Class 10 - Chapter 1 - Arithmetic Progressions

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. General Form of an AP
2. nth Term of an AP
3. Sum of First n Terms

1.) General Form of an AP

An arithmetic progression is a list of numbers in which each term is obtained by
adding a fixed number to the preceding term except the first term.

The fixed number is called the common difference = d

This number can be positive, negative, or zero

The first term = a

The number of terms = n

So the AP is: a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . .

Finite AP: An AP with a finite number of terms

Infinite AP: An AP with an infinite number of terms

2.) nth Term of an AP

The nth term of an AP is a with first term a and common difference d.
Therefore, a = a + (n-1)d
If there are m terms, then the last term = a which is also denoted as l

NOTE: In an AP with m terms, the nth term from the last = (m-n) + 1 from the
front.
The same can also be solved by reversing the AP, taking the last term as the first
term, and hence finding the nth term from the front of the new AP formed. (The
sign of the common difference must be changed accordingly)

3.) Sum of First n Terms

The sum of n terms of an AP is denoted by S.

𝑛
Therefore, S = 2
(2a + (n - 1)d)
𝑛
= 2
(a + a )
If there are only n terms, then the last term = a =l
𝑛
Therefore, S = 2
(a + l)
𝑛
The sum of first n positive integers = S = 2
(n + 1)
 Class 10 - Chapter 2 - Triangles

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Introduction and Recap
2. Theorem 1
3. Theorem 2
4. Theorem 3
5. Theorem 4
6. Theorem 5
7. Theorem 6
8. Theorem 7
9. Theorem 8
10.Theorem 9

1.) Introduction and Recap

● From Class 9, Two triangles are said to be congruent if they have the same
shape and size.
● Two triangles are said to be similar if they have the same shape, but not the
same size.
● All congruent figures are similar, but all similar figures will not necessarily be
congruent figures.
● Two polygons of the same number of sides are said to be similar if:
i) Their corresponding angles are equal and
ii) Their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportionate)
● From the following diagram:
 △ABC is similar to △DEF, which can also be written as: △ABC ~
△DEF.
Note: When writing symbolically, the vertices must correspond to the other
triangle. For example, it cannot be written that △ABC ~ △EDF. However,
it can be written that △BAC ~ △EDF.

2.) Theorem 1 (Basic Proportionality Theorem or Thales Theorem):

If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in
distinct points, the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.
Given: A triangle ABC in which a line parallel to side BC intersects the other two
sides AB and AC at D and E respectively.

𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸
To Prove: 𝐷𝐵
= 𝐸𝐶

Proof:
Joining BE and CD and then drawing DM ⊥ AC and EN ⊥ AB.
Now, area of △ADE = ½ x AD x EN
So, ar(ADE) = ½ x AD x EN
Similarly, ar(BDE) = ½ x BD x EN
ar(ADE) = ½ x AE x DM and ar(DEC) = ½ x EC x DM
Therefore,
𝑎𝑟(𝐴𝐷𝐸) ½ 𝑥 𝐴𝐷 𝑥 𝐸𝑁 𝐴𝐷
𝑎𝑟(𝐵𝐷𝐸)
= ½ 𝑥 𝐵𝐷 𝑥 𝐸𝑁
= 𝐷𝐵
---------------------- (1)
𝑎𝑟(𝐴𝐷𝐸) ½ 𝑥 𝐴𝐸 𝑥 𝐷𝑀 𝐴𝐸
𝑎𝑟(𝐷𝐸𝐶)
= ½ 𝑥 𝐸𝐶 𝑥 𝐷𝑀
= 𝐸𝐶
---------------------- (2)

Now that △BDE and DEC are on the same base DE and between the same
parallels BC and DE. So, ar(BDE) = ar(DEC) -------------------- (3)
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸
Therefore, from (1), (2) and (3), 𝐷𝐵
= 𝐸𝐶

Hence proved

3.) Theorem 2:
If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is
parallel to the third line.
Given: A triangle ABC with a line DE intersecting the sides AB and AC such
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸
that 𝐷𝐵 = 𝐸𝐶

To Prove: The line DE is parallel to side BC

Proof:

Assuming, DE is not parallel to BC, we draw a line DE’ such that it is parallel
to BC.
 𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐸'
Now, 𝐷𝐵
= 𝐸𝐶'
(using Theorem 2.1)
𝐴𝐸' 𝐴𝐸
Therefore, 𝐸'𝐶 = 𝐸𝐶
(since AD/DB = AE/EC)

Thus, DE and DE’ must coincide. Therefore, DE || BC

Hence proved.

