclipses can be
of different types, such as, partial, total, annular, and hybrid. You might wonder how
the moon can cover the sun even though The diameter of the sun is 400 times larger
than the diameter of the moon. This is very simple, because although the sun is much
bigger than the moon, the moon is 400 times closer to the earth than the sun. As a result,
the moon and the sun appear to be nearly the same size from the earth’s surface. The
orbit of the moon is slightly elliptical. When it is closest to the Earth, the distance from
the Earth to the Moon is 3.63 lakh km. When it is furthest from the Earth, the distance
from the Earth to the Moon is 4.05 lakh km. The maximum distance between the moon
and the earth is called apogee and the shortest distance between the moon and the earth
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is called perigee.

7.3.1 Partial solar eclipse

When the moon is positioned between the earth and the sun, if only a portion of the sun
is obscured by the moon, then a partial solar eclipse occurs. In this case, the sun appears
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partially obscured by the moon in areas where the eclipse can be observed. During this
eclipse, the penumbra is mainly dominant.

7.3.2 Total solar eclipse

Different types of solor eclipse: a) Partial b) Total c) Annular and d) Hybrid

A total solar eclipse happens when the moon fully obscures the sun during the eclipse.
In this situation, a total solar eclipse can be observed from all the areas where the
shadow falls. During a total solar eclipse, the corona of the sun becomes visible around
the moon and this corona can be seen with the naked eye, which cannot be observed
during any other time. We know that the
moon orbits the earth in an elliptical path.
As a result, sometimes, the moon comes
closer to the earth (perigee) and the moon
appears relatively large. If a solar eclipse
occurs when the moon is in perigee, it is a
total solar eclipse.
The umbra covers only a tiny area and
the earth also rotates on its own axis. As
a result, the umbra is not confined to a
specific place but moves along a line on
the earth's surface (which we may call a
total eclipse line). A total solar eclipse
can be witnessed in all the places where
this line falls on earth's surface. During
Diamond Ring created at the beginning
the very beginning of a total solar eclipse,
when the entire sun gets covered and only and end of a total solar eclipse.
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a small part remains uncovered and after

the end, when a small part comes out after the total cover, the intense light of the sun
is visible in that part and it looks like a diamond ring. This effect is called the diamond
ring.

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 Sun, Earth and Moon

7.3.3 Annular solar eclipse

While traveling in its elliptical path, the moon sometimes is positioned in a way that
it cannot completely cover the sun during a total solar eclipse. In that case, the sun
appears as a golden ring around the moon. This type of ring-shaped solar eclipse is
called an annular solar eclipse.

ୗ Question: Is it ever possible that during a solar eclipse there will be a total
eclipse at some place, a partial eclipse at some place and an annular eclipse at
some place at the same time?

7.3.5 Effects and Importance of Solar Eclipses:

Solar eclipses have temporary effects on the environment. When a total solar eclipse
happens, the Sun gets completely covered for only a few minutes. However, the partial
eclipse can last for a longer time. During the eclipse, animals may get startled by
the sudden darkness. Due to the darkness, birds might stop calling, insects may start
making noise, and plants might begin to droop. In some areas, the air temperature may
also decrease slightly.
But solar eclipses create rare opportunities for solar research. For example, solar
eclipses give the best opportunity to gather information about sun's corona. During
a solar eclipse, we can observe the corona from earth's surface because it lies outside
earth's atmosphere and gets covered by the moon. Additionally, we can study earth's
atmosphere, especially its upper part, during an eclipse. various types of charged
particles are formed in the outer part of the atmosphere due to sun's radiation. It is
crucial to observe this region as it houses many man-made satellites.

7.3.6 Solar eclipse observations and precautions:

It is important to remember that the sun emits many harmful rays that reach the earth.
One of them is ultraviolet rays. Since we can't see ultraviolet rays, we can harm our
eyes looking at them without knowing. Looking directly at the sun can cause permanent
eye damage in a few seconds. The safest way to watch a solar eclipse is by not looking
directly at the sun, but by reflecting its light onto another surface. One easy method to
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observe a solar eclipse is by using a pinhole. A solar eclipse can be seen by cutting a
small hole in a piece of cardboard and reflecting the sunlight onto another screen during
an eclipse.

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7.4 Lunar Eclipse:

Lunar orbit

The Moon

The blue part of the Sun's light is scattered outwards by the Earth's atmosphere, making
the interior light appear reddish. During a total lunar eclipse, the moon appears reddish
in that light.

While orbiting the earth, the moon sometimes gets in such a position where the earth
is in the middle of the moon and the sun. In this case, the sun, the earth and the moon
stay in a straight line. As a result, earth's shadow falls on the moon and a lunar eclipse
occurs. During a lunar eclipse, sometimes earth's penumbra or umbra or sometimes
both fall on the moon.
Lunar eclipses can be of three types: Total lunar eclipse, Partial lunar eclipse and
Penumbral lunar eclipse.
7.4.1 Total lunar eclipse

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Different types of lunar eclipses as seen from the earth: penumbral, partial and total lunar eclipse
respectively. It is noticeable that during a lunar eclipse, the moon looks different from its natural
whitish-grey colour.

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 Sun, Earth and Moon

During a lunar eclipse, the moon stays in the middle of earth's umbra. During this time,
rays of sunlight with relatively short wavelengths (such as, lights of violet, blue, etc
colours) are scattered outwards by earth's atmosphere. On the other hand, the red light
of longer wavelengths is refracted inward and falls on the moon, making the moon look
redder than its normal whitish-grey colour. When a lunar eclipse occurs during a full
moon, it is not observed in every full moon because moon's orbit is inclined by about
50. A lunar eclipse lasts longer than a solar eclipse.

7.4.2 Partial lunar eclipse

During a partial lunar eclipse, the sun, the earth, and the moon are positioned in
a way that some parts of the moon are hidden by earth's penumbra, while other
parts are covered by the umbra. In this case, some parts of the moon are seen to
be covered with dark shadows.
7.4.3 Penumbral lunar eclipse
A penumbral lunar eclipse is observed when the moon moves through earth's penumbra.
As the penumbra is lighter than the umbra, this type of lunar eclipse is not easy to see
unless you observe closely. At this time, the moon appears slightly darker than its
normal colour.

7.5 Analemma
If you ever have noticed the shadow of a building, wall, window, or any other structure
in the same place at the same time regularly, you must have observed that it doesn't
appear in the same spot every year. Its position slowly shifts during different seasons
of the year. This happens because the sun does not stay at the same place in the sky
at the same time every day. On 21 June, the sun is exactly perpendicular to the Tropic
of Cancer, which passes through Bangladesh. This makes the Sun appear directly
overhead, moving from east to west. As time passes, the Sun starts moving towards the
south. After six months, on 22 December, the sun is exactly perpendicular to the Tropic
of Capricorn.
So, we see the sun moving from east to west at its greatest declination. Then, the sun
starts moving back towards the north again, and after another six months, it again
passes directly overhead from east to west.
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If you take a picture of the sun at the exact same point in the sky at the same time each
day and then put all the pictures together after a year, you will see the change in the
position of the sun, as shown in the picture next to it. This periodic positions of the sun
in the sky at different times of the year is called analemma. The analemma shows the
sun's position changes due to earth's elliptical orbit around the sun and the tilt of its axis.
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The shape of the analemma is

similar to the number four in 21 June
Bengali or the number eight in
English.
You might have noticed that
the lower loop of the analemma
is bigger than the upper loop.
If earth's orbit around the
sun were circular rather than
elliptical, then both loops
March 21 September 22
would be equal in size.

Again, if the orbit would be

elliptical but if earth's axis
were upright instead of tilted
at 23.5 degrees, then the
analemma would be a straight
line. If there were a vertical
axis and a circular orbit at the
same time, we would have no
21December
shape of an analemma. Then,
the sun would remain in the
same position at a certain time
throughout the year.
Analemma is obtained by photographing the sun at a specific
Analemma is a fascinating time in the sky at a specific time interval throughout the
subject that astronomers year. Analemma looks like 8. It indicates the position of the
have been studying for sun at a particular time of day throughout the solar year.
hundreds of years. It can
be used to figure out the
latitude, longitude, date and time of a specific location. But that's not all—it's also used
to identify changes in earth's orbit and axial tilt over time.

7.6 Change in Earth's Orbit and Axis:

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The rotation of the earth around its own axis is called the diurnal motion and earth’s
rotation around the sun is called annual motion. The imaginary line along the north and
south poles of the earth is earth’s axis. This axis is inclined at an angle of 23.50 with

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 Sun, Earth and Moon

respect to the plane of earth's orbit. The earth with this tilted axis travels in an elliptical
orbit around the sun. Even though we don't notice any change in this orbit or tilted axis
in our everyday lives, the elliptical orbit and tilted axis of the Earth are actually changing
very slowly. As earth's orbit and tilted axis are responsible for seasonal changes and the
length of daylight hours, subtle changes in orbit and axis have significant effects on
long-term climate and surface of this planet.

7.6.1 Change in orbit:

The Earth goes around the sun in an elliptical orbit. This means earth’s distance from
the sun is not always the same. Sometimes it gets a bit closer to the Sun, and other times
it moves a bit farther away. The point in the orbit at which the earth is closest to the sun
is called Perihelion, and the point at which it is farthest from the Sun is called Aphelion.
Perihelion occurs in early January, when the distance between the sun and the earth is
14.7 crore kilometres and Aphelion occurs in early July, when the distance between the
sun and the earth is 15.2 crore kilometres. When the earth is at perihelion, it gets about
7 percent more solar radiation than at aphelion, even though it's only 3 percent closer
to the Sun. This might seem like a small difference, but it can have a significant impact
on earth's climate.

Day and night is

equal March 21

Longest day in northern

hemisphere June 21

The Sun Perihelion

Aphelion January 3
july 4

Longest day in
southern hemisphere
December 22
Day and night is equal
September 23
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Earth’s closest position to the sun is called Perihelion and the farthest from the
sun is Aphelion

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Although the Earth's orbit is said to be elliptical, it is in fact nearly circular today.
However, the shape of this orbit does not always remain the same. Every 90,000 to
100,000 years, the Earth's orbit changes from a nearly circular shape (i.e. when the
difference in distance from the Sun to the Earth is the smallest in the Perihelion and
Aphelion) to a maximum elliptical shape (i.e. when the difference in the distance
from the Sun to the Earth is the greatest in the Perihelion and Aphelion). During the
highest elliptical orbit, the difference in the amount of solar radiation received by the
earth's Perihelion and Aphelion can be from 20 percent to 30 percent. Therefore, the
difference in the Earth's weather will be highest during these two positions.

7.6.2 Precession
If you have ever watched a spinning top, you may have noticed that it doesn't spin
perfectly straight. It wobbles a bit. Earth's axis is similar to the top's wobbling. Top's
head wobbled around and forms an imaginary circle in the void above its head before
returning to its starting position.

Similarly, earth's axis makes a circle in the celestial sphere and goes back to its original
position every 26,000 years. The point or star along which the North Pole of the earth is
located is called a Pole Star. The Pole Star actually change its position over time due
to the change in earth's
axis. This rotation of Vega Polaris
earth's axis is called the Precession
Precession
‘precession of earth's
axis’. 23.5˚

As the north pole of the

earth presently points
towards the star Polaris,
Polaris is our pole star.
14,000 years from now
it will point towards the
star Vega, which will be
the new pole star.
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Earth's axis rotates once in 26 thousand years. The

axis is currently tilted 23.50 changing between
22.50 and 24.50 every 41 thousand years.

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 Sun, Earth and Moon

7.6.3 Obliquity :
We already know that earth's axis is tilted 23.50 with respect to the plane of its orbit. The
measurement of this tilt with respect to the orbit is called the obliquity of earth's axis.
This tilt of earth's axis also changes very slowly. Currently, the obliquity of the Earth's
axis is 23.5 degrees, but it is slowly decreasing. Over a cycle of approximately 41,000
years, the obliquity of earth's axis varies between 22.1 degrees and 24.5 degrees. The
greater the obliquity, the greater the climatic differences in seasons. This means that
when the obliquity is higher, summers tend to be hotter and winters tend to be colder.

Question: Earth's orbit becoming more elliptical, Earth's axis precession, and
decrease and increase in the Obliquity of Earth's axis, which of these three
changes will affect the climate the most and why?
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CHAPTER EIGHT
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CHEMICAL REACTION
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 Chemical Reaction

CHAPTER
8 CHEMICAL REACTION

This chapter deals with the following topics:

5 Symbol, Formula and Valency
5 Chemical Equations and different types of Chemical Reactions
5 Chemical Change
5 Transformation of Energy in Chemical Reactions
5 Conservation of Mass during Chemical Reactions

Different types of chemical reactions happen around us all the time. Iron rusting,
something burning, or our body digesting foods—all these are chemical reactions.
Scientists create new substances through various types of chemical reactions
in laboratories. These various types of chemical reactions sometimes generate
energy, and at other times, they are used to create new medicines. We will discuss
various topics that help us understand chemical reactions.

8.1 SYMBOL, FORMULA, VALENCY

In the previous grades you’ve already learned that scientists have divided all the
matters on Earth into two main categories. Elements and compounds. Scientists
have discovered 118 elements so far. The elements are generally written as one
or two first letters of their names instead the full names for ease of use. These
abbreviated form of their English or Latin names are called Symbols. Some
examples are: H for Hydrogen, O for Oxygen etc.
Some elements and compounds are also represented by their Formulas. Formulas
tell us how many atoms are there in its molecule. For example, H2 is the formula
for Hydrogen molecule (Hydrogen contains two atoms in its molecule), HCl is the
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formula for Hydrogen Chloride molecule (there is one Hydrogen atom and one
Chlorine atom in the Hydrogen Chloride molecule).
To know the formula of a compound, we need to know about its valency. Elements
chemically bond with each other to form compounds and valency tells us how
one elements bonds with another. Think of the valency of elements as their hands. The

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valency is the number of hands an

element has. For example, Hydrogen and Chlorine both have a valency of 1, so we
can think of them as elements with one hand. That means, one hand of Hydrogen atom
holds one hand of Chlorine atom. So the formula of Hydrogen Chloride is HCl. Valency
of Oxygen is 2, which we can imagine as an Oxygen atom with two hands. It can hold
two Hydrogen of valency one or one hand. That is why the formula of water is H2O.
Hydrogen Chloride and water molecules are shown below:

H-Cl H-O-H
(Hydrogen Chloride) (Water)

The above examples show that the valency of an atom is the number of Hydrogen
atoms it can hold. It should be noted that when a compound is formed, all the valencies
should be used up.

ੌ Do it yourself:
Valency of Nitrogen is 3 and Carbon is 4. Can you write the formula for
Ammonia from the valencies of Nitrogen and Hydrogen? Similarly, can you
write the formula for Methane from the valencies of Carbon and Hydrogen?

Note that some elements can have more than one valency. For example, valency of
Sulphur is both 2 and 4, and Iron is both 2 and 3. The following table shows some
elements with their symbols and valencies:

Table: Name of Elements, their Symbols and Valency

Element Symbol Valency Element Symbol Valency

Hydrogen H 1 Oxygen O 2
Chlorine Cl 1 Nitrogen N 3
Sodium Na 1 Aluminium Al 3
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Magnesium Mg 2 Iron Fe 2, 3
Sulphur S 2, 4 Carbon C 4

A bundle of atoms instead of single atoms takes part to form compounds. They cannot
stay as separate atoms. These bundle of atoms with charge are called Radicals. For
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 Chemical Reaction

example: SO42-, CO32-, NO3-, NH4+. Some examples of Radicals are: Nitrate (NO3-)
and (Ammonium) NH4+ both with valency 1, Valency of Carbonate (CO32-) is 2 and
Phosphate (PO43-) is 3.

8.1.1 RULES OF WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULA USING VALENCY

1. Molecular formulas give an idea about the number of atoms present in a compound.
Firstly, the elements are represented by their individual Symbols. If the elements or
radicals present in the compound have the same valency, then we don’t need to write
the valency in the formula. We just write the symbols of the elements together side by
side. For example: CaO (Calcium Oxide), NH4Cl (Ammonium Chloride) etc.
2. If the valencies of the two elements are divisible by a common number, then reduce
their valencies finding the ratio. Then, the symbols of both the elements are written
side and each is followed by the reduced valency of the other element. For example: in
Carbon Dioxide, the valencies of Carbon (C) and Oxygen (O) are 4 and 2 respectively.
Therefore, the formula for Carbon Dioxide is C2O4, but we divide both the valencies
with 2 and write it as CO2.
3. If the valencies of the containing elements or radicals are not divisible by a common
number, for example if the valency of A is x and valency of B is y, and x and y are not
divisible by a common number, then the formula of the compound formed by A and
B will be AyBx. That means, the valency of B will be written as subscript on the right
side of A and valency of A will be written next to B in the same way. For example—in
Aluminium Oxide, the valencies of Aluminium and Oxygen are respectively 3 and 2,
so the formula for this compound is Al2O3.

8.2 CHEMICAL EQUATION

During a chemical reaction, the bonds between the reactant molecules break down
and form new bonds to create new matters. When we describe a chemical reaction,
we use chemical equations to represent it.

A chemical reaction can be divided into two parts. One part contains the reactants
and the other contains the new formed products. When writing a chemical equation,
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reactants are written on the left hand side of the chemical equation and the products
formed during the chemical reaction is written on the right hand side. A one-way or
two-way arrow is put in the middle to connect the reactants and the products sides.
Following is an example:

A+B C+D
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Here, A and B are the reactants which undergoes chemical reaction to form
products C and D. In a true chemical equation, the reactants and products are
represented by their chemical formulas. Example:

S + O2 SO2
(Sulphur) (Oxygen) (Sulphur Dioxide)

No atom is destroyed or created in a chemical reaction, they are only rearranged.

Therefore, the total number of atoms in the reactants before the chemical reaction
is equal to the total number of atoms in the products formed after the chemical
reaction. So, to summarize from the above discussions, chemical equation is
the method of representing a chemical reaction in a short form by writing the
reactants taking part in a chemical reaction and the products formed after it by
using their symbols, formulas and certain mathematical notations. For example

Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
(Zinc) (Sulphuric Acid) (Zinc Sulphate) (Hydrogen)

8.2.1 RULES OF WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

The rules of writing a chemical equation is described below:

1. The reactants are denoted by their chemical symbols or formulas and written on the
left hand side of the arrow ( ). Note that an arrow notation separates the reactants
from the products. The new formed substances are also denoted by their symbols and
formulas and written on the right hand side of the arrow.

2. If there are more than one reactants and products, an addition sign (+) is put between
them.

3. Chemical equations also use equal sign (=) instead of arrow ( ), but it is only used
when the equation is balanced on both sides with regard to the number of molecules.
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BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Balancing chemical equations means ensuring that the number of atoms in the reactants
before the chemical reaction and the number of atoms in the products after the reactions
is equal. Therefore, to balance the equation, we need to multiply the molecules on both
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sides (reactants and products) of the equation to make sure the number of atoms of each
element is the same on both sides.
For example, in the reaction between hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) to produce water
(H2O), we can write the chemical equation according to the rules of chemical equations
as follows:

H2 + O2 H2O

Notice here that the number of H and O atoms should have been equal before and after
the reaction, which is not the case above. That is why, to balance the number of atoms,
the number of H2, O2, H2O molecules will be as follows:

2H2 + O2 = 2H2O

In the above equation, the total number of Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms before
and after the reaction is equal, that is, the equation is balanced.

8.3 CHEMICAL REACTION & CHEMICAL CHANGE

Chemical change refers to the process in which one or more substances undergo a
chemical reaction to form new one or more substances. During a chemical change, the
atoms and molecules of reactants rearrange themselves to produce new substances.
Chemical changes often involve the exchange of energy; sometimes heat is released,
and sometimes it is absorbed, resulting in a change in the temperature of the reactants
and products. The properties of the reactants and products in a chemical change are
usually different, and these changes are generally irreversible.

Chemical reactions can take various forms, such as, addition, combustion, substitution,
and decomposition reactions.

8.3.1 Addition reaction

The chemical reaction where two or more reactants take part to create one product is
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called Addition reaction. The following example will give you an idea about Addition
reactions.

In a laboratory under a controlled environment, when iron filings and sulfur powder
are mixed together in a test tube and heated, two reactants (iron and sulfur)

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combine to form the product Ferrous Sulfide. The substance obtained from the
test tube is of a deep grayish color, and no trace of either yellow sulfur or iron
filings is visible. This is because iron and sulfur have combined to produce an
entirely different substance, Ferrous Sulfide (FeS).

Fe + S FeS
(Iron) (Sulphur) (Ferrous Sulphide)

These type of chemical reactions where more than one substance react together
to create one new product, are called Addition reactions. Let us look at another
example. Zinc (Zn) and Sulphur (S) react together to produce Zinc Sulphide (ZnS).
This is also an Addition reaction.

Zn + S ZnS
(Zinc) (Sulphur) (Zinc Sulphide)

Both of the above Addition reactions show the production of a compound from more
than one reactant elements. However, compounds can also act as reactants to undergo
Addition reactions and produce a completely new compound. For example, Ammonia
(NH3) combine with Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) to produce Ammonium Chloride
(NH4Cl). The reaction is shown below:

NH3 + HCl NH4Cl

(Ammonia) (Hydrogen Chloride) (Ammonium Chloride)

8.3.2 combustion reaction

The reactions where any substance react with Oxygen to produce light and heat are called
Combustion reactions. The presence of Oxygen is required for it to be a Combustion
reaction and Oxygen acts as a reactant. We all have seen various Combustion reactions
around us. Some examples of combustion reactions are lighting or burning of candles,
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gas burning in stove, burning of petrol in the engines of vehicles, etc.

