Encyclopedia of

Information Science and

Technology, Third Edition

Mehdi Khosrow-Pour
Information Resources Management Association, USA

A volume in the
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Encyclopedia of information science and technology / Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, editor.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4666-5888-2 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-5889-9 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-5891-2 (print &
perpetual access) 1. Information science--Encyclopedias. 2. Information technology--Encyclopedias. I. Khosrow-Pour,
Mehdi, 1951-
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Category: Digital Literacy 2141

Digital Literacy D
Heidi Julien
The University at Bufalo, U.S.A.

INTRODUCTION the language and component hardware and software

required to successfully navigate the technology” (p. 3).
The concept of digital literacy must be understood in For Jaeger and colleagues, digital literacy expands no-
the context of “literacies” writ broadly. Contemporary tions of the digital divide (a continuing challenge, even
understandings of literacy have expanded the traditional in wealthy nations), to add the ability to use technology,
definition that includes reading and writing (possibly in addition to having access to it. They note that “digital
also including numeracy and oralcy), to include inter- literacy” came into its own in the 1990s, and they give
pretive and creative abilities or competencies across credit to Gilster (1997) for moving the concept beyond
a range of texts, in written and other forms. Text, in the lists of information-handling skills articulated by
its contemporary sense, would include the written national library associations in various countries, and
word, whether rendered on paper or digitally, as well for emphasizing information understanding and use.
as film and multi-medias. Competencies with texts of For Jaeger et al. (2009), “information literacy” is a
any kind are culturally situated, and therefore to be subset of digital literacy.
literate is to have the ability to make meaning within Another perspective is that information literacy is
particular social conditions (Hoechsmann & Poyntz, the broader concept, since “information” need not be
2012). Therefore, meaning-making competency for digital in format. The concept of information literacy has
economically privileged youth in a Western urban usually emphasized the contextual nature of informa-
setting will differ markedly from the meaning-making tion seeking, as well as the importance of information
by adults in a traditional agricultural milieu half-way quality (Koltay, 2011). For some (e.g., Hobbs, 2010),
around the globe with little access to networked com- information creation is an important aspect of digital
munications. In Western industrialized societies, social literacy; that additional aspect relates digital literacy
communication practices via digital means, including to the term “media literacy” which is also a commonly
interpretation, production, and dissemination, are now used term. There is no doubt that conceptual confu-
commonplace; the degree to which people have the sion is evident in this area, in which ICT (Information
abilities required to participate in these practices can and Communication Technologies) literacy, computer
be considered “digital literacy.” literacy, computational literacy, technological literacy,
information literacy, information fluency, digital lit-
eracy, transliteracy, and media literacy overlap in their
BACKGROUND meanings, and are employed differently by different
authors and agencies. As noted above, related concepts
include literacy (basic reading and writing) and visual
Digital literacy, from a pragmatic point of view, is the
literacy, in addition to metaliteracy (a reframing of
set of skills, knowledge and attitudes required to access
information literacy that emphasizes participatory
digital information effectively, efficiently, and ethically.
online environments (Mackey & Jacobson, 2011)).
It includes knowing how to evaluate digital information,
Bawden (2008) focuses on competencies, suggesting
and how to use it in decision-making. This definition is
that digital literacy consists of competency in Internet
a useful one, but it is one among many. Jaeger, Bertot,
searching, hypertext navigation, knowledge assembly,
Thompson, Katz, and DeCoster (2009), for example,
and content evaluation. Koltay (2011) believes that
suggest that “digital literacy encompasses the skills
these competencies include notions of critical thinking
and abilities necessary for access once the technology
(a traditional conceptual foundation of information
is available, including a necessary understanding of
literacy), knowledge assembly (collecting quality in-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-5888-2.ch207