4.) Theorem 3:
If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then their corresponding
sides are in the same ratio (or proportion) and hence the two triangles are
similar.
Note: This criterion is referred to as the AAA criterion (Angle-Angle-Angle)
of similarity of two triangles.

Given: Two triangles ABC and DEF such that ∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E and
∠C = ∠F.

𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶
To Prove: 𝐷𝐸
= 𝐸𝐹
= 𝐷𝐹

Proof:

Cutting DP = AB and DQ = AC and joining PQ.

Now, △ABC ≅ △DPQ (by SAS criteria of congruence)
Thus, ∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠P and ∠C = ∠Q (as the triangles are congruent
and therefore, similar) and PQ || EF

𝐷𝑃 𝐷𝑄
Therefore, 𝑃𝐸
= 𝑄𝐹
(using Theorem 2.2)
 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
That is, 𝐷𝐸
= 𝐷𝐹
(since △ABC ≅ △DPQ, therefore AB = DP and

AC = DQ)
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶
Similarly, 𝐷𝐸
= 𝐸𝐹

𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶
So, 𝐷𝐸
= 𝐸𝐹
= 𝐷𝐹

Hence proved.

5.) Theorem 4:
If in two triangles, sides of one triangle are proportional to the sides of the
other triangle, then their corresponding angles are equal and hence the two
triangles are similar.
Note: This criterion is referred to as the SSS similarity criterion
(Side-Side-Side) for two triangles.

Given: Two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB/DE = BC/EF = CA/FD.

To Prove: ∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E and ∠C = ∠F

Proof:

Cutting DP = AB and DQ = AC and joining PQ.

𝐷𝑃 𝐷𝑄
Now, 𝑃𝐸
= 𝑄𝐹
and PQ || EF. (using Theorems 2.1 and 2.2)

So, ∠P = ∠E and ∠Q = ∠F
 𝐷𝑃 𝐷𝑄 𝑃𝑄
Therefore, 𝑃𝐸
= 𝑄𝐹
= 𝐸𝐹

𝐷𝑃 𝐷𝑄 𝐵𝐶
So, 𝐷𝐸
= 𝐷𝐹
= 𝐸𝐹
(since AB/DE = BC/EF = CA/FD)

So, BC = PQ
Thus, △ABC ≅ △DPQ (since all the sides of both the triangles
are equal)
So, ∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E and ∠C = ∠F
Hence proved.

6.) Theorem 5:
If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of the other triangle and the
sides including these angles are proportional, then the two triangles are called
similar.
Note: This criterion is referred to as the SAS similarity criterion
(Side-Angle-Side) for two triangles.

Given: Two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB/DE = AC/DF and ∠A =
∠D.

To Prove: △ABC ~ △DEF

Proof:
Cutting DP = AB and DQ = AC and join PQ.

Now, PQ || EF and △ABC ≅ △DPQ (using Theorem 2.2 and SAS criterion of
 congruence)

So, ∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠P and ∠C = ∠Q

Therefore, △ABC ~ △DEF (since △DPQ ~ △DEF)

Hence proved.

7.) Theorem 6:
The ratio of the area of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio
of their corresponding sides.

Given: Two triangles ABC and PQR such that △ABC ~ △PQR.

𝐴𝐵 2 𝐵𝐶 2 𝐶𝐴 2
To Prove:
𝑎𝑟(𝐴𝐵𝐶)
𝑎𝑟(𝑃𝑄𝑅)
= ( ) ( ) ( )
𝑃𝑄
= 𝑄𝑅
= 𝑅𝑃

Proof:

Construction: Drawing altitudes AM and PN of both the triangles.

Now, ar(ABC) = ½ (BC x AM) and ar(PQR) = ½ (QR x PN)
𝑎𝑟(𝐴𝐵𝐶) ½ 𝑥 𝐵𝐶 𝑥 𝐴𝑀 𝐵𝐶 𝑥 𝐴𝑀
So, 𝑎𝑟(𝑃𝑄𝑅)
= ½ 𝑥 𝑄𝑅 𝑥 𝑃𝑁
= 𝑄𝑅 𝑥 𝑃𝑁
------------------ (1)

Now in △ABM and △PQN,

∠B = ∠P (since △ABC ~ △PQR)
and ∠M = ∠N = 90°
So, △ABM ~ △PQN (by AAA criterion)
𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝐵
Therefore, 𝑃𝑁 = 𝑃𝑄
--------------------- (2)
Also, △ABC ~ △PQR (given)
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐴
So, 𝑃𝑄
= 𝑄𝑅
= 𝑅𝑃
----------------------- (3)