Instead of candles, if you ever heat Sulphur, you’ll see that first it melts; then we can
see blue flames. When Sulphur (S) is heated, it reacts with the Oxygen (O2) of the air
to produce Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) gas.

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 Chemical Reaction

S + O2 SO2
(Sulphur) (Oxygen) (Sulphur Dioxide)

Since Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) gas is poisonous, this reaction is should never be done
without a proper and safe laboratory condition.

8.3.3substitution reaction
The reactions where an element displaces another element from a compound and takes
its place to produce a new compound are called Substitution reactions. The following
simple but interesting experiment will help you understand Substitution reactions
more clearly. To conduct this experiment, you will only need a little bit of copper
sulfate (CuSO4) to add to the
other materials easily available
around you.
Fe
First, take a glass container
and fill it with a small amount
of water. Stir the water well CuSO4 Substitution Reaction
and add the copper sulphate. Cu
Stir until you create a nice blue FeSO4
solution. Now, take a clean
piece of iron (or iron nail) and
carefully place it in the solution. Demonstration of the substitution of Iron by Copper
You will observe a change in
color at the submerged part,
resembling the formation of rust. However, it is not rust; it is copper from the copper
sulfate displacing the iron (Fe) from the iron piece due to its higher reactivity.

Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
(Iron) (Copper Sulphate) (Ferrous Sulphate) (Copper)
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Since this reaction occurs slowly, if you wait for a few hours and occasionally shake the
glass container to displace the rust forming on the iron nail, you will notice that copper
(Cu) begins to accumulate at the bottom. That's not all; you will see that the blue copper
sulfate (CuSO4) solution has turned into a light green ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) solution.

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You can also use Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4) or Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4) in place
of Copper Sulphate to do this experiment to demonstrate Substitution reactions.

8.3.4 decomposition reaction

Decomposition reaction is the opposite of Addition reaction. The reactions where a
reactant breaks into one or more product elements or molecules are called Decomposition
reactions. Following is a general example:

AB A+B

Here, AB is a reactant. AB breaks into two products A and B. To understand

Decomposition reactions more clearly, study the following experiment.

In a safe laboratory environment, if we heat a small piece of Limestone (CaCO3) or

calcium carbonate in a test tube, we will observe that calcium carbonate breaks down
or decomposes to form Calcium Oxide (CaO) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) gas. The
reaction is shown below:

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

(Calcium Carbonate) (Calcium Oxide) (Carbon Dioxide)
You can test whether the produced gas is Carbon Dioxide or not. If you collect the
produced gas and pass it through clear lime water, you will observe that the lime water
becomes cloudy. The clear lime water is Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), and it reacts
with Carbon Dioxide (CO2) to produce insoluble Calcium Carbonate, which is why the
lime water turns milky white.

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H2O

(Carbon Dioxide) (Calcium Hydroxide) (Calcium Carbonate) (Water)
So, we essentially get back the Calcium Carbonate that we initially decomposed!

8.4 TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

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There are different forms of energy, such as thermal energy, light energy, mechanical
energy, potential energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, sound energy, and so on.
You have learned that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transformed
from one form of energy to another. Here are some examples of transformation of
energy through chemical reactions:
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 Chemical Reaction

Thermal Energy:
We most often observe energy transformation around us in the form of thermal energy
through chemical reactions. Any combustion process is an example of this. For instance,
when we light a candle or use a stove, heat energy is generated through a chemical
reaction. Even in our bodies, heat energy is produced through chemical reactions, such
as digestion and metabolism. In the case of baking soda and lemon juice, a chemical
reaction takes place that absorbs heat, causing the mixture's temperature to decrease.

Light Energy:
Light energy is generated from thermal energy through chemical reactions. For
example, in the flame of a candle, chemical reactions produce thermal energy, which
then converts into light energy. But chemical reactions can also generate light energy
without generating any thermal energy. The well-known example for this is fireflies,
where luciferin, a chemical substance in their bodies, reacts with oxygen to produce
light.

Electrical Energy:
We obtain electrical energy from chemical reactions in batteries. The combination of
zinc, ammonium chloride, and manganese dioxide in dry cells creates electrical energy.
In rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, the opposite reaction occurs when electricity is
supplied to reverse the chemical reaction, storing electrical energy for later use.

Sound Energy:
We can make loud sounds by burning firecrackers or fireworks. Sound is produced
here due to the rapid chemical reactions during the explosions that lead to the rapid
expansion of gases, creating sound waves.

Chemical Potential Energy:

Chemical bonds store energy, and this energy can be released when these bonds break.
One example is the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecule in living organisms, which
stores energy and is known as the biological currency of energy.
From the above discussion, you can see that chemical energy can be transformed into
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various forms of energy, which we utilize in various fields of our lives, starting from
industrial processes to everyday applications.
To give an example, the transformation of chemical energy into electrical energy using
dry cells is discussed below.

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8.4.1 electrolyte and electrolysis

Before we learn about dry cells, we have to have a basic idea about Electrolytes and
Electrolysis. The substances that conduct electricity in their melted or solution state
while simultaneously undergoes chemical reaction to transform into other substances
are called Electrolyte and this process is called Electrolysis.
In the process of electrolysis, an electric current is used to break down ionic compounds
into their constituent ions. As shown in the diagram, two electrodes are immersed in
an electrolyte solution. When a DC electric current flows between the electrodes, the
cations of the electrolyte migrate to the cathode, while the anions migrate to the anode.
By adding a small amount of acid or salt to pure water and passing an electric current
through it, we can perform electrolysis to separate hydrogen and oxygen. When sodium
chloride solution is subjected to electrolysis, it is possible to obtain sodium metal and
chlorine gas from it.

Dry cell
All of you have used batteries at some point, whether it's in a flashlight, a toy, a remote
control, or elsewhere. In these batteries, there are dry cells consisting of an anode, a
cathode, and an electrolyte in between. The anode functions as a zinc metal casing,
and the cathode is surrounded by a paste of manganese dioxide. Ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl) serves as the electrolyte in the middle of the anode and cathode. Ammonium
chloride acts as an ionic conductor since it contains negatively charged ions (Cl-) and
positively charged ions (Zn2+, NH4+).

Function of the dry cell:

In Dry Cells, a chemical reaction DC Electricity
occurs between ammonium
chloride, zinc, and manganese
dioxide. As a result, there is a
Cathode Anode
voltage difference of 1.5 volts
between the two ends of the cell.
Cation
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This voltage can be used to power Anion

an electrical circuit when connected
at both ends. Electrolyte
The cell described above is also
known as a zinc-carbon cell.
It's worth noting that instead of The Process of Electrloysis
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 Chemical Reaction

ammonium chloride, if potassium hydroxide Positive End

(KOH) is used as the electrolyte, then this cell
is referred to as an alkaline cell. Alkaline cells,
which often use a zinc-carbon cell like this one, Zinc Anode
are much more effective. NH4Cl Electrolyte

8.5 CONSERVATION OF MASS

MnO2
DURING CHEMICAL REACTIONS
No atom is created or destroyed during a Graphite Cathode

chemical reaction. The atoms in the reactants

only rearrange themselves to form new Insulator
products. Therefore, in a closed condition Negative End
where nothing can get in or out, there is no
change in total mass of the atoms before and Figure: Dry Cell
after a chemical reaction. This is known as the
Law of conservation of mass.
Since no mass is created or destroyed during a chemical reaction, so the sum total of
the mass of the reactants before the reaction and that of the products after it remains
unchanged. Look at the following reaction for example:

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

100 g 56 g + 44g
Here, the sum total of the mass of the reactants (100 g) = the sum total of the mass of
the products [(56 + 44) g = 100 g]. There, there have been no change of mass during
the above reaction.
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Chapter 9
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Acid, Base and Salt

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 Acid, Base and Salt

Chapter
9
Acid, Base and Salt

This chapter deals with the following topics:

5 Acid, base, and indicator
5 Reactions of acid and base, salt
5 Important properties of acid and base
5 Uses of acid and base
5 Identification of acid and base

Acid, base, and salt are important things we use in our daily life. Some of these acid,
base, and salt can be found naturally. For instance, lemon juice and oranges have citric
acid, tamarind has tartaric acid, and milk has malic acid. Similarly, limewater is a type
of base. Sea water has sodium chloride, which is purified and used as regular table salt.
These acid, base, and salt have different chemical properties. That's why they are used
differently based on their characteristics or properties.

9.1 Acid
You must have heard the name acid. Acid is a substance whose aqueous solution tastes
sour, can make blue litmus paper turn red,
and can neutralize bases. Litmus paper is
a special kind of paper that is made by
mixing dyes from a plant called lichen.
Litmus papers are used to test whether
a solution is acidic or basic. Acidic
solutions make blue litmus paper turn red
and basic solutions turn red litmus paper
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blue.Lemon juice has citric acid in it. If

Acid Base
you have a red and a blue.litmus paper,
(Blue litmus paper (Red litmus paper
then you can see that no chemical reaction has turned red) has turned blue)
will take place if the red litmus paper is
Fig.: Change of the colour of a litmus paper in
dipped into the lemon juice. As a result, acidic or basic

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the colour of the paper will not change. On the other hand, when the blue litmus paper
is dipped into the lemon juice, the citric acid in the lemon juice reacts with it and turns
the paper red. You already know that acidic solutions make blue litmus paper turn red.
Just like lemon juice, other fruits like amla, carissa carandas, star fruit, lime (lemon),
etc. have a sour taste because they also contain various types of acids. Now you can
try using litmus papers with these fruits, such as amla or guava, instead of lemon juice,
and observe how the paper's colour Names and formulae of some acids
changes.
Name of acid Formula
The table beside shows the formulae
of some acids along with their names. Vinegar or acetic acid CH3COOH
You will get a similarity among all the Oxalic acid HCOO-COOH
acids mentioned in the table- all these
acids have one or more hydrogen atom Sulphuric acid H2SO4
(H) and each of them can produce
Nitric acid HNO3
hydrogen ion (H+) in water (H2O).
Therefore, we can say, acid is such a Hydrochloric acid HCl
chemical substance which contains
one or more hydrogen atoms and they
produce hydrogen ion (H+) in water.
As an example, you may observe the two chemical formulae of Hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and aceticacid (CH3COOH) in water (H2O).

H2O
HCl H+ + Cl-
CH3COOH H2O H+ + CH3COO-

These two acids in contact with water produce hydrogen ion. However, if there is a
hydrogen atom in the substance, it will necessarily not an acid. You must have heard
the name of methane gas. In our country, all the natural gas we have is methane. Its
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symbol is CH4. methane has four hydrogen atoms but it is not an acid. Because it
doesn't produce a hydrogen ion (H+) in water.

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 Acid, Base and Salt

9.2 Base
Base is a substance whose aqueous solution has a bitter taste, turns red litmus paper
blue, and can neutralize acids.
Limewater is a type of base, which contains hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). If you have a red and
a blue litmus paper, then you can do an experiment. If you dip the blue litmus paper into
the lime water, no chemical reaction will take place. As a result, the colour of the paper
will not change. On the other hand, if the red litmus paper is dipped into the limewater,
the calcium hydroxide in the limewater reacts with it and turns the paper blue.
Here, chemicals such as calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in limewater that turn red litmus
paper blue are also sometimes called alkalis. There are some alkalis that can dissolve
in water (such as, NaOH, NH4OH, Ca(OH)2). Again there are some alkalis that cannot
dissolve in water (such as, aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3). The alkalis that do not
dissolve in water are called bases. Therefore, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), aluminium
hydroxide (Al(OH)3) are alkali-like bases. On the other hand, aluminium hydroxide
(Al(OH)3) is an alkali. But since it does not dissolve in water, it is not a base though
it is an alkali. Therefore, it can be said that “all bases are alkalis but not all alkalis are
bases”.
Alkalis are chemicals that contain oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H) atoms. They can form
hydroxyl ions (OH-) in water. Example:

H2O
NaOH Na+ + OH-
NH4OH H2O NH4+ + OH-

Ca(OH)2 H2O Ca2+ + 2OH-

Here, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) and calcium

hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) contain oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H) atoms and they have
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formed hydroxyl ions (OH-) in water (H2O). Therefore, they are alkalis.

However, there are some other chemical substances like calcium oxide (CaO) or
ammonia (NH3) that don't contain oxygen and hydrogen atoms. But they can still
produce OH- ions in water. That's why they are also called alkalis. Two reactions of
calcium oxide (CaO) and ammonia (NH3) in water are shown:
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 Science

CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2

NH3 + H2O NH4OH
You all know that soap feels slippery to the touch. This is because soap contains base.
So, a characteristic of both base and alkaline is that they are slippery and they also have
a bitter taste.
Caution: When discussing the characteristics of acids and alkalis, their sour and bitter
tastes are mentioned, respectively. But never try to test the taste of any acid or base
other than familiar fruits such as oranges or lemons.

9.3 salt
Whenever we talk about salt, we refer to sodium chloride (NaCl) or the salt that we
use in our food. But the word salt is used more widely in science. Salt is an ionic
compound where a positively charged ion (cation) and a negatively charged ion (anion)
are connected. Because of the neutralisation reaction among different types of acids
and bases, different types of salts and water are produced at the same time. So, salt is a
neutral substance whose aqueous solution does not change the colour of a litmus paper.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an example of the commonest salt. Besides being used in
food, salt is used for various purposes in our daily life. You might know that sea water
also contains a lot of sodium chloride (NaCl) and that’s why the sea water has a salty
taste.

Following reaction between acid and base shows the formation of salt:

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

(acid) + (base) (salt) + (water)

9.4 Use of acid and alkali

We use acid and substances like base or alkali for some important purposes in our daily
life. Uses of these substances are discussed below:
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9.4.1 Use of acid

1) Vinegar or acetic acid is used to preserve food. Acetic acid is used as a solvent for
ink and dye.

2) Acids found in fruits or vegetables are called organic acids. For example, citric acid
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 Acid, Base and Salt

is found in lemons, oranges and other citrus fruits. In food industries, citric acid is used
to increase the taste of certain food items like carbonated drinks. Citric acid is also
used to kill harmful germs. Some of the organic acids are essential for human body.
For example, ascorbic acid, which we call Vitamin C. Deficiency of Vitamin C causes
scurvy in human body.
3) We use different kinds of acids in our First aid for acid accident:
everyday life and industries. The cleaning
products we use to clean toilets contain acids. If our skin ever comes into contact with
Goldsmiths use nitric acid (HNO3) in making acid, we have to immediately clear all
gold jewellery. Besides, nitric acid is used as the acids with a continuous flow of
the main component in making fertilizer by water on the affected area for at least
producing ammonium nitrate. HNO3 is used 20 minutes. If our cloths come into
to extract valuable metals like gold from contact with acid, the clothes should
mines and is even used in rocket fuel. be removed from the body without
directly touching them. Since acid
Besides nitric acid, another commonly used can cause severe burns, the affected
acid is sulfuric acid (H2SO4). For example, person should immediately be taken
batteries used in IPS, cars, solar power to hospital for proper treatment. We
generation etc. contain H2SO4. In addition, all should always be aware of the use
significant quantities of sulfuric acid are also of acid and make others ware of it.
used in manufacturing detergents, different
dyes, pesticides, paper, and explosives. The amount of sulfuric acid a country uses is
often an indicator of how industrialized that country is.
4) Our stomach needs acid to digest the food we eat, and this is done by hydrochloric
acid (HCl). Besides, HCl is also used in steelmaking industries, medicine and leather
industry. Moreover, phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a main component in many soft drinks.
Some acids are made from various minerals found in nature. They are called mineral
acids. Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, etc. are examples
of mineral acids. These acids are not suitable for consumption and can be harmful to
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human bodies. If these acids come in contact with our skin, they can cause serious
damage to the skin.

9.4.2 Use of base or alkali

1) We are familiar with bleaching powder. This widely used powder is made through

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 Science
the reaction of dry calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) and chlorine gas (Cl2). You know
that this calcium hydroxide is a base or alkali. Additionally, a light solution of calcium
hydroxide, known as lime water, is used for whitewash purposes.
Furthermore, a paste made of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) and water, called milk of
lime, is used to control insects.
2) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used in soap and paper production. It is also used in
the production of rayon.
3) When we experience acidity in our stomach, we take a type of medicine called
antacid. What exactly is this antacid? Antacid is basically magnesium hydroxide
(Mg(OH)2) which is available in both suspension and tablet forms. The suspension of
magnesium hydroxide is known as milk of magnesia. Sometimes, antacid may also
contain aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3).
4) Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) is an essential reagent in the laboratory.

9.5 Some important chemical properties of acids and bases

Some properties of acid and base are presented througt chemical reaction:

9.5.1 Reaction of acid with metal:

Metals such as zinc (Zn) react with sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and produce salts and hydrogen
gas (H2). The reaction is as follows:

Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2

Almost all acids, like sulfuric acid, react with metals and produce hydrogen gas.
Another reaction between metal and acid is shown below:

Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2

9.5.2 Reaction of base with acid:

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H2SO4 is an acid and Ca(OH)2 is a base. These two react and produce calcium sulphate
(CaSO4) and water. The reaction is shown below:

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 Acid, Base and Salt

Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2O

(base ) + (acid) (salt) + (water)

The CaSO4 produced here is a salt. So, it can be said that salt is the main element
produced in the reaction of acid and base. Another reaction of acid and base is given
below:

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

(base ) + (acid) (salt) + (water)

9.5.3 Reaction of acid with carbonate:

Almost all acids react with carbonates and produce CO2 gas. The reaction of hydrochloric
acid (HCl) with limestone (CaCO3) is shown below:

CaCO3 + HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

CO2 produced by utilizing this property of acids is sometimes used to extinguish fire.
The reaction of baking soda (NaHCO3) and HCl is shown below.

NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2

ੌ Do by yourself: Many of the above reactions are shown without equalization.

Can you equalize them?
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Chapter 10
Animal Classification System

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 Animal Classification System

Chapter
10
Animal Classification System

This chapter deals with the following topics:

5 Classification of Animal World :
5 The basis of the classification of plant kingdom
5 The basis of animal classification
5 Taxonomic characteristics of animals for identification and their examples
5 Insects
5 Mammals
5 Human’s position in the animal world

10.1 Classification of Organisms:

From the very birth of the Earth, there has been diversity in the biosphere or the living
world. At present, there are approximately 87 lakh species of organisms living in the
world. Not only that, new organisms are also being discovered almost every day. The
diversity of the biosphere is due to the different characteristics of the various types of
organisms. All organisms depend on each other for their survival, so the contribution
of this living world to maintain the balance of the environment is immense. These
organisms have a variety of differences, their structures are different, their habitats are
different, some are beneficial and some are harmful. Therefore, it is necessary to have
a comprehensive idea about the classification of organisms in the biosphere.

Scientists have been trying to classify this vast number of organisms for hundreds
of years. With the help of classification, all the species of the world can be known
easily in a scientific way, with less effort in less time. Classification is essential for
identifying new species. Not only that, it provides various information and data on the
inter-relationships among different organisms, and gives the idea about the gradual
changes that have occurred or are occurring among them.
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Once upon a time, it was believed that the living organisms on Earth are divided
into two kingdoms: plants and animals. However, with the scientific advancements,
scientists gradually realized that this classification of living organisms into just plants

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and animals was not sufficient. For example, fungi are quite different from plants.
They do not have chlorophyll and cannot produce their own food like plants. So, fungi
are included in a separate
kingdom. The discovery of Domain: Eukaryote
the microscope led to the
identification of a vast world
of microorganisms, and Animalia
scientists could learn about the Plantae Fungi
structure of cells. Therefore, a
separate kingdom is required
for unicellular or single-
celled organisms. But even
among unicellular organisms, Protista
there are two clear divisions
based on the structure of the Eubacteria Archaebacteria
cell: prokaryote (unorganized
nucleus in the cell) and
Domain: Bacteria Domain: Archae
eukaryote (organized nucleus
in the cell). Therefore, two Classification of organisms into kingdoms and domains
different kingdoms are
classified: Monera for prokaryote unicellular organisms and Protista for eukaryote
unicellular organisms. With further advancements in science, scientists discovered that
there are two distinct divisions called Archaebacteria and Eubacteria among prokaryote
unicellular animals of the Monera kingdom, and they cannot be included in one
kingdom. Consequently, at present, instead of Monera, Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
are referred to as the two kingdoms. Therefore, if the living world is divided into six
kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi, Protista, eubacteria and archaebacteria, it is possible
to classify all organisms into specific categories.
The following characteristics are considered for the classification of living organisms.

1) Number of cells (unicellular or multicellular)

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2) Type of cells (prokaryotic or eukaryotic)

3) Type of nutrition (autotrophic or heterotrophic)

At the same time, genetics continued progressing and organisms are divided into

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 Animal Classification System

three domains: Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea, in a completely different way from the
genetic structure of organisms. The related picture shows how the six kingdoms have
evolved into three domains.
A brief description of important characteristics the six kingdoms is presented below.
It is worth mentioning that the living world is so diverse that many exceptions can be
found among the characteristics mentioned above. For example, there are mammals
called platypus that lay eggs, ghost plants that have no chloroplasts, protists called kelp
that cover large areas, sea slugs that can photosynthesize, etc.