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Category:
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D
formation), as well as publishing and communicating to facilitate citizens to make informed decisions as us-
information. A broad definition of digital literacy is ers and producers of information and media content.
offered by Martin (2006, p. 19): Karpati (2011), reflecting a UNESCO perspective,
states that digital literacy includes “the use and pro-
Digital Literacy is the awareness, attitude and abil- duction of digital media, information processing and
ity of individuals to appropriately use digital tools retrieval, participation in social networks for creation
and facilities to identify, access, manage, integrate, and sharing of knowledge, and a wide range of profes-
evaluate, analyse and synthesize digital resources, sional computing skills” (p. 1), broadening the scope
construct new knowledge, create media expressions, of this concept to include high-level technological
and communicate with others, in the context of specific competence. UNESCO is particularly focused on the
life situations, in order to enable constructive social relevance of digital literacy to enhance employability,
action; and to reflect upon this process. and lifelong learning, with an obvious goal towards
human economic and social development. For Karpati
Bawden (2008) notes that, (2011), the most important aspects of digital literacy
are “accessing, managing, evaluating, integrating,
Digital literacy touches on and includes many things creating, and communicating information individually
that it does not claim to own. It encompasses the pre- or collaboratively in a networked, computer supported,
sentation of information, without subsuming creative and web-based environment[s] for learning, working,
writing and visualization. It encompasses the evaluation or leisure” (p. 4). Karpati cites the UNESCO’s An-
of information, without claiming systematic reviewing nual World Report 2009, Information Society Policies
and meta-analysis as its own. It includes organization (UNESCO, 2009), which focuses on the relevance of
of information but lays no claim to the construction the digital divide, and digital literacy, in developing
and operation of terminologies, taxonomies and the- nations. In these contexts, digital literacy is considered
sauri. (p. 26) critical to development of basic literacy and to lifelong
learning (Karpati, 2011, p. 6).
Conceptual confusion is exacerbated since the Hobbs (2010), writing in the U.S. context, also
preferred term of the European Commission (2007) uses the term “digital and media literacy.” This term is
is media literacy, with a particular focus on critical defined very broadly to include the “full range of cogni-
awareness of commercially-produced information tive, emotional and social competencies that includes
(Koltay, 2011, p. 217). A specific emphasis on discern- the use of texts, tools and technologies; the skills of
ing the perspectives, intent, and quality of commercial critical thinking and analysis; the practice of message
information is not generally the focus of digital literacy composition and creativity; the ability to engage in
discussions in the United States, for example. UNESCO reflection and ethical thinking; as well as active par-
uses the term “media and information literacy,” and it ticipation through teamwork and collaboration” (p. 17).
focuses on the need to empower citizens with essential For Hobbs, what is particularly relevant is the capacity
knowledge about the functions of media and informa- for digital and media literacy to empower people to
tion systems in democratic societies. Digital and media critically analyze the agendas inherent in information
literacy is viewed as contributing to sustainable human sources, and to advocate for minority or marginalized
development, participatory civic societies, sustainable points of view. She clearly takes a competency view
world peace, freedom, democracy, good governance, of digital and media literacy, noting that the concept
and fostering of intercultural knowledge and mutual includes the following skills: the ability to access and
understanding. Such lofty goals place considerable share information using media and technology, the
intellectual, political, and practical burdens on a concept ability to critically analyze and evaluate information,
such as digital literacy. From the UNESCO perspective, the ability to create information in sophisticated ways,
media and information literacy is core to freedom of the ability to reflect on information and communication
expression and information, empowering citizens to from an ethical perspective, and the ability to work
understand functions of media and other information individually or with others to share information in all
providers, to enable critical evaluation of content, and contexts (personal, workplace, and at all community
levels) (Hobbs, 2010, p. 19).