Animal:
This is the largest kingdom, with about 1 million species. They are multicellular,
eukaryotic, motile, heterotrophic or parasitic, and reproduce sexually, contributing to
population growth.

Plant:
There are about 2.5 lakh species of plants. They are also multicellular, eukaryotic,
and autotrophic. Plant cells have chloroplasts and synthesize their own food through
photosynthesis, and provide food for other animals in the biosphere. Apart from that,
plants create oxygen and keep the biosphere alive.

Fungi:
There are about 1.5 lakh species of fungi. They are generally multicellular, eukaryotic,
and heterotrophic or parasitic organisms. They create nutrient-rich food from perishable
organic matter and play a vital role in maintaining the ecosystem.

Protista:
Most Protistans are unicellular, eukaryotic, and heterotrophic. Protistans can resemble
animals, plants, or fungi in some aspects.

Eubacteria:
Eubacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular, and heterotrophic (parasitic). They reproduce
through binary fission or amitosis, an asexual process. They can infect humans.

Archaebacteria:
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Archaebacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular, and ancient bacteria. Archaebacteria have

been found in adverse environments such as hot springs, deep-sea hydrothermal vents,
and hypersaline places. They cannot infect humans. Because they are much different
from bacteria, they are often simply called Archaea.
You all know that there is another large world of acellular (noncellular) microorganisms
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in addition to the six kingdoms mentioned above. An example of such microorganism,

which is outside the living world, and between living and non-living matter, is the virus.
In the previous class, you learnt in detail about bacteria, fungi, and Protista. In this
chapter you will learn about the plant and animal kingdoms.

10.2 The Basis of the Classification of Plant Kingdom

An attempt has been made to classify the plant kingdom based on various characteristics
of plants. For example, various species of plants are seen around us, whose life span
is one year. Again, perennial plants are also seen alongside. Some plants bear flowers,
while many are flowerless. Again, there is a lot of variation in shape and size. There are
various types of plants based on food preparation and food intake. For this reason, two
English botanists named George Bentham (1800-1884) and Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker
(1817-1911) proposed a classification system based on different characteristics of
plants. This natural system of classification of plants was first published in their book
Genera Plantarum written in Latin and published in three volumes. The classification
of plants proposed by Bentham and Hooker is described here. They have divided the
entire plant kingdom into two sub-kingdoms namely Cryptogamiae or non-flowering
plants and Phanerogamae or flowering plants.

10.2.1 Cryptogamae
Plants that never produce
flowers are known as Classification of plants
non-flowering plants
or Cryptogamae. They
reproduce by spores. Cryptogamae Phanerogamae
Non-flowering plants are
again divided into three Thalllophyta
groups in the natural Gymnosperme Angiosperme
system of classification:
Bryophyta
Monocotyledons
1) Thallophyta
2) Bryophyta Pteridophyta
Dicotyledons
3) Ptreidophyta
1। Thallophyta:
Polypetalae
All plants whose body
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cannot be divided into

Gamopetalae
roots, stems, and leaves
are included in this
Monochlamydae
category. They do not
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have a vascular system. The reproductive organs are usually unicellular. There are
about 1 lakh 10 thousand species of Thallophyta.
Fruit

Seed

Seed
Gymnospermae and Angiospermae

2। Bryophyta: Plants in this order have soft stems and leaves. Instead of roots, their
bodies have filaments like rhizoids, through which they absorb essential water and
mineral salts from the soil. No vascular system is seen in their body. There are about
23,000 species of Bryophyta
3। Pteridophyte: The body of pteridophytes can be divided into roots, stems and leaves.
There is a vascular system in their body. The total number of pteridophytes is ten
thousand.

10.2.2 Phanerogamae
Plants that produce flowers (and seeds) are included in this sub-kingdom. They
reproduce through seeds. Pine, mango, java plum, jackfruit etc. are examples of seed
plants. This sub-kingdom is divided into two categories:

Polypetalae, Gamopetalae, Monochlamydae

1) Gymnospermae
2) Angiospermae
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1) Gymnospermae : The plants of this category do not have ovary in its gynoecium. So,
they do not produce fruits. Since they do not have ovary, their seeds remain naked. That
is why, they are called gymnosperms. Cycas, Pinus etc. are examples of Gymnospermae.

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2) Angiospermae: These plants have ovary in their flowers, so they produce fruits, and
the seeds are enclosed within the fruits. Angiosperms can be divided into two classes
based on the number of cotyledons in the seed:
a) Monocotyledons
b) Dicotyledons
a) Monocotyledons: Plants that have only one cotyledon are called monocotyledons. Their
leaves have parallel venation and the roots are clustered. The vascular tissues in the stem
are sparsely arranged without cambium. The number of species of monocotyledonous
plants is more than 18000. Rice, wheat, banana, taro, coconut etc. are some examples
of monocotyledons.
b) Dicotyledons:Plants that have two cotyledons in their seeds are dicotyledons. The
leaves of dicotyledonous plants are usually reticulate venation, and the root form the
main root system. The trunk of these plants consists of bundles of vascular tissue with
cambium and arranged in circular
form. Examples of dicotyledonous
plants are jackfruit, litchi, rye
mustard, dhutura etc. The number
of species of dicotyledonous plants
is about 80 thousand. Based on the
presence, absence and attachment
of petals, this category is divided Asymmetric sponge, bilaterally symmetrical fly, and
into three subcategories- starfish with asymmetric symmetry.
a) Polypetalae
b) Gamopetalae
c) Monochlamydae
a) Polypetalae: The flower petals of such plants are separate, or not connected. For
example: mustard.
b) Gamopetalae: Such plants have flower petals joined together, such as dhutura.
c) Monochlamydae: All these plants do not have petals in their flowers. For example:
jackfruit.
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It is to be noted here that with the advancement of modern science and a clearer
understanding of the biochemical composition of plants, the work of classifying new
types of plants in combination with genetics and evolution has begun.

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10.3 Basis of Animal Classification

Animals belongs to a large kingdom, and we try to divide them into different phyla
based on various characteristics. Over billions of years, the characteristics of Earth’s
fauna have evolved in many ways.Over time, new traits have emerged, and these
animals have adapted themselves in different ways to adapt to different environments.
As a result, the incredibly diverse fauna we see today is extremely difficult to divide
into a handful of phyla. For this reason, there is disagreement among scientists in
many areas about the classification of animals.
The Swedish scientist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1798) was the first to classify animals
in a scientific and systematic way. He first introduced binomial nomenclature in the
tenth edition of his book ‘Systema Naturae’. Hence, he is called the father of taxonomy
despite many changes in the taxonomic system or classification system later on.
All the animals identified so far in the world have been divided into nine major phyla
based on some very specific characteristics. The characteristics based on which animals
are classified are called taxonomic characteristics. First let’s know a little about these
features.
Some of the major taxonomic characteristics are explained below:
1. Cell Arrangement
According to the structure of different animals, they can be distinguished. By observing
the structure of relatively primitive and simple multicellular organisms, such as sponges,
we can see that their physiological functions are carried out at the cellular level. This
means that cells are unorganized and perform their work separately. On the contrary,
in the case of more complex animals, such as jellyfish, cells join together as tissues
and participate in various physiological functions. In more complex animals, multiple
tissues combine to form organs to perform specific tasks. In the case of humans or other
vertebrates, these tissues are not only coordinated to form organs, but multiple organs
are combined together to form a single system. This again performs a specific function
in an orderly manner.

2. Body Symmetry
Based on body symmetry, animals can be distinguished. Some animals are totally
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asymmetric, such as sponge. It is not possible to divide their body into multiple
identical parts. Again, it is possible to divide a cockroach, a bird or a human being into
two exactly the same longitudinal shape. These animals are bilaterally symmetrical.
Moreover, there are several animals such as starfish, jellyfish etc. whose bodies can be

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divided into four, five or more identical parts. Their symmetry type is radial symmetry.

3. Body Cavity or Coelom

It is very important whether or not there is a body cavity made up of special parts in
the animal body, and if so, how it is structured. Based on this, different animals are
classified. This special body cavity has many roles in the animal body. In these cavities
or coeloms, according to the type of work, various internal organs of the body (especially
the organs of the digestive system) are grouped together. As a result, these organs are
able to function in a coordinated way. Since the organs are immersed in a kind of liquid
inside this body cavity, they are also protected from external pressure or shock. Simple
organisms such as- corals or tapeworms do not have well-developed body cavities.
On the other hand, complex organisms such as- humans and all vertebrates have well-
developed body cavities.

4. Presence of Body Segmentation

The body of some animals is divided into several segments. For example, the body
of an insect is divided into three parts, but the body of a spider is divided into two
parts. Again, the same organ can be repeated successively. It is also considered as an
important characteristic in the classification of animals.

5. Type of Skeletal System

While classifying, it is also an important consideration whether or not an animal has a
skeleton, and if so, what type it is. Again, some animals have a well-developed skeletal
system inside their bodies, such as- all vertebrates, including humans. Moreover, some
animals do not have such a skeleton inside their bodies, but exoskeleton can be seen
outside their bodies, such as- snails or crabs. Even, there are also exceptional examples
like turtles which have both endoskeleton and exoskeleton.
Apart from the characteristics mentioned above, digestive system, circulatory system,
mode of reproduction- etc. are also considered as important features while classifying
animals.
It has been mentioned earlier, based on different characteristics, all the animals of
kingdom Animalia are divided into nine main phyla. Animals in the first eight of these
nine phyla are invertebrates and animals in the last phylum are usually vertebrates.
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Now let’s know very briefly about the animals of these nine phyla.

Phylum-1: Porifera
Parifera animals can be said to be the simplest and most primitive members of the

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animal kingdom. The most familiar members of these are sponges. These animals
originate from marine environments, and are found in all oceans of the world and in
some freshwater bodies. Though they are multicellular, their structure is very simple.
Their body cells are isolated; they are unable to organize to form specific tissues or
function as organs.
Porus means ‘pore’ and ferre means ‘to bear’. These two words are combined to
form the word Porifera. The animals of this phylum have numerous pores and canals,
through which water continuously flows through their bodies. And through this flow,
they receive food particles and oxygen from water and discharge waste from the body.
The small pores in the body wall that allow water to enter are called Ostia. The inner
chamber is surrounded by special cells called choanocytes with fine hair-like flagella.
The choanocytes continuously move their flagella to create a flow of water in and out
through pores at the top. During this process, the choanocytes take food from the water.
The major characteristics of this phylum are:
Structure and cellular arrangement: Though
multicellular, the cells are not organized. So they
do not have specific tissues or organs. That’s
why, the metabolic activities of animals of this
phylum are done at the cellular level.
Body symmetry: Asymmetric
Coelom: Absent
Presence of body segmentation: Absent
Type of skeletal system: Endoskeleton is
present.
Other characteristics: We usually think that
animals are capable of moving. But, almost all Sponge
animals of the Porifera phylum lose their ability to
move before they reach adulthood. Although they are motile in larval stage, they are
permanently attached to the hard bottom of the sea in the adult stage.
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Phylum-2: Cnidaria
The animals of the phylum Cnidaria are more complex than the animals of the phylum
Porifera. The cells of these animals can form tissues, but they also do not have specific

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organs. Inside the body there is a large cavity

called the coelenteron, where food is digested
and transported. (However, this cavity is not like
the body cavity that you know as the coelom.)
There is no separate digestive organ inside the
coelenteron, but after the food reaches this cavity,
the nutrients are absorbed from it with the help of
the cells of its wall. Although there is only one
mouth opening (মুখছিদ্র), animals of this phylum
have no separate anus. Usually there are trunk-
like tentacles around the mouth to catch prey.
Let’s have a look at the major characteristics of
this phylum at a glance:
Structure and cellular arrangement: Though
tissues are composed of multiple cells, they do
not have specific organs to perform specific
functions. Jellyfish

Body symmetry: : Radial symmetry is found.

Coelom: Absent.
Presence of body segmentation: Absent.
Type of skeletal system: There is no strong skeleton system made of bones. However, the
cavity called the coelenteron is filled with water which provides firmness to the body.
Other characteristics: However, the main characteristic of the animals of the phylum
Cnidaria is that they have cells called Cnidoblast in their bodies, with the help of which
they can all hunt or defend themselves by throwing poisonous stings or thorns. Hence
the name of this phylum comes from the Greek word Knide meaning hairy and aria
meaning connected. Among the animals of this phylum are—jellyfish, coral, hydra etc.

Phylum3-: Platyhelminthes
Although the name Platyhelminthes sounds strange, the animals of this phylum are
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not very unfamiliar to us. Flatworms or tapeworms are animals of this phylum. So, the
name Platyhelminthes has also come from Greek ‘platy’ and ‘helminthes’ meaning
‘flat’ and ‘worm’ respectively. Although their structure is much simpler than that of
vertebrates, they are somewhat more complex than those of the previous two phyla,

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Porifera and Annelida. These animals are often parasites that live inside the bodies
of various animals including humans. There are also animals that live independently.
Most of them live in water bodies or damp environments. The length of the animals of
this phylum can range from one millimetre to almost twenty metres (66 feet).
Let’s have a look at the major characteristics of this phylum at a glance:
Structure and cellular arrangement: Some systems have been formed, through
which physiological functions such as movement and excretion are performed. There
is no respiratory system or closed circulatory system. Although there is a muscular
system and excretory system, a complete digestive system has not been formed. The
muscles of their bodies are arranged in layers and clusters.
Body symmetry: Bi-lateral symmetry is found.
Coelom: Absent.
Presence of body segmentation: Absent.
Type of skeletal system: Absent.
Phylum4-: Nematoda
The Greek word ‘nema’ means ‘thread’. The animals of this phylum are cylindrical,
slender, and long. Their difference with flatworms or tapeworms is their cylindrical
structure; and this structure is stable for the cavity inside their body. The cavity is
filled with water, and provides stability to their structure and acts like a skeleton. Their
body has a straight and unbranched digestive tract which extends from the mouth to
the anus. The animals of this phylum are also often parasites that live inside the bodies
of various animals, including humans. For example, hookworms are a type of worm
in this phylum that live in the human intestine. Their bodies are covered with a thick
cuticle. As a result, even if the host is inside the digestive tract of the body, the intense
digestive juice or enzyme of the digestive tract causes them no harm. There are also
animals that live independently. Most of them live in freshwater environments. The
length of the animals of this phylum can range from one millimetre to almost seven
metres (23 feet).
Major characteristics of this phylum are:
Structure and cellular arrangement: They are simple but have complete digestive
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system with mouth and anus. Physiological activities like digestion, excretion and
movement are done through this system. However, like tapeworms, they also do not
also have a respiratory system nor a closed circulatory system.
Body symmetry: Bi-lateral symmetry is found.

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Coelom: Although there is no well-developed coelom or body cavity, there is pseudo-

coelom. There is digestive system inside it.
Presence of body segmentation: Absent.
Type of skeletal system: There is no skeleton system made of bones. However, as the
body cavity is full of water, it gives
firmness to the body.

Phylum5-: Annelida
Have you ever carefully observed
the body structure of leeches or
worms? If you notice, you will see leeches
that the whole body of these animals is
divided into numerous segments. It seems as if the body is made up of many small
rings attached one after another. For this reason, the phylum comprising earthworms
and similar animals is named ‘Annelida’. This word has come from the Latin ‘annulus’
which means ring. The body structure of the animals of this phylum is long cylindrical.
In almost all cases, these animals have hair-like stiff setae on their bodies which help
them in movement.
Let’s have a look at the major characteristics of this phylum at a glance:
Structure and cellular arrangement: System is formed by the combination of several
organs and through it the physiological activities are done.
Body symmetry: Bi-lateral symmetry is found.
Coelom: True coelom is present.
Presence of body segmentation: Body segmentation is present.
Type of skeletal system: There is no strong skeleton system made of bones. However,
as the body cavity is full of liquid, it gives firmness to the body.
Other characteristics: Nervous system, digestive system and circulatory system are
present.

Phylum6-: Arthropoda
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The word Arthropoda comes from the Greek words ‘arthro’ and ‘poddos’, which mean
‘joint’ and ‘foot’ respectively. The very name implies that the animals of this phylum
have jointed legs. Arthropoda is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom, with around
80 of the invertebrates. Majority of the vast diversity of species of organisms identified
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on Earth so far falls under this phylum, and this number is more than 12 lakhs! All
 Animal Classification System

insects (such as cockroaches, grasshoppers, etc.), arachnids (such as spiders, scorpion,

lice etc.), and crustaceans (such as crabs, shrimps etc.) are animals of this phylum.
Let’s have a look at the major characteristics of this phylum at a glance:
Structure and cellular arrangement: System is formed by the combination of
several organs, and through it the physiological activity is done.
Body symmetry: Bi-lateral symmetry is found.
Coelom: Body cavity or coelom is present. In many cases, coelom is filled with
blood.
Presence of body segmentation: The whole body is divided into several particular
segments.
Type of skeletal
system: They have an
exoskeleton or shell
made of chitin. Growth
of skeleton does not occur
during development. So,
at different times of life,
they moult this skeleton,
and grow it anew.
Other characteristics:
Nervous system, digestive Octopus
system and circulatory
system are present. There
are antennae and eyes, in many cases, compound eyes (For example, flies).

Phylum7- : Mollusca
The name of this phylum has come from the word ‘molluscus’ which means ‘soft’.
The appearence of phylum Mollusca prove the reasons of such naming; Among our
familiar animals, snail, oyester, octopus etc. belong to this phylum. Their bodies are soft
and muscular. They have broad muscular legs and bodies are covered with muscular
membrane ‘mantle’. Mollusca is the second largest phylum after Arthropoda. Till now
more than 100,000 species of this phylum have been discovered. They are primarily
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nocturnal, can be found in almost all freshwater and marine environments on Earth.
However, there are also several terrestrial species. The animals of this phylum are of
great variety, colour and shape. This phylum ranges from tiny snails to gigantic
squids.
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Let’s have a look at the major characteristics of this phylum at a glance:

Structure and cellular arrangement: A well-developed system is formed by the
combination of more than one organ, and all the physiological activities are performed
through this system.
Body symmetry: Bi-lateral symmetry is found.
Coelom: Well developed body cavity is present.
Presence of body segmentation: Absent.
Type of skeletal system: Many of the animals of this phylum have a hard exoskeleton
made of calcium carbonate (which we see as oyster or snail shells) that protects their
soft bodies. Some do not have such skeletons, such as octopus, squid, sea slug etc.
Other characteristics: Prominent head is present. There are well developed nervous
system, digestive system and circulatory system. Some of these animals (such as squid
and octopus) have the most developed nervous system among invertebrates.

Phylum- 8: Echinodermata
As usual with the animals of this phylum, the characteristics can be estimated only by
understanding the meaning of the name. The Greek word ‘echinos’ means ‘spine’ and
the word ‘derma’ means ‘skin’. So, you can understand from the name, the skin of the
animals of this phylum is covered with spine. All animals of the phylum Echinodermata
live in marine environment. They do not have a separate head. The main characteristic
that can be observed in all animals of this phylum is radial symmetry. In addition to
this, the animals in this phylum have another unique characteristic, which is a well-
organized water vascular system throughout their body. Through this system, they
perform important functions like respiration, food intake, and excretion. Not only that,
this system is connected to numerous muscular tubular legs. These tubes contract and
expand due to the decrease and increase in water pressure, and this is how these animals
move. The animals in this phylum include starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and so
on. Even though these animals may appear very strange, the animals in the phylum
Echinodermata have the most similarities with the animals in the Chordata phylum
(which includes humans).
Let’s have a look at the major characteristics of this phylum at a glance:
Structure and cellular arrangement: A well-developed system is formed by the
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combination of various organs, and all the physiological activities are performed
through this system.
Body symmetry: In the embryonic stage, their bodies are bi-laterally symmetrical, but in
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adult bodies, radial symmetry Nerve Chord Notochord

is found.
Coelom: Well developed body
cavity or coelom is present.
Presence of body segmentation:
Absent
Type of skeletal system: There
is endoskeleton made of Gill Opening
calcium carbonate inside the Notochord and Nerve cord
body.
Other characteristics: There is well developed water vascular system that helps in
different physiological activities. Many of these animals have the ability to regenerate
certain damaged organs of their bodies.
Gill Opening Gill Opening
Phylum- 9: Chordata
Among all phyla of the animal
kingdom, we are most familiar
with the phylum Chordata,
because all vertebrate animals
including ourselves, that Tail
Tail
is, humans belong to this
phylum. One important thing
to remember here is that not all
animals in the phylum Chordata Fish Reptile Bird Human
are vertebrates. The word All animals of the phylum Chordata including humans and
‘chorda’ means ‘string’ or birds have tails and gill openings in the embryonic stage.
‘chord’. In all animals of this
phylum, a longitudinal chord called the notochord extends along the back to the end of
the body. The notochord is solid and rod-shaped. And just above this notochord there
is another rod-shaped chord parallel to it, which is the nerve cord. However, it is not as
solid as the notochord, rather like a hollow tube. In vertebrates, the notochord further
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develops into a stiff spine. The nerve cord develops into a well-structured brain located
on top or in the front of the body.
All chordates or the animals of the phylum Chordata have tails and gill slits on both
sides of the pharynx. You must be surprised to read this, because we do not see any

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of these in the human body. To be honest, if you observe any animal of the phylum
Chordata, including humans and birds, during the embryonic stage, you will see that
each of them has tails and gill slits. At a phase during the development of humans, these
gill slits eventually transform into parts of the ear and tonsils. On the other hand, in case
of fish, the gill slits develop into more organized structures, gills that allow them to
breathe underwater. The same thing happens with the tail. In the embryonic stage, tails
are clearly visible in all animals, including humans, birds, etc. but in many animals,
including humans, they disappear later.
Let’s have a look at the major characteristics of this phylum at a glance:
Structure and cellular arrangement: A well-developed system is formed by the
combination of various organs, and all the physiological activities are performed
through this system.
Body symmetry: Bi-lateral symmetry is found in their bodies.
Coelom: Well developed body cavity is present.
Presence of body segmentation: Body segmentation is present.
Type of skeletal system: There is endoskeleton made of calcium carbonate
inside the body.
O t h e r
characteristics:
Mammals
Well developed and
complete digestive
Birds
system, nervous system
and circulatory system Reptiles
are present. All of them
have tail and gill glands Amphibians
at some stage of their
life. Bony fish
The phylum Chordata
can be divided into Cartilagenous fish
three sub-phyla:
a. Urochordata: They Jawless fish
600 500 400 300 200 100 Present
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are not motile, and

Million years ago
just like marine plants,
they attach their bodies Classification of Vertebrata animals
permanently to solid

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objects. The inflated body and tube-like structure help them circulate water. Although
notochord and nerve cord are present in the larval stage, both of them disappear in
adulthood. Their structure is shown in the image below. Example: Ascidia
b. Cephalochordata: Throughout their lives, the presence of notochord and nerve cord
can be observed in their bodies. They look like fish. The animals in this sub-phylum are
thought to have the closest evolutionary traits to their vertebrate ancestors. Example:
Amphioxus
c. Vertebrata: The animals of this sub-phylum are known as vertebrates. Their
main characteristics are that they have a distinct head; a spinal cord is formed as an
advanced form of nerve cord; and a strong vertebral spine to protect the spinal cord.
In addition, their brain is protected inside a hard skull, and it is connected to the spinal
cord. The endoskeleton helps these animals in movement. Based on the structure and
characteristics, vertebrates are divided into 7 categories. In Class 6, you were told
about these seven categories of vertebrates. The categories are-
(1) Jawless fish (Cyclostomata)
(2) Bony fish (Osteichthyes)
(3) Cartilagenous fish
(Chondrichthyes)
(4) Amphibians (Amphibia)
(5) Reptiles (Reptilia)
(6) Birds (Aves)
(7) Mammals (Mammalia)
Although platypus is a mammal, it lays eggs.
10.3.3 Mammalia
Mammals belong to a diverse category of creatures. About 6,500 mammals have been
identified so far. In general, mammals are animals that live on their mother’s milk. They give
birth and suckle the child. The word ‘mammal’ has come from ‘mammary gland’. However,
there are exceptions to this as well, such as the platypus, which lays eggs but suckles the child
with mother’s milk after birth. Mammals have bodies covered with fur. All vertebrates are
warm-blooded animals, and they have a four-chambered heart. They have lungs.
Among mammals, there are herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. Almost all mammals have
teeth in their mouths. By observing the types of teeth, you can get an idea about the food habits
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of the animals. Look closely at the structure of the teeth of predatory animals, such as tigers,
cats, dogs, wolves. On the contrary, notice the teeth of herbivores like cows, goats, deer, etc.
You will be easily able to understand the differences.
As warm-blooded animals, mammals need to maintain the regulation of a constant
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body temperature. This is why almost all mammals have hair or fur on their bodies.
Not only this, the layer of fat under the skin also helps to maintain the required body
temperature and keep the body warm. Therefore, if you observe animals from colder
regions, you will notice that in most cases, their fur is dense and large.
Like other vertebrate animals, mammals have a skeleton and a muscular system. These
systems work together to allow mammals to move. The mitochondria present in their
muscle cells generate the necessary energy for this movement.
Most mammals walk on four legs. However, there are some exceptions. Bats, for
example, are mammals that have evolved their front legs into wings. Whales and
dolphins, which live in water, have also evolved their front legs into flippers and have
lost their hind legs over time.
Most mammals walk on four legs. However, there are exceptions here too. You know
that bats are mammals. Their two front legs have actually evolved into wings. Again,
think of the aquatic mammals- whales or dolphins. Not only their two front legs have
evolved into fins, but also over time, the two back legs have also disappeared.
It is no exaggeration to say that mammals are the most complexly evolved animals on
Earth. Their brains are capable of complex analysis. Besides, and their sharp senses
allow them to collect and respond to a lot of information from their surrounding
environment. You will learn a lot more about these animals in the future.

10.4 Insects
Insects have been living on Earth since the prehistoric times. Approximately 40 to 45
crore years ago, insects appeared on Earth. After that, they have dominated almost all
ecosystems on Earth for a long time. During that time, insects were also quite large
in size; a single dragonfly was the size of a seagull. Over time, with the course of
evolution, birds, reptiles, and mammals emerged on Earth. Simultaneously, the impact
of insects decreased. However, even though they have become smaller in size, insects
are still unparalleled in species diversity and number. Even today, there are countless
species of insects all around us. Insects are the most diverse group of animals on Earth,
and about 80 percent of the discovered animal kingdom is insects. There are over 1
million described species of insects.
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The body of an insect is divided into three parts: head, thorax and abdomen. The
body is covered with a hard exoskeleton made of chitin. The exoskeleton protects the
body. It also acts as a connection point for various muscles. Insects molt, or shed their
exoskeleton, as they grow. Insects are unique in that they have only three pairs of

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thoracic legs and most insects have two pairs of thoracic wings. Insects exhibit diverse
forms and shapes. Some insects are less than a millimetre long, while others can have
wingspans of several centimetres. The life span of insects can range from a few hours
to many years; they can live in isolation or in social groups. Insects feed on a variety
of plants, animals and organic matter. Their relationships with food sources can range
from mutualism to parasitism or predation. Insects have well-developed digestive,
circulatory, respiratory, nervous, and reproductive systems. Digested food is absorbed
mainly in the middle part of esophagus.
Insects are small animals, but their life cycle is quite complex and diverse. Almost
all types of insects go through three or four stages in their life cycle. The butterfly
completes four stages in its life. First, the female butterfly lays eggs, then the eggs
hatch into larvae, the larvae turn into pupae, and the pupae turn into adult butterflies.
Grasshoppers complete three stages in their life- eggs, nymphs, and adults. This type of
change in the life cycle of insects is called metamorphosis. Though many insects live
individually, some insects live in groups and lead a social life. Their communal living
is somewhat similar to human social life. The responsibility of work is divided in the
social life of insects. Each group consists of a queen, several males, and numerous
workers. Due to their social life, a certain division of labour is observed among them.
As a result of social life, a type of division of labor is seen among them. The workers
engage themselves in all kinds of work including food collection, maintaining shelter,
and other chores. The queen and males mainly contribute to the growth of the population.
Insects are a diverse group of animals that include everything starting from tiny ants
to the cockroaches in the corner of our house, and even colourful butterflies and
grasshoppers. From the soil to the trees, water bodies, crop fields, and even in our
homes, we encounter them. They can be found in a variety of habitats, including soil,
plants, water bodies, crop fields, and even our homes. These creatures wandering on the
Earth for billions of years have been an inseparable part of nature. The relationships and
food webs among various animals and plants in the environment cannot be imagined
without insects.
Although we generally know insects as harmful, they have an immense beneficial role in
nature. Insects play a vital role in the ecosystem, starting from the pollination of plants
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to maintaining the overall order. They contribute to other animals’ food supply too.
Birds, bats, and small mammals all feed on these insects. So, if there were no insects,
birds, bats, frogs, and sweet-water fish would also disappear. Insects are either food
for other animals or servants of the ecosystem. Although some insects are harmful, the

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majority of species benefit us directly or indirectly. Among the notable insects are bees,
butterflies, silkworms, and grasshoppers etc. Bees collect honey from flower to flower
and store it in beehives. Honey and wax are two of the most important natural resources.
Bees also play an important role in the pollination of various crops. Silkworms are
another important insect. Through sericulture, silkworms are raised to produce silk
thread, which is used to make valuable textiles. Butterflies and grasshoppers are the
most attractive insects. The fluttering of colorful butterflies instantly fascinates people.
Insects are not only beautiful and colourful, but they also play an immense role in
maintaining the biodiversity by pollinating from flower to flower. Another well-known
group of insects is ants. They create homes in holes in the soil, in tree hollows, or in the
gaps of various furniture. They are very social. They move in a line and collect food
together. They measure the angle of sunlight to return home and gather food. They help
keep the environment beautiful by eating our leftover food and other dead insects.

10.5 Position of Humans in Animal Kingdom:

Biologists classify animal kingdom into different species. Animals that can produce reproductive
offspring through sexual intercourse are considered to belong to the same ‘species’. Species
that have evolved over time from a common ancestor in the past are included in a group called
‘Genus’. Even though tiger, lion, leopard, and jaguar are different species, each of them belongs
to the genus Panthera. Following the method of scientist Carolus Linnaeus, biologists have
given each organism a binomial Latin name, the first part of which indicates the genus and
the later part the species. For example, the scientific name of the lion is ‘Panthera leo’, where
‘Panthera’ and ‘leo’ refer to the genus and species respectively. The scientific name of humans
is Homo sapiens. Here ‘Homo’ (human) is the genus name and ‘sapiens’ (wise) is the species.
The closest relatives of humans- chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans are still living. They
are all in the genus ‘Homo’. In the hierarchical classification of the animal kingdom, humans
belong to the phylum Chordata, the sub-phylum Vertebrata, the class Mammalia, the order
Primate, the family Hominidae, the genus Homo, the species sapiens.

Classification of Humans:
Phylum : Chordata
Sub-phylum: Vertebrata
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Class: Mammalia
Order: Primate
Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo
Species: sapiens
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 Study of Motion

CHAPTER 11
GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES, LOCAL TIME, & REGIONS
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ভৌ�ৌগো�ািিক�াগোব িবগোবের অন্্যতম গুরুত্বপূ র্্ণ পগোেন্ট, কক্ণট ক্ািতি এবং ৯০ িিিরি দ্ািিমার ভৌছদিবন্ু, বাংিাগোদগোের
ফিরদপুগোরর �াঙ্া উপগোেিাে িন্িম্ণত হগোত যাগোছে একিট সু রম্য মান্মিন্র; ছিবগোত ভৌসই মান্মিন্গোরর ন্কো
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CHAPTER
GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES, LOCAL
11 TIME, & REGIONS

This chapter deals with the following topics:

5 Geographical Coordinates:
5 Latitude
5 Longitude
5 Prime Meridian
5 International Date Line
5 Various Environmental Issues and Human Roles in Different Geographical
Regions

Have you ever noticed how people describe their location to one other? For example,
when you need to find someone's house, just telling the name of the area is not always
enough. In such cases, you have to describe the location of the house in relation to a
specific landmark, shop, or building. This is called Relative Location. This method
can be used for a small area, but it becomes quite challenging to describe the location
of something on the entire surface of the Earth in this way, and in many cases, it's
impossible. In such situations, what is used is Geographical Coordinates or Absolute
Location.

11.1 Geographic Grid

To define the geographic coordinates of any location on Earth, two types of imaginary
lines are used:
(1) Lines of Latitude or Parallels,
(2) Lines of Longitude or Meridians.
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To understand the concept of these lines, we must envision the Earth as a three-dimensional
sphere. On paper, we draw a circle to represent the Earth, but it is not so, rather it is like
a ball. If we draw some parallel lines horizontally on a ball or anything spherical (See

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 Geographical Coordinates, Local time, and Regions

Figure), they will become

circular lines going
around it. At the very
top and bottom, there
will be two points,
which will be the North
and South Poles of the
Earth, respectively. This
representation is similar
to the concept of lines of (a) (b)
latitudes or Parallels of (a) Lines of Latitude extend from east to west across the
Earth. As these circles Earth, forming concentric circles, which converge at the poles,
go towards the poles, resulting in small lines meeting at the meridian points. (b)
they get smaller. Now, Lines of Longitude consist of a series of semi-circles extending
instead of drawing north to south, of equal lengths, stretching from one meridian
parallel lines, if we draw to another.
vertical lines from one
pole to another, they will represent the lines of longitude or Meridians. That means,
the horizontal lines imagined on the surface of the Earth along east-west direction are
Parallels, and vertical lines from one pole to another, along north-south direction are
Meridians.
Besides Parallels and Meridians, we also use the values of Latitudes and Longitudes
to denote a coordinate of a specific point on Earth. What are the differences between
the two measurements? Firstly, Parallels and Meridians are lines, while Latitudes and
Longitudes are angles. A specific latitude is drawn for a specific angle, so the value of
latitude is the same at every point on a longitude line. Similarly, a specific longitude
is drawn for a specific angle, so the value of longitude is the same at every point on a
latitude line. Every point on the Earth surface have one latitude and longitude. If we
have the latitude and longitude of any place on Earth, we can precisely identify its
location.
Therefore, the measurement of latitude or longitude of a place is the angular
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distance of it from two individual reference lines (angular distance means it

represents the angle between two lines or surfaces). As a result, we use angles
to measure these geographic coordinates, the unit of which is degrees. Here, 90

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Angle of latitude

(a) Latitude is measured in relation to the Equator. The Equator is an imaginary line that
encircles the Earth from east to west, running through its middle. (b) The angle of latitude
originates at the center of the Earth. In other words, if we take the intersection points of the
equator and a parallel of latitude (latitude line) with the same meridian (longitude line) on
the Earth's surface, and then connect the intersection points to the center of the Earth, we will
obtain the same value of the angle, as was the latitude.

degrees make a right angle, 60 minutes make 1 degree, and 60 seconds make 1
minute. Note that there is no direct relationship between seconds and minutes
used to measure angular distance to that of time measurement.
Now, let's delve into some more detailed aspects of latitude and longitude.

11.2 Latitude
Latitude is used to determine how far north or south a location is from the Equator. To
understand this clearly, let’s first discuss about the Equator. The Equator is an imaginary
line that encircles the Earth through its middle, that is, equidistant from the North Pole
and the South Pole. It runs

along the east-west direction. The equator divides the Earth into the northern and
southern hemispheres. To describe how far a place is located from the equator, we use
latitude lines or parallels. Equator acts as the line of reference in the measurement of
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latitudes. Latitude ranges from 00 at the equator to a maximum of 900 at the poles. (Note
that 00 latitude is called the equator, and 900 latitude can either be the North Pole or the
South Pole which we write as 900 North and 900 South respectively). You’ve already
learned that every Line of Latitude makes a full circle and is parallel to one another.
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 Geographical Coordinates, Local time, and Regions

The equator makes the biggest circle and the circles get smaller as they go towards the
poles, meeting as two dots. As a result, North Pole and South Pole latitude lines are
represented by two dots.

Latitude is measured in angles. Now, a question may arise: which two lines create this
angle, and where does it originate? When we want to determine the latitude of a place,
we imagine a line (See figure) from the place to the center of the Earth, and another
line on the same plane from the equator to the same center point (later we will see that
being in the same plane means being on the same meridian). The angle formed by these
two lines is the latitude.
Latitude ranges from 00 to 900, and although there are several parallel lines of equal
distance (latitude lines) on the Earth, some of them are particularly significant due to
various special reasons. (While these latitude lines are parallel circles on the Earth or
the globe, they are depicted as parallel lines on maps.) The important latitude lines are:

11.2.1 Equator
This is the 00 latitude. The line of Equator runs along the east-west direction, dividing
the Earth into two hemispheres known as the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern
Hemisphere. An interesting fact—on March 21st and September 23rd, sun’s rays falls
perpendicularly on this line at noon. On these two days, the duration of day and night
is equal everywhere on Earth.

11.2.2 Tropic of Cancer

This is the latitude line located at approximately 23.50 North of the Equator. It passes
over Bangladesh. On June 21st every year, at noon (12:00pm), the sunlight falls
perpendicularly over all the places on the Tropic of Cancer. On this date, the duration
of daylight is the longest in the Northern Hemisphere and the shortest in the Southern
Hemisphere.

11.2.3 Tropic of Capricorn

This is the latitude line located at approximately 23.50 South of the Equator. On
December 22nd every year, at noon (12:00pm), the sun is directly over all the places
on the Tropic of Capricorn. On this date, the duration of daylight is the longest in the
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Southern Hemisphere and the shortest in the Northern Hemisphere.

11.2.4 Polar Circle

These are two latitude lines, the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle, situated at

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approximately 66.50 north and south of the Equator, respectively. The sunlight never
falls vertically at the places that are
located north of the Tropic of Cancer Sunlight falls obliquely 60 North 0

and south of the Tropic of Capricorn.

These places exhibit extremely long 30 North 0

days during the summer season

and extremely long nights during Sunlight falls 0 Equator0

almost perpendicularly
winter. In fact, on June 21 every
st
30 Sou 0
th
year, within the area surrounded
by the Arctic Circle, the sunlight
0
60 South
remains for 24 hours, which means Sunlight falls obliquely
a full day of continuous sunlight.
Similarly, on December 22nd The Equator or its vicinity receives the sunlight almost
in the same area, there are 24 perpendicularly. As a result, the sunrays travel relatively shorter
hours of continuous darkness. distances and experience less spreading of sunlight, making the
The opposite occurs in the places they hit on Earth's surface more heated. On the other
region surrounded by the hand, near the poles, the sunlight falls obliquely. Consequently,
Antarctic Circle. it covers longer distances in the atmosphere, spreads over a
wider area it on the Earth's surface and the intensity or heat
11.3 SIGNIFICANCE AND USES of the sunlight decreases. As a result, all those regions remain
OF LATITUDE colder.

Knowing the latitude of a place is essential to determine the geographical location of

that place, and to understand its climate and weather. We know that the axial tilt of the
Earth is inclined at an angle of 23.50 instead of being perpendicular (900) to the plane of
its orbit, resulting in the Sun's rays striking the Earth obliquely. As a result, at different
latitudes, we receive varying amounts of heat and solar energy (insolation) from the
Sun. The intensity of this solar radiation varies at different locations and times of the
year, and this, in turn, allows us to experience different seasons throughout the year.
Since the amount of sunlight falling on a location depends on its latitude, the temperature
and amount of precipitation are also dependent on latitude. The airflow and ocean
currents are also influenced by latitude. Even the nature of land and the characteristics
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of the living organisms in a particular place are influenced by latitude.

11.3.1 DIFFERENT REGIONS DIVIDED ON THE BASIS LATITUDES:

The Earth is divided into several regions based on latitude. Each of these regions has

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 Geographical Coordinates, Local time, and Regions

distinct characteristics regarding 900 North Pole

their climate, vegetation, wildlife, Polar Region
North Polar Circle
and even the structure of the land
Temperate Region
that sets them apart from other
23.5O Tropic of
regions. The important divisions Tropical Region Cancer
based on latitude are the equatorial 00 Equator
region, the tropical region, and the Tropical Region
polar region. The area between 23.5O Tropic
the Tropic of Cancer and the Temperate Region of Capricorn

Tropic of Capricorn is known as Polar Region South Polar Circle

the tropical region. The region 900 South Pole
between the Tropic of Cancer
and the North Pole is the North Various regions divided based on latitudes
Temperate Zone, while the region
between the Tropic of Capricorn and the South Pole is the South Temperate Zone. In our
country, Bangladesh, the Tropic of Cancer passes right through the middle. Therefore,
the southern region of this country is a tropical region, and the northern region is a
temperate region.

Question: Have you ever crossed the Tropic of Cancer? “If you were located on the
Tropic of Cancer, 12:00 at noon on June 21st, you would not have any shadow”—what

Angle of latitude
Prime
meridian
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(a) The Prime Meridian is an imaginary semicircular longitude line that extends from the North Pole to the South
Pole, passing through the city of Greenwich, England. (b) The angle of longitude is also measured from the center
of the Earth. In this case, if we connect the two intersection points—one of the prime meridian, and the other of
the longitude line containing the place, with the equator to the center of the Earth, it will be the angle of longitude
at that point.
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 Science

does this statement mean?

Question: Is your school located in the tropical region or the temperate zone?
Question: Do you know that ‘meter’ (m), the unit of length, is defined in such a way that
if you move exactly one hundred kilometer north or south on the Earth's surface, your
latitude will change by 1 degree? Calculate and show if this fact is true. (The radius of
the Earth is 6,000 kilometers)

11.4 Longitude
Longitude refers to how far a specific location on Earth is to the east or west of a certain
reference meridian. A line indicating longitude is called a meridian. The reference line
from which east or west longitudes are measured is known as the Prime Meridian. It
passes through Greenwich, England. Each meridian is a semicircle, and all meridians
have the same length. Meridians spread out from one pole to another and all of them
connect at both poles. Every meridian intersects the equator perpendicularly.