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In the United States, digital literacy tends to be increase productivity by $1.7 billion (in time saved);
contextualized in terms of the ongoing digital divide, that ICT competence improves employment opportuni-
and so it is viewed as important for digital inclusion ties, overcomes isolation, builds confidence and leads
in communities (Institute of Museum and Library Ser- to further learning; and, it recommends that national
vices, 2012). Digital inclusion assumes the ability to governments should take leadership roles in developing
appreciate the benefits of ICTs, and means that citizens digital literacy among citizens. Digital literacy train-
are able to use ICTs to access educational, economic, ing initiatives around the world fall on a continuum:
and social opportunities. This concern for expansion of basic initiatives, which are the most common, focus on
opportunity echoes that expressed by UNESCO. The developing basic computing skills applied to everyday
American Library Association Digital Literacy Task simple tasks. A second level, found less often, focuses
Force Draft Report (2012) defines digital literacy as on using basic functionality of key applications (word
“the ability to use information and communication processing, spreadsheets, presentation tools, email, web
technologies to find, evaluate, create, and communicate searching). At the third level, which is rarely found, the
information, requiring both cognitive and technical focus is on developing confident use of digital tools
skills” (American Library Association, 2012, para 1). and facilities to identify, access, manage, integrate,
This report expands the concept to include information evaluate, analyze, and synthesize digital resources;
stewardship, communication with others, civic partici- construct new knowledge; create media expressions;
pation, and democratic engagement. The report also use the net for transactions; and, develop awareness
echoes United Nations’ perspectives that link digital of security issues. Most digital literacy initiatives are
literacy to “development, prosperity, and freedom” derived from centralized policies at national or regional
(American Library Association, 2012, para. 4). For the levels, and are strategically linked with government
American Library Association, digital literacy is con- objectives such as developing an information society,
ceived in global terms, and its importance is underlined and bridging the digital divide. Therefore, centralized
by tying digital literacy to its potential role in helping initiatives tend to focus on disadvantaged groups such
the U.S. compete in global economic, educational, and as the elderly, disabled, or unemployed. Other digital
intellectual contexts. The educational link is also made literacy initiatives focus on related strategic goals,
between digital literacy and the Common Core State such as social cohesion, immigrant integration, sup-
Standards Initiative for U.S. schools, which actually porting lifelong learning, and supporting optimal use
focuses on “media.” Digital literacy is listed as one of of online government services. Usability and acces-
several literacies critical for survival in the twenty-first sibility, as components of digital literacy, tend not to
century, which include “basic functional literacy flu- be emphasized. Often, digital literacy initiatives are
encies (reading, writing, oralcy, numeracy), computer partnerships between governments and other institu-
literacy, media literacy (having access, understanding, tions. Non-governmental bodies partnering on such
creating/expressing oneself using the media), distance initiatives tend to be motivated by a desire to help
education and e-learning, cultural literacy, and digital disadvantaged groups, while private companies may
literacy” (American Library Association, 2012, para 4). well be motivated by perceived opportunities to grow
their market share of products, such as broadband in
rural areas, hardware or software purchase by the elderly
DIGITAL LITERACY TRAINING or disabled, and improving workforce competencies
(Hilding-Hamann, Nielsen, & Pedersen, 2009).
The importance of digital literacy is widely recog- In the United States, digital literacy is being sup-
nized internationally, and top-down efforts in many ported by a number of organizations and agencies. An
nations to encourage digital literacy were evident from online portal, DigitalLiteracy.gov, provides resources
the 1990s forward. For example, the New Zealand to communities and organizations to support local
Computer Society has stated that digital literacy is digital literacy initiatives. Individuals can also access
“an essential life skill and right of every… citizen” training resources on that portal to develop their own
(Bunker, 2010, p. 5). Further, the Society states that digital literacy skills (American Library Association,
addressing ICT competence in the workforce could 2012, para. 17). Digital literacy efforts in schools have
been spurred by legislation. In the U.S., the No Child