Tropic of
Cancer

Latitude
23.5˚

Equator

Longitude
Prime 900
meridian 00 Tropic of
Capricorn
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The Tropic of Cancer and the 900 west meridian intersect in Bangladesh, so we can say
that Bangladesh's location is at 23.50 north latitude and 900 west longitude.

The value of longitude ranges from 00 (prime meridian) to 1800 to the east and west.
Did you know that Bangladesh is crossed by the 900 meridian, which lies precisely

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 Geographical Coordinates, Local time, and Regions

between the Prime Meridian (00) and the 1800 meridian? Since the value of longitude
remains the same at any point north or south along a line of longitude, the easiest method
to determine the longitude of any location on Earth is by measuring its longitude on
the equator. The angle made by the lines connecting the center of the Earth to the two
intersection points on the equator—one with the Prime Meridian and another with the
specified meridian—is the angle of that longitude.
Some meridians are significant for special reasons, such as—the Prime Meridian and
the International Date Line.

11.4.1 PRIME MERIDIAN

The meridian passing through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, located near
London, is known as the Prime Meridian, and its value is 00. It is essential to note that
the prime meridian has no east-west direction; instead, it divides the Earth into the
eastern and western hemispheres.

11.4.2 INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

We've learned that each longitude line forms a semicircle. Therefore, the longitude line
exactly opposite the Prime Meridian (00) has a value of 1800. This meridian also has no
east-west value. This particular longitude line is known as the International Date Line.
The concept of this line was established for the purpose of calculating time and date
across different countries and regions. Different dates are counted on either side of this
line. Though it may seem a bit peculiar, it is highly essential. If someone crosses this
line towards the east, they will move ahead to the next date! Conversely, if they cross
it from east to west, it will be the opposite. However, this concept is not as strange as
it sounds. Due to the different positions of countries on Earth surface, sunlight reaches
different places at different times. Therefore, they experience sunrise and sunset at
different times. Some places have daytime while others have nighttime at the same
moment. When someone says it is 4 PM in their country, it might be a completely
different time for those on the opposite side of the Earth on the other hemisphere. The
International Date Line is useful in such cases to determine the difference of date and
time at two places at the same moment.
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This line has another notable characteristic. You might find it drawn as a curved line
(on a globe) or as a zigzag line (on a connected world map). This is done to have it pass
only through the water (of the Pacific Ocean) in order to avoid any single country or
region experiencing two different dates simultaneously.
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 Science

11.4.3 DETERMINING GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION USING LONGITUDE

We already know that latitude tells us the north-south position of a location or point
on Earth, but for its east-west position, we need to know the longitude. Longitude and
latitude are used together to determine the precise location of any place on Earth. When
both lines intersect, they create a imaginary grid-like structure on the Earth surface,
or a globe (Earth’s model in small scale) or a map. This grid is called a Graticule.
By knowing the longitude and latitude of a specific location on the graticule, we can
pinpoint its exact geographic location. Moreover, the value of longitude is also crucial
for determining the time and date at a particular place.

International Date Line

Greenwich meridian

-11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +11 +12

International Date Line and different Time Zones. Bangladesh's time zone is GMT6+.

11.4.4 DETERMINING TIME AND DATE

The Prime Meridian (00 longitude) passes through Greenwich, so the time of any location
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on Earth is determined in comparison to the time of Greenwich at that moment. If we start

from any line, travel around it completing a full circle and get back at the starting point, we
will find that the total angle traveled is 3600= 1800 + 1800. This is also true for longitudes.
The angle in east and west direction from the Prime Meridian is 1800 each, which means
3600 in total. One day has 24 hours, so crossing every (360 ÷ 24 =) 15° of longitude results
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 Geographical Coordinates, Local time, and Regions

in a time difference of 1 hour. As we mentioned earlier, moving eastward from the

Prime Meridian increases the time on clock, and moving westward decreases it.
The time difference is indicated by a positive (+) sign for the areas east of the Prime
Meridian and a negative (-) sign for areas west of it. Earth is divided into several time
zones by aligning them with the meridians and the International Date Line.
Bangladesh falls under the GMT6+ time zone, meaning when it is 12:00 PM (noon)
in Greenwich, it is 6:00 PM (evening) in Bangladesh.

Tropical Rainforest
Temperate Forest
Desert
Tundra
Taiga
Grasslands
Savanna
Fresh water
Sea and Ocean
Polar region

Different types of Geographical Regions on Earth

The difference between the Prime Meridian and the International Date Line is 1800
so there is a -12hour time difference on clock between the two places. Now, if two
individuals travel from the Prime Meridian, one towards the east and the other towards
the west, and both cross the International Date Line, then the traveler heading east
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will have a time that is 12 hours ahead of the starting time on clock, while the traveler
heading west will have a time that is 12 hours behind the starting time on clock. This
can create confusion with the date. To address this issue, it was established that when
someone crosses the International Date Line heading eastward, they need to set their

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clock one day back. Similarly, when someone crosses the International Date Line
heading westward, they need to set their clock one day ahead. For instance, consider
you are traveling eastward at high speed and cross the 1800 longitude. In that case, you
will have to set your watch one day behind. So, if it's the 21st of February today, your
watch should show the 20th of February after crossing the International Date Line.

Formation of different Geographical Regions due to the effect of Latitude conditions: (Top) Polar
Region & Tundra Region (Bottom) Desert Region & Evergreen Forest

11.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS

We have already learned that different regions of the Earth have various climates,
ecosystems, and geological features based on their latitudinal position. Now, let's
explore how these differences can manifest.

11.5.1 POLAR REGIONS

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The area surrounding both geographic poles of the Earth are known as the Polar
Regions. Due to their proximity to the poles, the sunlight falls at an oblique angle
in these regions, so the temperature in these regions is very low. The main characteristics
of this region are extreme cold temperatures, vast and thick ice covering, and limited
presence of plant and animal life. The Northern Polar Region is located in the Arctic
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 Geographical Coordinates, Local time, and Regions

Ocean, surrounded by Greenland, Canada, Russia, and northern parts of Alaska. On the
other side, the Southern Polar Region is located, and known as the Antarctic continent.
Both Polar Regions experience long periods of daylight in summer and darkness during
winter. Due to the adverse conditions, the plant life in the Polar Region mainly consists
of mosses, lichens, and shrubs. Additionally, various species of animals such as polar
bears, penguins, Arctic foxes, walruses, seals, and several types of whales inhabit this
region. The majority of the landmass is covered with ice, and the movements of the ice
sheets or glaciers govern the topography of these regions.

11.5.2 TUNDRA REGION

The Tundra region is a vast area located in the northern hemisphere, especially in the
Arctic region, where cold-tolerant plants and vegetation can be found. These regions
are mainly found in Alaska, Canada, Russia, Greenland, and some parts of Scandinavia.
However, in many cases, tundra-like characteristics can also be observed near the peaks
of high mountains. The main characteristic of this region is its cold temperature and
frozen soil. The growing season for both plants and animals are limited in this area.
Due to the low precipitation, mainly in the form of snowfall, this region is referred
to as a ‘cold desert’. Despite the harsh environment, various types of vegetation and
animals can be found here. Among the vegetation, there are different types of mosses,
grasses, and shrubs. Caribou, reindeer, polar bears, arctic foxes, and various species of
birds (such as snow owl and ptarmigan) are some of the animals that can be found in
this region.

11.5.3 DESERT REGION

The characteristic of the desert region is extreme dryness, with annual rainfall of 250
millimeters or less. There are some areas where rainfall has not occurred for several
years. Deserts are mainly found in the subtropical regions, that is, along the Tropic of
Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The key feature of desert areas is their dry and arid
climate, where there is a significant temperature change between day and night. Due
to the scarcity of water and vegetation, these areas can be extremely hot during the day
and experience extreme cold at night. The limited availability of water supports life for
only a small number of plants and animals. These plants have a waxy covering on the
outer surface that prevents water from evaporating. They also have long roots that can
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draw water from deep beneath the ground. Moreover, these plants can survive in adverse
environments through various adaptive processes. Some of the vegetation in these
areas have adaptations such as succulence, allowing them to store water and survive in
such harsh conditions. The animals inhabiting this region have also developed special

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adaptations to survive in
the desert, such as—being
nocturnal, burrowing to
escape the heat, storing
water in their bodies,
and being capable of
surviving with minimal
water intake. Common
desert animals include
camels, rattlesnakes,
scorpions, fennec foxes,
etc.

11.5.4 EVERGREEN Mountainous regions are formed by the collision of tectonic

plates due to the influence of latitude.
FOREST
The evergreen forest is a dense forest area that remains green throughout the year,
even in dry weather. Such forests are mainly found in regions where the temperature
and rainfall are relatively high, especially in the tropical and equatorial regions. The
density of trees is so high in these forests that very little sunlight can penetrate through
the canopy to reach the forest ground. Generally, the leaves of the plants in this forest
are green and large, which can absorb abundant sunlight. Additionally, these plants
can draw a significant amount of nutrients from the soil along with water. Among the
various geographical regions, the evergreen forests host the widest variety of plant and
animal species. Indonesia's rainforests, the Congo Basin, and the Amazon rainforest
in South America are some examples of evergreen forests. Due to the abundance of
green vegetation, these forests absorb a significant amount of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and release oxygen. Various species of monkeys, sloths, jaguars, snakes,
and birds can be found in these forests. Ferns, epiphytes, red cedar, cycads, and blue
spruce are among the diverse range of plants abundant in the evergreen forest.

11.5.5 MOUNTAINOUS REGION

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The geographical regions mentioned above are influenced by their latitudinal positions.
However, the formation of mountainous regions primarily occurs due to the creation
of mountains resultedby the collision of tectonic plates. The mountainous areas are full
of significant diversity and adversity. The characteristics of the soil and climate in this

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 Geographical Coordinates, Local time, and Regions

area are dependent on its altitude and slope. The high elevation and steep slopes create
various microclimates within this region, which supports the survival of different types
of plants and animals. The plants here have the ability to take root in rocky terrain,
tolerate extreme temperature variations, and store water in their bodies. Animals here
also have adaptive features, such as, ability to climb steep slopes, adapting to cold and
hot climates, having thick fur for staying warm in the cold months, and a tendency to
hibernate during the cold seasons, etc.

11.6 DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN VARIOUS GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS AND

THE ROLE OF HUMANS
Different geographic regions have different types of environmental issues, and humans
play a crucial role in both creating and solving these issues.
The effects of climate change are significantly affecting the mountainous and tundra
regions. Due to the melting of ice in these regions, the sea level is rising, and the
habitat for polar bears, reindeer, and other animals is decreasing. Forest conservation,
sustainable development, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions can be significant
steps in protecting these regions.
In desert regions, excessive livestock grazing and oil extraction lead to soil degradation
and loss of biodiversity. However, through sustainable agricultural practices and
conservation policies, all these issues can be addressed.
The evergreen forests are facing a severe threat to their biodiversity and change in
climate due to excessive deforestation. Conservation of forest resources, sustainable
forest management, and careful planning can play a crucial role in protecting these
forests.
In mountainous regions, soil erosion and loss of biodiversity are happening because
of various mining activities and deforestation. By implementing afforestation schemes
and sustainable tourism management, these regions can be conserved.
In conclusion, through proper planning, sustainable development practices, and
conservation efforts, human involvement can make a significant impact in tackling
environmental issues in all regions. It is our responsibility to identify the various
harmful impacts we pose on the environment, so that we can work towards eradicating
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them in order to preserve the environment and its resources for our future generations.

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CHAPTER 12
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MAGNET
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 Magnet

CHAPTER M A G N E T
12
This chapter deals with the following topics:
5 Permanent Magnet
5 Electromagnetism
5 Electromagnet
5 Electromagnetic Induction
5 Magnetic Field of Earth

We use magnets every day in various ways. When we talk on our phone, there is a
magnet in the phone's speaker that creates a magnetic field and produces sound in the
speaker. Not only in phones, but magnets are also present in the speakers of radios,
televisions, computers, laptops, tablets, and similar devices. When we use a fan on
hot days, a magnet is used to rotate the motor of the fan. Not just fans, but in air
conditioners, refrigerators, and other electrical appliances, magnets are used whenever
electricity is used to make something
rotate. The electricity we use every
day is generated by electrical
generators, where a large magnet is
rotated rapidly within a coil of wire
to create a strong magnetic field.
Our Earth itself one giant magnet!
The magnetic field of the Earth
magnet diverts charged particles
coming from the Sun at high speed
towards the Earth and protects the
animal kingdom from their impact.
It is speculated that if the Earth's
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Just as similar charges repel each other and opposite charges

magnetic field did not protect the
attract, the same way in a magnet, similar poles repel each
Earth, the emergence of life on the
other, and opposite poles attract each other.
planet might have been impossible.
Earth would have been a barren, lifeless rock.
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12.1 PERMANENT MAGNET

Those of us who commonly use magnets are familiar with two types of magnets—
one type is the permanent magnet, which means it is always magnetic and attracts
iron in its natural state. The other type is
the electromagnet, which is created by the
flow of electricity and gets its name from
that. We can stop the magnetic properties of
electromagnets by turning off the electric
current in them. Since we can control
electromagnets manually, we use them more
frequently in our daily use of technology.
When you studied atomic structure, you
learned that atoms are composed of electrons
and protons. Electrons have a negative
One pole of a magnet can never be separated
charge, while protons have a positive
by breaking it in two.
charge. Opposite charges attract each other,
and charges of the same type repel each
other. Those of you who have had the chance two play with more than one magnet at
a time have surely noticed that each magnet
has two poles, one North pole and one South
pole. The North pole attracts the South pole
of another magnet while the North pole repels
another North pole, and the same is true for
the South poles. So, we can see that there is a
correlation between charges and the poles of
a magnet.
Now, you might ask why the poles of a magnet
are named as North and South poles instead
of East and West. As mentioned earlier, the
Earth essentially functions as a giant magnet.
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Therefore, if we suspend a magnet, it will

The Earth can be imagined as a giant
magnet, with its North pole being in the
align itself with the North-South direction due
South direction, and its South pole being in to the attraction of the Earth's magnetic field.
the North direction. The side of the magnet that faces geographical
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North is called the North pole, and the side that faces South is called the South pole.
Since we know that magnets attract opposite poles and repel similar poles, we can say
that the South pole of the Earth's internal magnet is located in the North direction, and
the North pole of the Earth magnet is located in the South direction.
There is indeed a similarity between the attraction and repulsion of magnets and the
interaction between charges, but there is a significant difference between them as
well. We can keep a sphere, rod, or some other object suspended only as positively
or negatively charged. However, when it comes to magnets, we cannot simply create
a magnet with just a North or South pole. If is natural to think that by breaking a bar
magnet in the middle you will create two magnets, one with a North pole and the other
with a South pole, However, you will be surprised to find that it does not happen.
Instead, the broken parts form two complete magnets with both North and South
poles. If you break them again, you will see that all the broken pieces also transform
into complete magnets with both poles. In this way, even if you break a magnet into
infinitesimally tiny particles, each particle will still be a complete magnet, with one end
being the North pole and the other end being the South pole. It is not possible to create
a magnet with only one pole.
Various types of permanent magnets are created for different types of machineries and
everyday use. A type of permanent magnet that humans have found in nature since
ancient times is called Lodestone. Scientists theorize that these metallic ores became
naturally magnetized due to lightning strikes on them. During a lightning strike, a
significant amount of electricity is conducted. You
will be amazed to hear that the amount of electrical
energy produced by one lightning strike can power
a few cities like Dhaka for a several minutes. There
is a close interrelation between
electrical currents and magnetic fields, which we
will discuss in this chapter.
Many many years ago, humans discovered that
when a magnet is suspended, it orients itself in
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the north-south direction. Using this knowledge,

Chinese sailors invented the first compass to
If you rub an iron rod with a strong
determine directions almost a thousand years ago.
permanent magnet in the same direction
Those of you who have played with magnets have repeatedly, the iron rod will transform
into another permanent magnet.
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surely noticed that a magnet attracts iron. Besides iron, magnets can also attract nickel
and cobalt, but they do not attract materials such as copper, plastic, or aluminum.
Materials that can be attracted by magnets have a special property and are called
magnetic materials. If you have a comparatively strong permanent magnet, you can use
it to magnetize another piece of iron or steel. To do this, you need to touch one end of
the permanent magnet to the piece of iron or steel and then rub it along until you reach
the end. Then, lift the permanent magnet and touch it again to the starting point and
repeat, that means, the friction should always be unidirectional. By repeating this at
least about twenty times, you can create a somewhat strong permanent magnet.

12.2 ELECTROMAGNETISM
In the previous discussions, we have covered a lot about magnets, but there is still a
significant question unanswered. This question pertains to the reason why specific
materials possess magnetic properties—their attraction to magnets and their ability to
become magnetized themselves. Examples of such materials include iron, cobalt, and
nickel. Conversely, why materials like paper, wood, or plastic do not possess magnetic
properties?
The reason behind these were hinted in the previous sections—the close relationship
between electrical currents and magnets. In this section, we will discuss that elaborately.
At first glance, it may seem that electric currents and magnetism are completely
different. We use electric currents to generate light, operate fans, while use magnets to
attract iron. However, in 1865 a scientist named James Clerk Maxwell showed that
electricity and magnetism are the same phenomena, which is called electromagnetism.
The reason behind this is quite simple: when there is an electric current, it creates a
magnetic field around it. Just as a charge creates an electric field around it—that means
magnetism is not a separate property; it is generated alongside electric currents. And
electric current is the flow of charges. Current through electric wires happen due to the
flow of electrons.
Now, you may wonder why there is a magnetic field inside a stationary magnetic needle
if the magnetic field is created only due to electric current. Apparently, there is no flow
of charges inside it. However, during the formation of an atom, electrons orbiting
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around the nucleus create a circular motion, similar to the flow of charges or electric
current. This is what creates the magnetic field in permanent magnets. Not only that,
each electron in an atom can be considered as tiny magnets. Electrons revolve around
the nucleus and in its own axis and this motion generates a magnetic field. In other
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words, each atom is a tiny magnet. When these

tiny magnets arrange in formation that create a
strong magnetic field, we call that a permanent
magnet.
Naturally, this gives rise to the question that every
substance then must be a magnet because
everything is made up of atoms. This is a very
logical question. When you delve deeper into the
structure of an atom, you will come to know that
during the formation of an atom, electrons arrange
themselves in their orbits in such a way that the
magnetic field of one electron mostly opposes the
The way a charge creates an electric field
magnetic field of the other, and they cancel each
around it, similarly electric current creates
other out, leaving no remaining magnetic field. a magnetic field around it.
There are only a few elements whose atoms don’t
do that. Those substances can have a permanent
magnetic field, such as iron, nickel, and cobalt.
Due to electric currents, a magnetic field is created—this can be demonstrated by an
experiment. Take a plastic-covered insulated wire and
wrap it around a piece of drinking straw. It is necessary Current
to wrap the wire multiple times to generate a stronger
magnetic field. Now, place the wire near a compass.
Naturally, the compass needle by itself will initially be
aligned in the north direction. Next, touch both ends of
the wire to the terminals of a battery using your fingers.
You will observe that the compass needle immediately Magnetic
starts rotating towards the wire. The battery generates a field
magnetic field, which influences the compass needle to
align itself in the same direction. If you reverse the
Using the right-hand rule, we
direction of the current by flipping the battery, you will
can determine the direction of
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see that the compass needle also rotates accordingly.

the magnetic field created by
The right-hand rule makes it easy to determine the an electric current flowing in a
direction of the magnetic field when there is an electric certain direction.
current flowing in a certain direction. If the current
flows towards the tip of the fingers, a magnetic field is
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created in the direction of the thumb. If the current flows in the opposite direction, the
magnetic field is created in the opposite
direction as well.
When an electric current flows through a
wire, a magnetic field is generated. When the
electric current is turned off, the magnetic
field disappears, meaning we can create or
eliminate a magnetic field as necessary. We
can increase or decrease the magnetic field by
increasing or decreasing the current. Although,
a magnetic field generated only by a coil of
wire in not strong enough. But we can make The tiny magnetic particles in a regular iron piece
the magnetic field more powerful by inserting a are randomly oriented. When electric current
ferromagnetic material, suchas iron, inside the flows around it, these scattered particles align
coil. A simple iron rod is not a magnet itself themselves and creates a strong magnetic field.
because the tiny magnetic particles inside it are
usually randomly oriented, which means no net
magnetic field is created. However, if we wrap a coil of wire around the iron rod and

If there is an electric current through a plastic-coated wire, the magnetic field generated inside it
will attract a compass towards itself. If you reverse the direction of the current, the direction of the
magnetic field will also reverse.

pass an electric current through it, the magnetic domains or particles align themselves
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and create a consolidated magnetic field. In this way, the magnetic field of the iron rod
along with the magnetic field created by the electric current combine to create a much
powerful magnetic field.

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 Magnet

12.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Magnets are a necessity for the operation of electric motors, which are used to rotate
numerous devices found in our surroundings. Motors are a common example of usage
of magnets. Another crucially important use of magnets is in electric generators or
alternators, where electricity is produced using magnets. Scientist Oersted first
demonstrated that if the magnetic field is changed inside a coil of wire, electrical power
is generated within that coil.
If we connect an emitter (which can measure electric current) to both ends of an
electric coil, and then introduce a magnet inside the coil, we observe that the needle
of the emitter moves in one direction, indicating
the presence of electric current. If the magnet is
removed, the needle of the emitter moves in the
opposite direction, showing the current flowing
in the opposite direction. If the magnet is not in
motion, there is no change in the magnetic field.
Therefore, no electric current is generated. If we
change the orientation of the magnet's pole and
repeat the experiment, we will observe the electric
current flowing in the opposite direction.
The generation of electric current in the coil
by changing the magnetic field is called We can generate electricity by moving a
electromagnetic induction. This induction is used magnet inside a coil of wires.
to generate electricity in electric generators.

Food for Thought: When a magnetic rod is quickly or slowly moved in-and-out of
the coil of a conductor, what change do we observe in the emitter?

12.4 MAGNETIC FIELD OF EARTH

In your previous grade’s chapter Structure of Earth, you learned that the internal
structure of the Earth is divided into three main parts: the outer crust, the inner core,
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and fluid mantle surrounding the core. During the formation of the Earth, the heavier
metallic elements such as iron and nickel accumulated towards the center of the Earth
due to its gravitational force. The core is further divided into two parts: the solid inner
core at the center and the liquid outer core. The liquid outer core circulates within

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the Earth to transport heat by convection. This transport mainly involves the motion
of molten metallic substances. The atoms of the molten metals are in a charged state
with free electrons that creates a type of electric current. We have learned that electric
current creates magnetic field. Therefore, this molten core creates a magnetic field
within the Earth, which we perceive as the Earth's magnetic field or geomagnetic field.
Due to the complex nature of the Earth's interior structure, scientists have not yet
fully understood the intricacies of this process, and they are continuously conducting
research. Since the convection process in the mantle is not very regular, occasional
changes occur in the electric current, creating changes or displacement in the resulting
magnetic field. The magnetic poles are not located at the actual geographic north and
south poles. The North magnetic pole is currently near Alaska and is moving towards
Siberia at a rate of about 6 km per year.
The magnetic field of Earth does not only change places around the poles, they have
been found to completely reverse their positions in the Earth's history in about fifty
thousand years. Scientists have determined that the Earth's magnetic field has changed
direction more than a hundred times since its formation!
The Earth's magnetic field plays a crucial role in protecting the existence of life
on Earth. This magnetic field surrounds and encompasses the entire Earth,
starting from the North and South Magnetic Poles, and extends thousands of
kilometers above the Earth's surface. This region created by the magnetic field is called
the magnetosphere. Along with the light and heat we receive from the Sun, there are
also harmful ultraviolet rays and
occasional charged particles that
come towards the Earth. The
ozone layer above
the atmosphere protects us
from ultraviolet rays, and the
magnetosphere created by the
Earth's magnetic field shields
us from these ionized charged
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particles. The structure of the

magnetosphere is influenced by The magnetosphere created by the magnetic field of the
the charged particles emitted from Earth protects us from ionized charged particles that escape
the Sun and is quite remarkable. from the Sun.

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The region facing the Sun is compressed, while the

magnetosphere extends far into space in the opposite
Magnetic direction. The charged particles that emanate from
field the Sun at high speed and approach the Earth hits the
magnetic field which cause it to change direction and
move away. Occasionally, some particles are trapped
Force
in the magnetic field and continue to rotate, and due
to friction with the atmosphere, they become heated
Velocity and emit light. The magnetic field near the Earth's
of north and south poles is the strongest, resulting in
charged the concentration of such light radiation in the Polar
particle
Regions. These unique lights are known as Auroras.
A moving charged particle
experiences a force in a
The charged particles coming from the Sun cannot
magnetic field. penetrate the magnetic field because of another
significant characteristic of the magnetic field,
which is the following. If a charged particle directly
approaches the magnetic field or moves parallel to it,
it does not feel any force. However, if it approaches
the magnetic field perpendicular to it, it experiences a
force changing their motion, which deflects the charged
particle sideways instead of allowing it to move straight
ahead. That is why the charged particles coming from Magnetite
the Sun cannot penetrate the magnetic field; they get
deflected to the sides. If the magnetic field becomes It is believed that there is a
special detection mechanism
strong enough, the force exerted towards the
in the pigeon's beak for sensing
side becomes so powerful that it keeps changing the
magnetic fields.
direction of the charged particles, causing them to orbit
around the magnetic field continuously.

Scientists create accelerators to conduct research, where electrons, protons, or charged

ions are accelerated to circle in high speeds and collide with a target. Powerful magnetic
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fields are used to alter the trajectory of these charged particles.

It is believed that pigeons or birds have the ability to sense magnetic fields, and using
the Earth's magnetic field, they can navigate in the correct direction.

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Chapter 13
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Organ and Organ System in Human Body

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Chapter Organ and Organ System in Human

13
This chapter deals with the following topics:
5 Human body system:
5 Integumentary system
5 Respiratory system
5 Excretory system

Organs are parts of an animal's body that are made up of one or more tissues and can
perform specific functions. The branch of biology that deals with body organs is
called morphology. There are two types of organs in the human body, based on where
they are located. Eyes, ears, nose, hands, feet, head, these are external organs. One the
other hand, stomach, duodenum, ileum, colon, heart, pancreas, spleen, lungs, kidneys,
testes, and ovaries are internal organs of the human body. The branch of biology that
deals with the external organs in details is called external morphology. And the branch
of biology that discusses the internal organs in detail is called internal morphology or
internal anatomy.
You know, various systems are formed of certain organs in the animal body to perform
physiological functions such as digestion, respiration, excretion, reproduction etc. In
class six, you learned about ten of such systems in the human body. You have already
been told about some of these systems in your previous class. Here you will be told
about Integumentary system, respiratory system, and excretory system.

13.1 Integumentary system

The outermost covering of our body is the skin. The skin shields us from injuries,
bacterial attack, sunlight and heat etc. It also preserves water vapour inside our body
and helps maintain our body temperature. Additionally, the skin gives us the sense of
touch, and it helps us sense whether something is hot or cold.
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The outer covering of our body is made up of skin, nails, hair, glands, nerves, and blood
vessels inside the skin and all of these parts together form our integumentary system.
The integumentary system is the largest system in the human body, and some brief

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descriptions of its various organs are given below.

13.1.1 skin
An adult human's body-skin weighs approximately three kilograms. The skin is
about two millimetres thick on average. If necessary, it can be thinner in certain
areas (like eyelids) and thicker in other areas (like the soles of the feet).
Human skin, also known as the dermis, is divided into three layers:
a) Epidermis: This is the topmost layer of the skin that we can see and touch. It
determines our skin colour and acts as a protective waterproof coating on our
body.
b) Dermis: This is the next layer of the epidermis. It is the thickest layer and
contains hair follicles, sweat glands, and Sebaceous Glands

c) Hypodermis: It is the lowest layer of the skin. It is mainly made up of fat and
this layer helps protect us from temperature fluctuations.
Hair

Nerve

Epidermis

Dermis

Hypodermis

Sweat gland Fat

Human skin is divided into three layers
13.1.2 Nails:
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Nails protect the fingers of our hands and toes. It is divided into five parts:
a) Nail plate: This is the hard and visible part of the nail.
b) Nail bed: It's the skin that covers the area under the nails.
c) Cuticle: The thin layer of skin at the base of the nail.
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d) Matrix: The base of the nail that helps nails grow.

e) Lunula: The white tip of the nail is called the lunula.

13.1.3 Hair:
Hair plays a role in regulating the temperature of our head. Eyebrows and
eyelashes protect our eyes from dust. Hair is made up of a protein called keratin.
It is divided into three parts:
a) Hair Shaft: This is the visible part of the hair that we can see.

b) Hair follicle: It is a small tube-like structure in the skin where the hair is
rooted.
c) Hair bulb: The part of the hair beneath the skin that helps the hair grow is
called the hair bulb.

13.1.4 Glands:
The skin contains different glands that release watery, oily, or salty substances from
within the skin onto the skin. The integumentary system consists of the following
glands:
a) Sudoriferous glands: They release sweat from our body.
b) Sebaceous glands: They release oily substances from the body.
c) Ceruminous glands: They release earwax into our ears.
d) Mammary glands: These glands are found in the chest area of humans, and they
produce breast milk in mothers.

13.1.5 Functions of Integumentary System:

Our skin is a crucial system in our body. It is often referred to as the body's first defence
against the adverse external environment. The integumentary system shields us from
microbial attacks, guards against injuries and wounds infections, and helps heal
wounds. Additionally, it protects the body from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.

Our skin allows us to sense pressure, heat, and other sensations, helping us take
necessary actions to protect our body in dangerous situations. Skin also helps remove
waste from the body through sweat, and at the same time regulates body temperature
to keep us cool. Moreover, our skin stores fat, water, glucose, and produces vitamin D,
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which is crucial for the formation of bones in our body.

Our body is in fact a highly complex system, and all the different systems help each
other to keep our body functioning.

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13.2 Respiratory system

No animal can live without oxygen. In our body, oxygen enters the respiratory organs
with the air. It is then carried through the blood to reach the cells in all organs of our
body. Food stored in the human body produces energy in oxidation process with the
help of oxygen which is taken from the environment through respiratory system. This
energy helps in in the daily functioning of the body.
The different parts of the human respiratory system can be divided into three
zones.

13.2.1 Air intake and discharge zone

Anterior Nostrils: The two side-by-side openings at the front of the nose are called the
anterior nostrils. The two anterior nostrils always remain open, and air enters the body
through this passage.

Bronchiole Anterior Nostrils

Nasal
cavity Mouth
Epiglottis
Larynges
Trachea
Lobule
Left Lung
Bronchus
Pleura
Bronchiole
Right lung Alveoli

The human respiratory system

Vestibule: The inner part of the nose after the nostrils is called the vestibule. The wall
of the vestibule has numerous hairs. As this area is moist and the hairs act as filters, it
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helps to trap dust and germs from the air we breathe in.
Nasal Cavity: The part after the vestibule is the nasal cavity. The walls of the nasal
cavity have cells that secrete mucus with cilia, as well as olfactory cells. This slightly

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moistens the incoming air that we inhale. The ciliated and mucous cells also trap dust
and harmful pathogens. The olfactory cells send the necessary stimuli to feel odour to
the brain.
Nasopharynx:
The two nasal cavities open into the nasopharynx through two holes called nostrils,
where air is mainly carried. The oropharynx is positioned after the nasopharynx, where
both food and air are carried. Food and air split to enter the oesophagus and trachea at
the end of the pharynx called the laryngopharynx.
Larynx: This is located just in front of the lower section of the pharynx and is made
up of several pieces of cartilage. The thyroid cartilage is the largest of these and rises
high in the front of the neck (in males). Its location is perceived with the touch of hands
and is visible from the outside. This noticeable bump is called Adam's Apple. Many
muscles are involved in the larynx. Its interior contains mucous membrane and vocal
cord. In full stretched conditions, the vocal cord vibrates with air and produces sound.
Above the larynx, there is a small lid-shaped piece of cartilage called the epiglottis. The
epiglottis close the mouth of the larynx during swallowing food so that the food cannot
enter the larynx. When this process deviates, we experience hiccups. Other times it
remains open for respiration.

13.2.2 Air transport zone

Windpipe/Trachea: The trachea is a hollow, cylindrical tube that extends from the
larynx. It is about 12 centimetres long and has a diameter of 2 centimetres. The trachea
does not contract, allowing air to pass through it easily. The inner walls of the trachea
are lined with cilia, which help prevent unwanted substances from entering.

Bronchus: The end of the trachea in the thoracic cavity is divided into two (right and
left) sections, they are called bronchus (plural bronchi). The right bronchus is shorter
but wider, and it splits into three smaller sections that lead to the three alveoli visible
lobes of the right lung. On the other hand, the left bronchus divides into two sections that
enter the two lobes of the left lung. Inside the lungs, each bronchus divides repeatedly
and form numerous tiny bronchioles.
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13.2.3 Respiratory zone

Lungs
We have two lungs, and they are soft, sponge-like organs that are light pink in colour.
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The inside of the lungs is slippery. The left lung is smaller and has two lobes. On the
other hand, the right lung is larger and has three lobes. Both lung lobes contract and
expand during inhalation and exhalation. The divided bronchiole ducts are connected
to the lobule, which is the functional unit of the lung. The lobules are shaped like a set
of tiny balloons where oxygen taken in through respiration and carbon dioxide carried
by the capillaries are exchanged. Oxygen enters the blood and carbon dioxide leaves
the blood as waste and is excreted from the body through respiration.
You can see that the various organs of the respiratory system work together to ensure
the supply of oxygen to our body in order to generate energy. Humans depend on the
respiratory system to survive on Earth. So, we all need to try to keep the respiratory
system healthy. We can keep our respiratory system healthy by not smoking, staying
away from air pollution and keeping our lungs fresh by doing sports and regular
exercise.

13.3 Excretory system

Excretory System
While learning about integumentary and respiratory systems in this chapter, you must
have understood that waste is removed from our body through their functions. The
glands of our play a role in removing waste through sweat. One of the functions of
the lungs is to remove carbon dioxide as gaseous waste. That means these organs are
parts of the excretory system. We will see in this chapter that the kidneys also function
in a form of waste removal from the body, but these different organs of the system do
not work together, each functioning more or less independently of the others. All of
these organs are needed to remove all types of waste from our body completely and
successfully.
Different cells in different parts of our body perform various function. During these
functions, nitrogenous waste products produced inside the cells. These waste products
are carried in the blood and are usually harmful to the body and therefore need to be
removed from the body. In order to remove these unnecessary waste materials from
the body, the excretory system is formed which consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of
ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
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Structure of the Excretory System

Kidney: Just below the rib cage, at the back of the abdomen, on both sides of the spine,
there are two kidneys. You have learned about the liver while studying the digestive

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system in the previous class. The liver is quite

large and is located on the right side of the Dorsal Aorta Kidneys
abdomen. So, our right kidney is slightly
lower than the left kidney. Since the kidney
is the main organ of the excretory system, its
structure and function are discussed in more
detail below.
Ureter: The two narrow tubes that Renal Artery
transport urine from the kidneys to the Inferior Renal Vein
bladder are called ureters. Each ureter is venacava
approximately 25 cm long. Ureter
Urinary Bladder: The Urinary Bladder
is a bag-like structure which is made of a
type of involuntary muscle. The bladder Urinary
Bladder
can contract or flatten as needed. It can
hold about 750-700 millilitres of urine. Its Urinary
function is to temporarily store urine and Tract
release it at convenient times. Structure of the Excretory System

Urethra: The tube through which urine

passes from the bladder through the penis or vagina and is finally released out
through an opening is called the urethra. The length of this duct in an adult male
is 19-18 cm while the length of the female urethra is only 4-3 cm.

Structure and Function of Kidney

Each kidney is solid, flattened and it looks convex on the outside and concave on
the inside. It is somewhat shaped like a bean seed, but not as tiny as a bean seed. A
grown-up kidney is about 12-10 centimetres long, 6-5 centimetres wide, and around 3
centimetres thick. It has a darker reddish-brown colour. The concave part of the kidney
is called the hilum. The renal artery enters the kidney through the hilum, while the renal
vein and ureter exit from there. The entire kidney is protected by a strong covering
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made of fibrous connective tissue called the capsule.

The vertical section of the kidney shows three distinct parts: cortex, medulla and pelvis.
The outer and relatively dark region is the cortex. Below the cortex is the medulla,
which has a lighter red colour. The medulla is made up of 8-18 pyramid-shaped parts
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known as renal pyramids.

Inside the kidney, the white
part of the ureter extends
Nephron
upwards like a funnel which
Hilum Collecting Vessels
is called the renal pelvis.
Cortex
The effective unit of blood
purification in kidney is
called nephron. Each kidney Medulla
has around 10 lakh nephrons.
The renal artery enters the Kidney Capsule
Renal Artery
kidney and splits repeated
Renal Vein Pelvis
into smaller blood vessels
that go into the nephron. Renal Pyramid
The tiny blood filter inside
the nephron which separates
waste and fluid from blood is Structure of Kidney
called glomerulus. The fluid that is filtered from the blood goes through a tube in the
kidney called the renal tubule and undergoes absorption and secretion process several
times. Eventually, it returns glucose, mineral salts, and water to the nearby blood tubes
and removes only the waste products as urine.
When urine is formed in the kidney, it travels through the renal pelvis and flows into
the ureter. The urine flows into the bladder, due to the contraction and expansion of the
involuntary muscles in the walls of the pelvis and ureter.
On the other hand, the purified blood goes back to the body through the renal veins.
The kidney does an important job of cleaning about half a cup of blood every minute.
This means that throughout the day, the entire blood in the body passes through the
kidney several times and is cleaned.
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Functions of Kidney:
You must understand that the kidney plays many important roles in our body. We can
briefly explain the functions of the kidney as follows:Removes nitrogenous waste
products produced as a result of protein metabolism in various cells of the body.
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 Maintains the balance of water in body and blood.

 Controls the levels of sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphate, and chloride in
the blood.
 Maintains the balance of acids and bases in our blood.
 Maintains the balance of various ions in the body.
 Secretes important hormones and enzymes for the body.
 Controls blood pressure.
 Removes toxins from the body that enter through food and other means.

Purified blood
Glomerulus returns to vein
Ultrafiltrate

Blood enters into artery

Necessary elements
Urea, water, glucose and slat
from renal vessels
from blood enters renal vessels
are finally absorbed
and emitted to blood
Glucose and slat
returns to blood

From the collecting

Necessary water from renal duct of renal vessels
vessels returns to blood
to the renal tubule

Functions of Kidney
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Chapter 14
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Uses of Chemistry in Everyday Life

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Chapter Uses of Chemistry in Everyday Life

14

This chapter deals with the following topics:

5 Household chemistry
5 Table salt, baking powder, vinegar
5 The chemistry of cleanliness and hygiene
5 Cleaning techniques using soap and detergent
5 Chemistry in agriculture and industry
5 Chemistry in processing agricultural products
5 Chemistry in preserving agricultural and food products
5 Industrial waste and environmental pollution

In the previous few chapters, you have gained a basic idea of chemistry, an important
branch of science. When you will learn more about chemistry, you will be surprised
to realize its significance in our daily life. To give example, we use food preservatives
to keep our food safe. On the other hand, different types of chemicals can sometimes
make the food unsafe. Additionally, chemistry has many applications in safe drinks,
various cleaning agents, cosmetics and more. You know that we use different types of
fertilizers to enhance soil fertility. These fertilizers are also made up of various types
of chemical substances. Moreover, the wastes produced by industries often pollute the
environment. These industrial wastes are also chemical substances. Therefore, it is
evident that different chemicals and chemical substances play a role in every aspect of
our lives. In this chapter, we will discuss how these chemical substances are prepared,
their properties and uses, and especially their impact on our lives.

14.1 Household Chemistry

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Chemistry is a significant part of your daily life. We can find the presence or use of
chemistry in food, air, water, life-saving medicines, cleaning chemicals and everything
else we can see or touch. If we talk about food, we can see great roles of Chemistry.
As for example, in this chapter, we will discuss about the chemistry of the food items-

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table salt, baking soda and vinegar.

14.1.1 Food Chemistry

(a) Table Salt or Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
We know that seawater contains a significant amount of table salt or NaCl.
Additionally, there are very small amounts of calcium chloride (CaCl2), magnesium
chloride (MgCl2), and other salts present. In our country, we collect table salt
from seawater. For example, salt is produced from seawater in various upazilas of
Cox's Bazar district. Salt farmers of various upazilas of Cox’s Bazar district build
embankments on lands of different shapes, and leave one side slightly open.

During the time of high tide, when water enters that area, the entry point of
water is closed to trap the water. When the heat of the sun causes the water in
that area to evaporate, salt can be seen. The salt obtained through salt harvesting
or salt farming is refined in industrial plants and converted into edible salt which
is known as table salt.

Salt farming along the coastal areas

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Our body needs various ions such as sodium ion (Na+), potassium ion (K+), and other
ions to properly perform different functions. If there is a deficiency of sodium ion in
the body, then this is where table salt (NaCl) plays a role in filling the deficiency of
Na+ ions.

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Uses of Sodium Chloride (NaCl):

NaCl or salt has various uses in different fields besides its food related uses. Some uses
are mentioned below:

1) Salt has long been used to bring out the

taste of food.

2) Salt plays an important role in food

preservation, eg: salted hilsa.

3) In cooking, salt is used to raise the

temperature of water.

4) Diarrhea causes dehydration in the

human body. To alleviate this dehydration, Soda Ash or Washing Soda

oral saline is consumed. And NaCl is one of

the key ingredients in preparation of oral saline.

5) Salt is sprinkled on the roads to melt the ice that accumulates in the cold countries.

6) In the tannery industry, salt is primarily used to preserve the collected animal skins.

7) Salt is also used in bleaching, pottery, soap and chlorine production. The salt is used
in the chemical industry to prepare sodium hydroxide (NaOH) compounds. Besides, it
is also widely used in other industries.

(b) Baking Soda

Baking soda is sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) which is often known as edible soda.
Baking powder is slightly different from baking soda. Baking powder contains baking
soda mixed with a small amount of tartaric acid powder.