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Left Behind Act and the related Enhancing Education Of increasing concern is the growing recognition
Through Technology Act require technological literacy that digital literacy skills are not developed through
for all children, which enhances digital literacy efforts, experience alone. The key role for formal digital
especially for children from families without online literacy training efforts is twofold: to ameliorate the
access (American Library Association, 2012, para. digital divide, and to emphasize the role of critical
23). Also in the education context, UNESCO has been analysis in communicative practice (Hoechsmann &
active in discussions about technology in education (cf. Poyntz, 2012, 147). Effective and efficient information-
UNESCO’s Grünwald Declaration on Media Educa- finding skills take time and effort to learn. Information
tion, 1982), has worked to develop international media is organized in complex ways, and can be difficult to
education guidelines, and has developed a media and evaluate. There is growing consensus that, for most
information literacy curriculum (American Library As- people, confidence in information skills exceeds actual
sociation, 2012, para. 20). There is little question that skill level. Skills deficits are especially apparent for
digital literacy is important to education at all levels, effective information finding skills and information
and is especially relevant in inquiry-based learning. evaluation skills. Many people do not understand the
Many universities worldwide have incorporated digital context of information—how or why it is produced, nor
literacy outcomes into strategic planning efforts, al- the purposes for which different types of information
though the degree to which these outcomes are evident are made available. Thus, critical evaluation is difficult.
in their graduates remains uncertain. Research shows that students entering post-secondary
education typically are “surf savvy” but not “search
savvy,” and many students, and people in general, do
CHALLENGES not understand how to evaluate the information they
find (Nicholas et al., 2009). Authority is assessed within
Digital literacy is recognized as critical to positive seconds by dipping and cross-checking across different
health outcomes (of particular importance when so sites and by relying on favored brands (e.g., Google).
much health information is now obtained online), The speed of web searching indicates that little time is
workforce development, and participative governance spent evaluating information for relevance, accuracy or
(since participatory citizenship is dependent upon authority. In addition, many people do not understand
relatively sophisticated information finding skills). (or respect) ethical boundaries on using others’ ideas
Digital literacy goes beyond social networking, and and writing, relying on cut and paste techniques to
increasingly, governments are delivering information bring disparate information together. It seems clear
and services online, and online only, which requires that there is significant potential for learning institu-
citizens to be at least minimally digitally literate in tions at all levels to play important roles to expand
order to access that information. In addition, participa- the interpretive repertoires of their learners, and to
tion in the ‘commons’ and in ‘civil society’ depends develop a “questioning and reflective approach that
on citizens’ ability to find and evaluate information. recognizes the social and cultural implications of the
Digital literacy is also recognized as an essential technologies, institutions, and texts” (Hoechsmann &
competency for job performance, since information Poyntz, 2012, p. 149).
gathering, manipulation, and application are key work If many people are digitally illiterate, how can this
tasks. Those without good digital literacy skills will status quo be addressed? Presumably, digital literacy
be marginalized in private and public life, including skills can be learned from teachers in school; however,
employment. A recent report (Head, 2012) suggests despite curricular mandates in many jurisdictions, and
that employers in the U.S. are not generally pleased the presence of certified school librarians in some
with the digital literacy skill set exhibited by employees schools, we know that actual skills continue to be low
newly graduated from university. These young people (Julien & Barker, 2009; Gross & Latham, 2012). Teach-
rely on superficial information searches, lack the skills ers are not necessarily digital literate themselves, so it
and perseverance to conduct sophisticated and in-depth may be unrealistic to expect them to impart skills they
information searches, and fail to bring information from do not yet possess. Teachers’ classroom time also is
a variety of sources together in useful ways. limited, and digital literacy skills tend not to be tested.
What is not tested is less likely to be emphasized. When

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parents are digitally literate, children may learn these In addition, the digital literacy landscape will evolve
skills, but many parents lack this knowledge to pass with changes in information technologies, and these
along. Often, opportunities to develop digital literacy changes will merit research attention.
skills exist at post-secondary educational institutions,
but instruction is not systematic, may be very limited,
and may not be done well (Julien, 2006). The same CONCLUSION
concerns apply to opportunities at public libraries and
other community centers. Despite these challenges, the list of potential benefits
Other challenges to developing widespread digital arising from individual and community digital literacy
literacy skills include unfounded beliefs about the is lengthy, and the value of digital literacy is significant.
relative skills and understandings of so-called “digital Some perspectives and agendas focus on overtly politi-
natives,” and assumptions about the value of experience cal outcomes of widespread digital literacy, including
with ICTs without formal learning of skills. Compe- enhancing democracy, world peace, and empowering
tence with social media or quick Google searches do previously marginalized groups politically and socially.
not necessarily translate into sophisticated information Digital literacy certainly has the potential to contribute
evaluation skills. Another challenge is assumptions to far-reaching and important personal and societal
about the capacity of libraries to play significant roles consequences. Thus, increasing focus on development
in developing citizens’ digital literacy skills. Libraries of digital literacy, however defined, should be a policy
often face severe resource challenges, library admin- priority for all sectors.
istrators may place relatively little emphasis on client
training in digital literacy, library customers may lack
confidence in the potential for librarians to contribute
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Category:
Digital Literacy
Digital Literacy

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

D
Digital Literacy: The set of skills, knowledge and
attitudes required to access, create, use, and evaluate
Digital Divide: Inequalities between people with digital information effectively, efficiently, and ethically.
access to digital technologies and those without such Digital Native: A person who has interacted with
access. Access may include access to hardware, soft- digital technology for most of his or her life.
ware, Internet connections, and possessing the skill set
needed to make use of these technologies.

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