Uses of Baking Soda

There are many uses of baking soda. Some uses are mentioned below:

1) Baking powder is usually used while preparing cakes and biscuits. When baking
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powder is mixed with water and flour, CO2 is produced, this CO2 creates bubbles,
causing the cake mixture to rise or swell. The baking soda (NaHCO3) available in baking
powder reacts with tartaric acid (C4H6O6), and produces sodium tartrate (C4H4Na2O6),
CO2, and H2O. The reaction is shown below:
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If baking soda is used instead of baking powder, an acid-like ingredient must be mixed
separately to make the cake swell.
2) Baking soda helps reduce acidity in the stomach. It can work as an antacid, which
is used for treating stomach upset and indigestion.
3) Baking soda can be used to treat the pain of insect bites.
4) Baking soda is used for household cleaning and for deodorizing.
5) Baking soda can also function as a pesticide.
6) It is also used in ear drops, toothpaste, mouthwash and shampoo.
7) It can produce soapy foam, so it is used in fire extinguishing purposes.

(c) Vinegar
Vinegar is a liquid solution of acetic acid (CH3COOH). Vinegar typically contains
5-10% acetic acid. Vinegar is made from the juice of different fruits, so there are many
types of vinegar available in the market. Vinegar is used in food products, cleaning,
personal health protection and household uses.

Uses of vinegar
1. Vinegar plays a role in food preservation. Vinegar is used to preserve the pickles.
If vinegar is used in preparation of pickles, bacteria can attack it. When the acetic
acid (CH3COOH) in vinegar is added to pickles, the proton (H+) released from the
CH3COOH can kill the bacteria. As a result, the food remains protected from bacterial
attack for a longer period.
2. Vinegar is used to enhance the taste and flavor of food.
3. Vinegar is used to clean mirrors, glass or tables, to deodorize the kitchen or bathroom
and to remove stains from household fabrics, carpets or sofas.
4. Vinegar solution is used to freshen up hair, skin or tired feet.
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5. Vinegar can also be used to remove garden weeds.

14.1.2 Chemistry of Cleanliness:

If we want to stay healthy, there is no alternative to cleanliness and hygiene. When our
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body and surroundings are clean, our mind also remains fresh. We use various types
of cleaning agents to ensure cleanliness and hygiene. We use cosmetic soap to keep
our body clean. To clean the clothes, we use laundry soap or soda. Bleaching powder
is also used as a disinfectant. Besides, other disinfectants such as 80-95% ethanol or
isopropyl alcohol are used to kill highly infectious germs like the coronavirus. Glass
cleaner is used to clean glass windows and other glass products. Bathroom cleaner
and toilet cleaner are used for cleaning the bathrooms and toilets. All these are made
by chemical process. That is, chemistry has a very significant role in cleanliness and
hygiene.
A few items related to cleanliness are discussed below.

(a) Washing Soda or Soda Ash

Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is known as soda ash. When ten molecules of water (H2O)
are chemically combined with one molecule of soda ash (Na2CO3), washing soda is
formed. So, the chemical name of washing soda is sodium carbonate decahydrate
(Na2CO3.10H2O). Washing soda is used to deodorize, remove stains and clean clothes.

(b) Toilet Cleaner

The main ingredient in toilet cleaner is sodium hydroxide (NaOH). It is mixed with
some amount of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). Toilet cleaner is used for cleaning
toilets, commodes, etc. The surfaces of toilets, basins and commodes contain fats and
proteins, various coloured organic and inorganic substances, various types of germs,
etc. When toilet cleaner is used, NaOH reacts with fats and proteins, and NaOCl with
coloured organic and inorganic substances, germs etc. and destroys their effectiveness.

Cleaning Technique Using Toilet Cleaner

Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) present in toilet cleaner reacts with water to produce
sodium hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

NaOCl + H2O NaOH + HOCl

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Sodium hydroxide helps to clean fat and protein substances, because it is alkaline.
On the other hand, hypochlorous acid (HOCl) decomposes to form hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and stagnant oxygen [O]. (Oxygen is represented by [O] in the third bracket)

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HOCl + H2O HCl + [O]

This stagnant oxygen bleaches or decolourizes the coloured substances and also kills
the germs. In this way, the toilet cleaner works to clean the toilet by decolorizing the
coloured substances and destroying the germs.

(c) Soap
Sodium stearate or potassium stearate is the chemical name for soap. The formula
for sodium stearate is C17H35COONa, and the formula for potassium stearate is
C17H35COOK. Soap is produced by the reaction of NaOH or KOH with fats or oils.
This process of producing soap is called saponification.
Based on usage, soaps can be divided into two categories:
1) Cosmetic soap and 2) Laundry soap. Cosmetic soaps are used for bathing, washing
hands and face, or cleansing the skin. On the other hand, the soaps that we use to wash
or clean clothes are called laundry soaps.

(d) Detergent
Soaps are made with natural ingredients. On the other hand, detergents are made
artificially through chemical processes. Sodium lauryl sulfate (C12H25SO4Na) is one of
the main chemical ingredients in detergents. Just like soap, detergent is a type of cleaning
chemical. Detergent is available in both liquid and powder forms in the market. Various
substances are added to detergent to make it usable. Therefore, although detergents are
very effective as cleaning agents, they are not as environmentally friendly as soaps.

Cleansing Mechanism of Soap:

All the dirt that sticks to the clothes or our skin is organic substance and insoluble in water.
Therefore, simply washing with water cannot clean this dirt. Soap (C17H35COONa) is a
molecule with long carbon chains. When dissolved in water, they divide into negatively
charged C17H35COO- ions and positively charged Na+. Since the negatively charged
end of the soap ion attracts water, this end is called the hydrophilic or water-attracting
end. The other end of the soap ion dissolves in oil or grease and this end is called
hydrophobic or water-repellent.When soap, in the presence of water, comes in contact
with oil or grease laden dirt on clothes, the hydrophobic ends are attracted to the oil
or grease and dissolve in it. On the other hand, the hydrophilic end is attracted to
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water, and the oil-like dirt particles are surrounded by the charged ions of the soap or
detergent, forming a ring around the dirt particles. In this condition, when the cloth
is rubbed or twisted for washing, the dirt particles are released. This is how soap or
detergent cleans dirt or germs from clothes or skin.

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Soap molecule
Hydrophilic end Soap molecule
enclosing dirt

Hydrophobic end

Microbes

Dirt

(1) Dirt and microbes (2) Hydrophobic end of soap (3) Dirt-free cloth
in clothes or skin is enclosing dirt or skin
Cleansing mechanism with soap and detergent

Precautions in using excessive soap or detergent:

During the preparation of soap, some amount of alkali remains in the soap. As a result,
excessive use of soap can harm the skin of the hand. Again, when soap or detergent is
used on the banks of ponds, lakes, or rivers, the foam produced by the soap and detergent
mixes with the water. This foam reacts with dissolved oxygen in the water, and reduces
the amount of dissolved oxygen. As a result, aquatic plants and fish living in the water
die. This is how water is polluted for the excessive use of soap and detergent.

Precautions in using cosmetics:

We use various cosmetic products like soap, shampoo, cream, etc., to keep our skin
clean, maintain the beauty of the skin, cleanse our hair, and for various other purposes.
Since our skin is naturally acidic, it can very often protect the skin from bacterial attacks
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or infections. Therefore, if cosmetic products contain excessive alkaline substances

they can reduce the natural acidity of the skin. As a result, the beauty of the skin can be
lost, and the chances of being infected by germs may also increase.

(e) Bleaching powder

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The chemical name of bleaching powder is calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2). When

clothes or any other fabric gets stained with ballpoint ink or any other colour, which
cannot be removed by using soap or detergent, bleaching powder can be used to clean
them. Moreover, bleaching powder is also used to disinfect floors, basins, and other
places. Again, bleaching powder is used to disinfect swimming pool water or purify
drinking water.

14.2 Chemistry in Agriculture and Industry

Chemistry plays an important role in agriculture and industry. In both fields, chemistry
strives to improve our standard of life by innovations.
The use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture has played a significant role in crop
production. These fertilizers supply the necessary nutrients to crops and increase their
yields manifold. Along with fertilizers, chemical pesticides protect crops from pests,
diseases, and weeds. Through chemical processes, soil analysis helps farmers determine
which crops can be grown in which soil and what type of fertilizer should be used. This
assists farmers in making right decisions. With the help of chemistry, the necessary
safe measures are taken to preserve various agricultural crops and fruits. Moreover, the
nutritional value of agricultural food is determined by the chemistry of food.

Different industries and factories require different types of chemical products. The
chemical industry depends on chemistry to produce these chemical products. This
industry produces raw materials for other industries such as glass, pharmaceuticals,
plastics, and much more. Chemistry plays a significant role in the development of new
advanced materials like various polymers, composites, and nanomaterials. Currently, the
dependency on batteries and fuel cells has increased significantly due to the importance
given to renewable energy, and these industries almost entirely depend on the chemical
industry. The industry that needs to be mentioned separately on the basis of chemistry
is the pharmaceutical industry. This industry has been continuously discovering new
drugs and vaccines which are essential for treating diseases and improving public
health.

So, in a nutshell, the contribution of chemistry in the development of agriculture and

industry is incomparable.
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Chemical Substances in the Processing and Preservation of Agricultural Products:

The process in which chemical substances are used to preserve or prevent from rotting
of the agricultural products (such as fruits, vegetables, fish, etc.) for a long time is
called agricultural processing. Agricultural products are preserved by using ice, table
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salt, vinegar, etc. to prevent bad smell and spoilage. For example, we use ice to preserve
fish, preserve potatoes in cold storage. Similarly, vinegar is used to store tomatoes, raw
mangoes, and other items in containers for a long time.

It is to be noted that food products should not be preserved with formalin. Formalin
can be harmful to humans and other animals, and even cause death if formalin enters
our bodies.

Food Preservative:
Some chemical substances are often added to food to prevent the growth of bacteria,
bad smell, spoilage. These chemical substances are called food preservatives. Some
food preservatives are approved by the World Health Organization (WHO). Food
preservatives that do not cause harm to our bodies and have been approved by the WHO
as food preservatives are known as approved food preservatives. For example, sodium
benzoate, vinegar, salt solution, etc. are approved food preservatives. On the other
hand, food preservatives that can cause harm to our bodies when they enter our bodies
are called unapproved food preservatives. For example, Formaldehyde or formalin.

14.3 Industrial Waste and Environmental Pollution:

Various types of wastes are discharged from industrial factories. If this waste is
released directly into the environment without proper management, it can pollute the
environment.
The waste materials that are disposed of from factories can be of three types: solid,
liquid, or gaseous. Among solid wastes, there are metallic particles, plastics, paper,
discarded electronic circuit boards, cardboard, etc. Liquid wastes include toxic
chemicals, metallic solutions, acids, alkalis etc. Gaseous wastes include various acidic
gases, greenhouse gases, biodegradable materials, smoke, toxic gases, and more.
Moreover, without proper management, medical waste, radioactive waste, or organic
waste can create dangerous environmental conditions.

If industrial waste is not managed properly, it can cause soil, water, or air pollution in
a large geographical area. When the soil becomes contaminated with toxic chemicals,
it affects the crops in the area and eventually enters the human body through food.
Water pollution harms aquatic plants and animals, and people become victims of this
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pollution by consuming fish as part of their food. Due to air pollution, people all over
the world are suffering from various respiratory diseases.

Environmental pollution is not limited to just a single area, but it also has an adverse
impact on the climate as a whole. Therefore, it is very important to have state regulations
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on the mismanagement of industrial waste. For this purpose, there is no alternative to

public awareness and collective initiatives for sustainable solutions.

In our country, leather industry, dyeing industry, pesticide industry, etc. release waste
materials into the environment, containing heavy metals such as chromium (Cr), lead
(Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), etc. In many places, these waste materials have
entered the soil and water due to improper processing. When we cultivate crops
or when plants grow in such soil, these heavy metals enter the plants. If we eat
fruits from these plants, these heavy metals can enter our bodies as well. As a
result, they can cause damage to our kidneys, liver, and even lead to death.

Similarly, we indiscriminately dispose of polythene and plastic materials

everywhere. They mix in the water of ponds, rivers, various water bodies,
and even the ocean, turning into tiny particles. These tiny particles are called
microplastics. These microplastics also enter the fish that live in ponds, rivers,
water bodies and seawater. When we eat these fish, microplastics can also enter
our bodies, causing various physical problems.
Therefore, protecting our country from environmental pollution has now become
one of our most important responsibilities.

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 Study of Motion

Chapter 15
Renewable and Non-renewable
Resources
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Chapter Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

15
This chapter deals with the following topics:
5 Resources
5 General idea
5 Types of assets on various bases
5 Characteristics of renewable and non-renewable resources and their differences
5 Generation process, timing and availability of renewable and non-renewable
resources
5 Source and use of resources: renewable and non-renewable resources
5 Water management: types of usable water, use of water in different fields,
availability of water

15.1 Resources
What do we mean by resources? Everything that humans need for their lives- starting
from basic living to living a better life is considered as resources. That’s why, education,
knowledge, skills, and experiences of human beings are also regarded as resources.
That’s why, we call skilled people as human resources. However, in this chapter, we
will discuss only natural resources.
We obtain metals like iron, copper, aluminum, as well as water, air, sunlight, soil from
nature. So, they are all natural resources. We use various natural resources such as wood,
gas, coal as sources of energy. Also, a variety of resources are used in the production of
different materials. For example, the metal used in the construction of various types of
vehicle structures and parts are obtained by extracting from ores collected from mines.
The rubber used in car tires comes from processing the gum which is collected from
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rubber trees. The wood of the pencil with which you write or draw comes from a cedar
or poplar tree. Graphite (a type of carbon), one of the components for making pencil
leads, is obtained from mining. The water in which we clean clothes and let them dry in
sunlight and air are also resources. In fact, these are all natural resources because their
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source is nature, and there is a demand for them in human life.

An important characteristic of resource is its renewability — that is, whether a resource
can be naturally replenished after its use. On the basis of this, resources can be divided
into two categories: renewable resources and non-renewable resources.

15.2 Renewable Resources

Renewable resources are those resources that can be naturally replenished or reproduced
within the lifespan of human beings. That’s why, renewable resources are always
considered as sustainable and environment-friendly alternatives to non-renewable
resources.

15.2.1 Characteristics of Renewable Resources:

The three main characteristics of renewable resources are abundance, reproducibility
and no adverse impact on the environment.

Abundance: Renewable resources are abundant, and there is no possibility of running

out of use. For example, as long as the sun continues to illuminate the Earth, we will
have access to solar energy, and there is no possibility of running out even within
trillions of years.

(a) Solar panel (b) Solar power tower or solar concentrator situated in Spain. Here the heat energy
of the sun is condensed and utilized by using curved mirrors.

Ability to Regenerate: Renewable resources often have the ability to regenerate. For
example, if we collect firewood by cutting branches from a tree, new branches will
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grow on the tree. Forests also have the ability to regenerate. If we harvest a limited
amount of resources from the forest, it is replenished over time. In 2007, the devastating
cyclone Sidr caused significant damage to the Sundarbans. Following the advice of
experts, the people were advised to refrain from collecting fallen and damaged trees
from forests. As a result, within just five to six years, the damaged regions of the

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Sundarbans returned to their previous state.

Minimal Adverse Impact on the Environment: The most important characteristic of
renewable resources is that they have very minimal adverse impact on the environment—
they often do not have any significant impact at all. For example, using solar energy,
heat, or wind energy does not have any adverse effect on the environment.

15.2.2 Examples of Renewable Resources:

There are various types of renewable resources. Some of them fulfill our energy needs,
while some others meet our material needs. Some of the notable renewable resources
are mentioned below:

Solar Power: Through the process of nuclear reactions called fusion within the Sun,
an enormous amount of energy is generated. This solar energy emitted from the Sun
reaches the Earth in the form of heat and light. Solar energy has a huge potential as a
source of heat and for electricity generation. All of you have seen the direct conversion
of sunlight into electricity with photovoltaic panels or solar panels. Large solar
concentrators are used to generate steam for various purposes. In the cold countries,
solar energy can be used to heat water and keep houses warm in winter.

Wind Power: Humans have been using wind power since ancient times. Even a few
days ago, in our country, there was a familiar sight of sailboats on the rivers that
could transport a large amount of
goods without the use of any fuel
or human labour. The power of
wind can be utilized to generate
electricity through wind turbines.
Countries like Denmark, Uruguay,
China, Lithuania, and Germany
have progressed a lot in the field of
electricity generation by utilizing
wind power. In Bangladesh, the
generation of electricity from wind
power has begun in Cox’s Bazar
and Kutubdia. Wind power does
not release any pollutant into the
environment. That’s why it is a
Sailboat
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clean source of energy. Besides, there

is no risk of wind power to run out, and it is widely applicable.

Hydropower: Hydroelectric power plants utilize the pressure of water flow in large
reservoirs to generate electricity. In Kaptai in Rangamati district of Bangladesh, there
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is a hydroelectric power plant that plays a significant role in fulfilling the country’s
electricity demands. Although not indefinitely like solar or wind power, a hydroelectric
power plant can supply electricity for many years. There are a large number of
hydroelectric power plants in different countries of the world.

Biomass: Biomass refers to various organic materials, such as poultry waste, kitchen
waste, livestock waste, other agricultural wastes, wood etc. Through the process of
decomposition, many of these wastes can be used for heat and power generation,
and some can be used directly. Using biogas plants, fuel gas as well as fertile organic
fertilizers can be found, and can later be used on agricultural lands. Organic fertilizers
are eco-friendly and do not pollute like chemical fertilizers. As humans and other
animals continuously produce organic wastes, biomass is considered a renewable
resource.

Forests: Due to various geographical and climatic factors, different types of forests
have formed in various parts of the world. These forests provide a huge portion of
the necessary oxygen for the respiration of humans and all living beings on Earth.
Many resources that are necessary for humans are also collected from forests. If forest
resources are collected following appropriate rules, forests naturally replenish them
over time.

Geothermal Energy: The deeper we go into the Earth’s surface, the higher the temperature
becomes. This heat energy can
be utilized to generate electrical
energy. To do this, water is
pumped underground using
pipes, where the water turns into
steam due to the underground
temperature. Then the steam is
brought to the surface through
another pipe to be used for
various purposes. Countries
that have volcanoes or heat
at a shallow depth from the
surface have good opportunities
to utilize geothermal energy.
Countries like Iceland, New
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Zealand, Indonesia, the

Philippines, Italy etc. can
easily utilize geothermal
energy. In Iceland, 90% of
heat demand is supplied A traditional windmill used in a village in the Netherlands and
a modern windmill
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from geothermal energy. Geothermal energy production does not cause environmental
pollution. Besides, it is nearly limitless in its availability.

15.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Renewable Resources:

Renewable resources generally emit less greenhouse gases, and even if they do, it is
minimal. As a result, the use of renewable resources does not adversely affect climate
change. As they can be replenished naturally or with the help of human technology,
there is the assurance of long-term availability of these resources. It is possible to
reduce dependence on single energy sources by the mixed use of renewable resources.
For example, where solar or
hydroelectric power is
readily available, there is
little or, in many cases, no
need to use fossil fuels.
However, there are some
limitations in the use of
renewable resources. It is not
always possible to collect
solar and wind energy. Solar
energy is not available on
cloudy days or at night. So,
the electricity generated Amazon has the largest forest area in the world.
from solar energy is to be
stored. But, the technology
for efficient energy storage through batteries is complex and costly. In addition, existing
infrastructures are mainly based on using non-renewable resources. Therefore, the
development of new
infrastructure for the use
of renewable resources
is time-consuming.
Moreover, its use is
also somewhat difficult
and often requires
the development of
new technologies.
The initial investment
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to install renewable
energy infrastructure
is high, although that The waste management plant at Jessore produces biogas, compost and
cost will be gradually electricity.

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decreasing over time. In addition, it is

essential to ensure coordination among
all types of renewable resources, so that
the absence of one can be covered by the
availability of another when necessary.

15.3 Non-renewable Resources

Non-renewable resources are limited in
quantity and have formed over millions
of years through geological processes.
Once they are used, they cannot be
replenished within the human lifetime. Geothermal power plant located in the Philippines
Among non-renewable resources
are fossil fuels, mineral resources, nuclear fuel, etc. Besides, various valuable
substances or materials also fall under non-renewable resources.

15.3.1 Examples of Non-renewable Resources:

Some of the important non-renewable resources are mentioned below.

Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels refer to coal, oil, and natural gas, and these are the primary sources
of global energy. For trillions of years, the remains of various plants and animals have been
buried under layers of soil and rocks, and transformed into different forms of fossil fuels.
These fossil fuels have powered industrialization and transportation for several centuries. We
travel in CNG autorickshaws, and that CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) is actually prepared
from natural gas. In addition, the buses and trains that we travel on are primarily powered by
diesel. Many of the power plants we get our electricity from also run on coal. All of these are
non-renewable resources.

Minerals and Metals: Metals such as iron, copper, aluminium, etc., are extracted from
various types of mineral ores. In addition, precious metals such as gold, silver, platinum,
and diamonds are also extracted from mines. These are non-renewable resources. Their
deposits are limited and cannot be replenished once they are collected.

Nuclear Fuel: Nuclear fuel, especially uranium, plays an important role in the
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production of nuclear energy. Uranium is split in nuclear power plants to generate

large amounts of energy, which is then used to generate electricity. However, special
precautions are required for the extraction and management of this nuclear fuel.

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Uranium is extracted from some ores (such as pitchblende).

15.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-renewable Resources

Non-renewable resources can be used immediately. One of the main advantages of
using these resources is their energy density, that means, a small amount of resource
contains a lot of energy, and it is easy to produce or transport. In addition, non-renewable
resources can be produced and used at a low cost using existing technologies. This is
why they are often used.
On the other hand, the extraction, processing, and combustion or burning of non-
renewable resources can cause various types of environmental problems. Indiscriminate
use of non-renewable resources plays a major role in environmental degradation,
air pollution and climate change.
Moreover, non-renewable resources
are limited, so their overuse can lead
to a shortage of these resources for
future generations.
Both renewable and non-renewable
resources are extremely important for
sustainable development. By using
renewable resources and implementing
responsible non-renewable resource
management, we can ensure the
security of resources and environment Iron ore extracted from mines (which is a non-
renewable resource) is used to produce steel.
for future generations.

15.4 Resources and Waste

One of the major limitations of resource use is that they produce waste. However,
this waste is mainly produced from non-renewable resources. For example, glass is
produced from glass sand, and this glass is used to produce various utensils that we
use for our daily needs. But when a glass product breaks, it immediately becomes
an unnecessary waste. Plastic bottles and various tools are made from hydrocarbons.
But when they are no longer in use, they become waste, such as plastic water bottles.
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Again, old paper, clothes, etc. that we throw away are also wastes. Again, we throw
away old paper, clothes, etc., which are also waste. The waste produced in the kitchen
is perishable. If it is not removed quickly and properly, it can pollute the environment.
Waste is harmful to the environment. However, by following some methods, we can

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reduce the amount of waste and use less amount of resources at the same time.
In this case, three Rs are followed (RRR). RRR stands for Reduce, Reuse, and
Recycle. We can prevent wastage and reduce consumption by using water, gas,
and electricity carefully. After the main work is done, we can also use glass
or plastic bottles for other purposes. On the other hand, materials that can be
processed and reused can be used as raw materials for making new products.
Paper, broken glass, metal, or plastic are such recyclable materials.
Question: Can you create any Bangla word similar to RRR in English that
has a specific meaning?
15.5 Water Management
Water is an extremely important resource in our daily lives. Three-fourths of the Earth’s
surface is covered by oceans. Even then, less than 1% of the Earth’s total water is
usable for us. Of this 1% usable water, 70% is used in agriculture, 20% in industry, and
the remaining 10% in household activities. Water is a renewable resource, but it can
become non-renewable due to overuse, waste, or pollution. Due to the high demand for
water on the Earth, water management is essential.

15.5.1. Types of usable water

Around 97% of the water on Earth is in the oceans and seas, and it is salt water. On
the other hand, only 3% of the water on Earth is fresh water. Of this fresh water,
only 1% is on the surface in rivers, lakes, or water bodies. The remaining portion is
underground, in glaciers, or in ice caps on the mountains. Fresh water sources, such as
rivers, lakes, water bodies, and groundwater have a very low concentration of salt. So,
they are essential for human use and various activities. Groundwater stored beneath the
Earth’s surface is a significant source of water for agriculture and drinking water. Deep
and shallow wells and tube wells are used to extract groundwater. The surface water
of rivers, lakes, and water bodies is used for irrigation, fish farming or pisciculture,
transportation, industrial processes, and recreational activities. On the other hand,
seawater is salty and it is necessary to remove salt from it to directly use it or to make
it suitable for other uses. However, this process is expensive.

15.5.2. Use of Water in Different Fields or Purposes

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Agriculture: Water is essential for irrigation in agricultural land, animal husbandry,

and pisciculture, and thus it ensures our food production and helps us earn livelihoods.

Domestic use: Water is essential for drinking, cooking, cleaning, sanitation, good
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health and public health.

Industry: Water is extensively used in the industrial sector for production processes,
cooling systems of various machines, and power generation.
Power Generation: Water is very essential for hydroelectric power generation, cooling
systems in thermal power plants or in nuclear reactors.
Environment and Ecosystems: Water supports various ecosystems, wildlife habitats,
and environmental processes, as well as ensures biodiversity and ecological balance.

Domestic use: Water is essential for drinking, cooking, cleaning, sanitation, good
health and public health.

Industry: Water is extensively used in the industrial sector for production processes,
cooling systems of various machines, and power generation.

Power Generation: Water is very essential for hydroelectric power generation, cooling
systems in thermal power plants or in nuclear reactors.
Environment and Ecosystems: Water supports various ecosystems, wildlife habitats,
and environmental processes, as well as ensures biodiversity and ecological balance.

15.5.3. Availability and Limitations of Water

The availability of water is not equal all over the world. While Bangladesh is blessed
with hundreds of rivers, there are many regions in the world that are deserts and where
availability of water is very low. Again, in some areas there is an adequate water supply,
but the quantity of usable water is limited. In some areas, there is a water shortage due
to higher demand than the supply. When the supply of water in an area is less than the
demand, it creates pressure on the water resources. As a result, it affects the people and
environment in those areas. Consequently, this can sometimes lead to social unrest or
even national conflicts.
When excessive groundwater is extracted from a location, the groundwater level is
lowered. As a result, it becomes difficult to collect water from the previous wells or
tube wells. In coastal areas, excessive groundwater extraction can lead seawater to
enter groundwater, making it salty. Salty water cannot be used directly for most of the
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purposes. Population growth and rapid urbanization create pressure on water resources.
Therefore, effective water management is essential in urban areas.
In recent times, climate change, changing rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts,
and changes in the water cycle have begun to affect water availability, increasing

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water scarcity. It has created

new pressures on our social and
national life.

15.5.4. Water Management

Strategies
Effective water management is
essential for sustainable water
use. Proper water conservation
measures help reduce water
waste. This requires efficient
irrigation systems, water
conservation technologies,
as well as public awareness
campaigns. Polluted water
can be purified and used for
agriculture, industry, and
environmental development,
and thus pressure on clean
water resources can be reduced.
Rainwater collection and
storage can also be used as an
additional source of water. This
method is especially effective
in the areas with limited water
resources.
In conclusion, it is very
important to run water
management effectively by
considering different types,
uses, and availability of water
in order to ensure sustainable
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97% of the Earth’s water is in oceans, 2% in glaciers, ice

water use and safe water
caps or underground, and only 1% is in rivers, lakes or
supplies in the future.
water bodies.

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Chapter 16
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Natural Resources of Bangladesh

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 Natural Resources of Bangladesh

Chapter
16
Natural Resources of Bangladesh

This chapter deals with the following topics:

5 Natural resources of Bangladesh: definition, types
5 Mineral resources of Bangladesh
5 Ore mineral resources
5 Energy mineral resources
5 Impact on the environment due to the extraction of natural resources
5 Precautions in using natural resources
5 Renewability
5 Constraints on resource availability

Bangladesh is a small but densely populated country located in South Asia. It possesses
various natural resources. Its geographical location with the Ganga-Brahmaputra /
Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system and the Bay of Bengal is one of the reasons for
the availability of country’s natural resources including fertile land, rivers, forests
and minerals. The country is renowned for its fertile agricultural land, which is the
primary source of livelihood for the majority of its population. Bangladesh is also rich
in mineral resources like natural gas, coal, and oil. The coastal areas of the country are
habitats for various marine resources, including fish, shrimp, and crabs, which play an
important role in the country’s fisheries industry. The natural resources of Bangladesh
are a crucial component for achieving sustainable development of the country.

16.1 Natural Resources of Bangladesh

Natural resources refer to all the elements or substances that originate from the natural
environment and possess economic value. Air, water, soil, minerals, forests, wildlife,
and fossil fuels are some examples of natural resources. These resources can be either
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renewable or non-renewable. Natural resources play an important role in sustaining life

on Earth and are essential for human economic activities like food production, energy
generation, and industrial production.

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Different types of natural resources are found in different parts of the world, but they
are not equally distributed everywhere. Some places have more resources, while others
have less. It is very important to ensure the conservation of resources in regions or
countries where resources are scarce. Bangladesh also has various natural resources,
but the quantity of many of them is much lower compared to the country’s needs.
Therefore, we must use these resources calculatedly.
The natural resources of Bangladesh can be divided into several categories, such as
agricultural resources, forest resources, fisheries resources, mineral resources, land,
water, and so on. Agricultural resources play a role in economic development along
with food production. Fisheries resources fulfill a large part of the country’s demand
for protein. From mineral resources, we get raw materials for fuel and industrial
production. This chapter mainly focuses on the mineral resources, forest resources, and
water resources of Bangladesh.

16.2 Mineral Resources of Bangladesh

Mineral substances are those chemical compounds that are formed naturally, either
from one or more elements, or by slight modification, and are found in rock layers.
Different rock components gradually transform into different minerals through various
chemical processes over geological time. Among the mentionable mineral resources on
Earth are natural gas, mineral oil, coal, iron ore, aluminum, gold, diamond, tungsten,
limestone, glass sand, porcelain, copper, solid rock, etc.
Although Bangladesh is not rich enough in mineral resources, several minerals are
available in this country. Among them are natural gas, mineral oil, glass sand, coal,
limestone, solid rock, porcelain, gravel, heavy metal-bearing sands, uranium ore, iron,
etc. The mineral resources of Bangladesh can be primarily divided into (1) energy
resources, and (2) ores and other mineral resources. Among these resources, some of
the commercially important resources are discussed below.

16.2.1 Energy Resources

Among the energy resources of Bangladesh obtained from mines, there are coal, natural
gas, and mineral oil. These minerals are used as sources of energy in various industries
and factories. In various thermal power plants, electricity is generated from coal and
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gas, and supplied throughout the country.

Coal: The coal obtained in Bangladesh is primarily bituminous, lignite, and peat type.
Among the coals obtained in Bangladesh, superior quality coals are bituminous and
lignite and which contains 60% to 50% of the fuel carbon. On the other hand, though

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peat is not exactly coal, it is known as peat coal, with only 30% to 40% carbon fuel
content.So far, a total of five coalfields have been discovered in the country. Among
them, the first discovered coal mine is located in Jamalganj of Joypurhat district. In
spite of being the largest coal mine in terms of deposits, coal extraction has not yet
started from this mine as it is much deeper from the surface. However, a large amount
of coal is produced from the Barapukuria coalfield in Dinajpur most of which is used
in Barapukuria thermal power plant for power generation. Three other coalfields are at
Dighipara and Phulbari in Dinajpur district, and Khalaspir in Rangpur district. Besides
these coalfields, bituminous and lignite coal deposits of high-quality have been found
in Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Bogra, Naogaon, and Sylhet districts.
A significant amount of peat deposits has been found in various regions of Moulvibazar,
Sunamganj, Madaripur and Khulna in Bangladesh. Trees and shrubs need to be under
heat and pressure beneath the soil for millions of years in order to form actual coal,
though for peat, it takes several thousand years. The colour of the peat obtained in
Bangladesh is brown to dark brown. Due to the proximity of the peat fields to the
earth’s surface, in Bangladesh they can be easily extracted. Peat is commonly used as
fuel in brick fields, boilers, and sometimes even for household purposes.

Natural Gas: Natural gas is an important source of energy resources in Bangladesh.

Natural gas is basically a mixture of methane, propane, butane and other hydrocarbon
gases. So far, a total of 29 gas fields have been discovered in Bangladesh, and there is
possibility of more gas fields to be discovered. Among them, gas production is going
on from some gas fields, some are suspended and some are yet to start gas production.
Active gas fields in Bangladesh include Titas, Habiganj, Bakhrabad, Kailastila,
Rashidpur, Haripur etc. The extracted gas from the Titas Gas Field is used in fertilizer
factory and thermal power plant in Ashuganj and Ghodarashal, as well as in the
Siddhirganj thermal power plant.
The natural gas obtained in Bangladesh is of very high quality and contains very little
water vapor or impurities, with a high amount of methane (96-99%). Natural gas fulfills
approximately 71% of the country’s total commercial fuel consumption. The gas that is
supplied to households through pipelines or cylinders for household cooking purpose is
produced by purifying natural gas.
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Mineral Oil: In 1986, the country’s only mineral oil field was discovered in Haripur,

Sylhet. About 60% of the total deposit of oil in this oil field has been extracted.
Production was stopped in early 1994 after oil production declined. According to
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experts, with proper management of evaluation, it may be possible to achieve full-scale

oil production.

16.2.2 Ore and Other Mineral Resources

Bangladesh is a densely populated country and, it does not have sufficient mineral
resources, compared to its demand. For this reason, various types of mineral resources
are imported from other countries every year to meet various needs. Though the country

Hard rock Limestone

is not rich in mineral resources, several minerals can be found in this country. These
minerals include limestone, silica sand, solid rock, gravel, porcelain etc.

Limestone: Limestone is primarily used as a raw material in the cement industry. In

addition, it is also used in house building and glass industry; in producing steel, soap,
bleaching powder, paper or paints. The country’s first limestone mine was discovered
in Takerghat of Sunamganj in the early 1960s. Apart from that, limestone is found in
Lalghat and Bagli Bazar of Sunamganj; Jaflong, Jokiganj, Charga of Sylhet, Jahanpur
and Paranagar of Naogaon district, Jaipurhat and Jamalganj of Joypurhat district.

Silica/ Glass Sand: It is the main raw material for glass production. It is also used in the
manufacture of dyes and various chemicals. The deposits of glass sand in Bangladesh
are notable. Glass sand is a quartz of fine to medium size with a colour ranging from
yellow to grey. Glass sand deposits have been discovered on the surface of the earth or
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shallow depth of the earth at Balijuri, Shahjibazar and Chouddagram, and deep inside
the earth’s surface at Madhyapara and Barapukuria.

Hard Rock / Stone: Hard rock is widely used in the construction of infrastructure
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such as houses, roads, railway lines, river embankments etc. In 1966, the first hard rock
was discovered at a depth of approximately 182 metres from the surface at a place
called Ranipukur under Badarganj Police Station of Rangpur district. Directorate of
Geological Survey of Bangladesh discovered deposits of hard rock at a depth of 132
metres to 160 metres from the surface in Madhyapara, Dinajpur district. In addition,
hard rock is found in Patnitala in Naogaon district, Bholaganj in Sylhet and Tentulia in
Panchagarh.

Porcelain: Porcelain basically refers to high-quality clay made from clay minerals
called kaolin. Porcelain is primarily used in ceramic industry in the production of
various utensils, sanitary ware, dishware, electrical insulators, and so on. Porcelain
deposits have been discovered at the surface or slightly below the surface in Vijaypur
of Netrakona district, Vurunga of Sherpur district and Haitgaon, Kanchpur, Allahabad
of Chittagong district; while within the surface in Madhyapara of Dinajpur district.

Gravel: Gravel is found in the northern border areas of the country, along the foothills
of the Himalayas. They are carried by rivers from upstream areas during monsoons.
Gravel is used in various developmental activities.

Sand used in construction: Numerous rivers flow through Bangladesh, which is one
of the reasons why it is called a riverine country. This type of sand is found in the river
beds of various rivers in the country. It is primarily composed of a combination of
medium to coarse- grained quartz. However, it may also contain other minerals. This
type of sand is widely used in the construction of various commercial and developmental
infrastructures such as buildings, roads, dams or embankments, bridges.

Beach Sand Heavy Mineral: This type of mineral is found in the coastal areas of
Bangladesh. Mainly Cox’s Bazar, Badr Mokam, Maheshkhali, Kutubdia, and Matarbari
have the deposits of beach sand heavy mineral. Due to the systematic and careful
surveying operations, in 17 places along the coast of Bangladesh, there have been
identified deposits of beach sand heavy mineral which are called placer deposits. Among
them, 15 placer deposits are located near Cox’s Bazar and Chittagong coastal areas
and nearby islands. Among the heavy minerals are zircon, rutile, ilmenite, magnetite,
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monazite, leucoxene, kyanite, etc. These heavy minerals are used in welding, in the
manufacture of refractory materials or heat-resistant products, and glass as well as
in the extraction of zirconium metal.

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16.3 Forest Resources

Forest resources play a significant role in the economy and environment of Bangladesh.
The total land area of Bangladesh is 148,000 square kilometres, of which approximately
18% is covered by woodland/forest. These woodlands/forests consist of both natural
and man-made forests and are habitat for a variety of flora and fauna.
The world’s largest mangrove forest, Sundarbans, is located in Bangladesh and is a UNESCO
World Heritage Site. A mangrove forest is a special type of forest of trees and shrubs that can
survive in the intertidal zone of the sea. This forest covers an area of approximately 4,000
square kilometres and protects the coastal region, serving as a habitat for the Royal Bengal
Tiger, spotted deer, saltwater crocodile, and various species of birds. Apart from Sundarbans,
Bangladesh also has notable forest areas in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Srimangal and Madhavpur.
Chittagong Hill Tracts are rich in biodiversity. Srimangal and Madhavpur lakes are famous for
their tea gardens.
Forests make significant contributions to various environmental, social, and economic
developments. The trees in the forest absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, and play an
important role in climate regulation. Besides, forests help prevent soil erosion and maintain
water cycles. Forests are home to numerous medicinal plants, which serve as an essential
source for traditional and herbal medicines.
However, the forest resources of Bangladesh are facing several challenges, including
deforestation, degradation, and fragmentation. The government of Bangladesh has been
implementing various policies and programmes to protect forests and expand their coverage. It
is essential to ensure sustainable management of forest resources for the benefit of future
generations.

16.4 Water Resources

Water is an important natural resource of Bangladesh. The country has a dense network
of rivers, canals, and wetlands. The country is situated in the delta of three major rivers,
Ganga, Brahmaputra and Meghna, which is the largest river delta in the world. Besides
these major rivers, there are more than 700 smaller rivers and tributaries that have
crossed the country. In addition, the Haor regions of Bangladesh are significant sources
of surface water resources. The Haor regions mainly consist of north-eastern districts
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of Bangladesh such as Sunamganj, Habiganj, Sylhet and a large part of Moulvibazar.

Major Haors in Sylhet district include the Shanir Haor, Hakaluki Haor, Daker Haor,
Makar Haor, Tanguar Haor etc. In winter, these areas experience water scarcity and are
used for agricultural activities.

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Newly found Bhola gas field

The Bay of Bengal in the southern part of the country is another vast water resource. The
water resources of the country provide numerous benefits in different fields, including
agriculture, transportation, irrigation, hydropower generation, and fishing. Additionally,
it is assumed that there is a huge source of oil and gas deep in the Bay of Bengal. The water
resources of Bangladesh are also vulnerable to natural disasters such as floods, cyclones
and storms. Despite these challenges, the Bangladesh government has implemented
various programmes and policies to improve water management, including flood control
measures, river dredging, and promotion of sustainable water use practices.

16.5 Impact on the Environment due to Extraction of Natural Resources

Natural resources are essential for the existence and development of human civilization.
However, their unplanned extraction can have significant adverse impacts on the
environment. One of the most notable impacts on the environment due to the extraction
of natural resources is destruction of ecosystems and wildlife habitats. This destruction
is often irreversible and can lead to the extinction of various species, loss of biodiversity
and disruption of food chains. For example, deforestation for timber harvesting and
agricultural purposes has resulted in the destruction of large areas of forests. This
results in soil erosion, loss of wildlife habitat and increased carbon emissions. When
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wildlife habitats are destroyed, they often migrate to human habitats in search of food
and shelter. Then the germs of different diseases can be transmitted from these wildlife
populations to humans. Such events are suspected to be the possible cause of the recent
global outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic.
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Burning fuels and natural gas as well as fossil fuels can also have a significant impact
on environment. These extraction processes can result in greenhouse gas emissions as
well as air and water pollution. Burning fossil fuels contributes to changes in the
climate, which have extensive effects on the environment and human society. The
process of extracting natural resources from mines can have adverse effects on the
environment. For mining, it requires the removal of large amount of soil and rock
which results in the loss of green grass cover, and causes soil erosion on the Earth’s
surface. Besides, mining can release toxic chemicals and heavy metals into the air and
water, which can have long-term impacts on the environment and human health.

16.6 Caution in the Use of Natural Resources

We have observed that there is a close relationship between the types of natural
resources and their availability. Most of the resources obtained from mining are non-
renewable. For example, if coal, natural gas, mineral oil, limestone or porcelain, etc.
are once extracted from mines, they cannot be replenished or recovered. In addition, if
excessive extraction of mineral resources is done, future generations will face shortage
of these resources. Excessive mining results in the destruction of fertile land on the
Earth’s surface. As a result, it leads to a loss of the land’s utility not only in agriculture
but also in other areas of use.
Renewable resources are safe to use. If we use them, there will be no shortage of resources in
the near future. For example, solar energy, tidal energy, electricity, wind energy are renewable
resources, and there is no possibility to run out in the near future. However, even though
underground water, woodland, soil of agricultural land are renewable resources, excessive use
can cause their scarcity in the near future. Therefore, where possible, it is necessary to utilize
the water from rivers or canals, and stop using underground water. Cutting down trees from
forests should be stopped, and new trees should be planted.
This country and this planet are our habitat. To keep it habitable, it is essential for us to
preserve its natural environment and resources. As citizens of this country, we need to
make everyone aware of the adverse effects of irresponsible use of natural resources,
and support the sustainable practices that minimize environmental damage. Wherever
possible, we must utilize renewable energy sources, reduce waste production, and
minimize resource consumption. Thus, everyone must participate in efforts to protect
natural resources and ecosystems for future generations.
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