Therefore, from (1) and (3),

𝑎𝑟(𝐴𝐵𝐶) 𝐴𝐵𝑥 𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝐵 𝑥 𝐴𝐵 (𝐴𝐵)²

𝑎𝑟(𝑃𝑄𝑅)
= 𝑃𝑄 𝑥 𝑃𝑁
= 𝑃𝑄 𝑥 𝑃𝑄
= (𝑃𝑄)²

Now, using (3) we get:

𝐴𝐵 2 𝐵𝐶 2 𝐶𝐴 2
𝑎𝑟(𝐴𝐵𝐶)
𝑎𝑟(𝑃𝑄𝑅)
= ( ) =( ) =( )
𝑃𝑄 𝑄𝑅 𝑅𝑃

Hence proved

8.) Theorem 7:
If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle to
the hypotenuse then triangles on both sides of the perpendicular are similar to the
whole triangle and to each other.

9.) Theorem 8:
In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
of the other two sides.

Given: A right triangle ABC right angled at B.

To Prove: AC2 = AB2 + BC2

Proof:
Construction: Drawing BD ⊥ AC.
Now, △ADB ~ △ABC (using Theorem 2.7)
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐵
So, 𝐴𝐵
= 𝐴𝐶
(sides are proportional)

Or, AD x AC = (AB)2 ---------------- (1)

Also, △BDC ~ △ABC (using Theorem 2.7)
𝐶𝐷 𝐵𝐶
So, 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶
(sides are proportional)

Or, CD x AC = (BC)2 ---------------- (2)

Adding (1) and (2),
(AD x AC) + (CD x AC) = (AB)2 + (BC)2
AC (AD + CD) = (AB)2 + (BC)2
AC (AC) = (AB)2 + (BC)2
(AC)2 = (AB)2 + (BC)2
Hence proved.

10.) Theorem 9:
In a triangle, if the square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other
two sides,
then the angle opposite the first side is a right angle.
Given: A triangle ABC in which AC2 = AB2 + BC2.

To Prove: ∠B = 90°
Proof:

Construction: Constructing a △PQR right angled at Q such that PQ = AB and QR

= BC.
Now, from △PQR,
PR2 = PQ2 + QR2 (using Pythagoras Theorem)
So, PR2 = AB2 + BC2 (by construction) ----------- (1)
But AC2 = AB2 + BC2 (given) ----------- (2)
So, from (1) and (2),
AC = PR ----------- (3)
Now, in △ABC and △PQR,
AB = PQ and BC = QR (by construction)
AC = PR (proven above)
So, △ABC ≅ △PQR (by SSS congruence)
Therefore, ∠B = ∠Q (CPCT)
Thus, ∠B = 90° (since ∠Q = 90°)
Hence proved.
 Class 10 - Chapter 3 - Pair of Linear Equations in Two
Variables

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Linear Equations in Two Variables
2. Graphical Method
3. Substitution Method
4. Elimination Method
5. Cross Multiplication Method
6. Reducing to a Pair of Linear Equations

1.) Linear Equations in Two Variables

An equation in two variables is of the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b, and c are
real numbers and a and b are both not zero.

If we’re taking a pair then they will be: a₁x + b₁y + c₁ = 0

a₂x + b₂y + c₂ = 0
in the same variables x and y

When represented on a plane there are 3 possibilities:

1.) They intersect at a point
2.) They are parallel lines
3.) They are coincident lines
2.) Graphical Method
When plotted on a graph, the equations are called:
1.) Consistent Pair of Equations - The lines intersect at a single point and
hence there is a unique solution.
𝑎₁ 𝑏₁
𝑎₂
≠ 𝑏₂

2.) Inconsistent Pair of Equations - The lines are parallel and there is no
solution
𝑎₁ 𝑏₁ 𝑐₁
𝑎₂
= 𝑏₂ ≠ 𝑐₂

3.) Dependent (Consistent) Pair of Equations - The lines coincide and there
are infinite solutions. Note that a dependent pair of equations is also a
consistent pair of equations.
𝑎₁ 𝑏₁ 𝑐₁
𝑎₂
= 𝑏₂ = 𝑐₂

3.) Substitution Method

Express one variable in terms of the other variable and replace, in order to get an
equation in a single variable, and solve.

Ex.) 7x - 15y = 2 -----------------> 1

x + 2y = 3 ------------------> 2

Therefore equation 2 => x = 3 - 2y

Now replace the value of x in the other equation.
Therefore equation 1 => 7(3 - 2y) - 15y = 2
21 - 14y - 15y = 2
21 - 29y = 2
- 29y = 2 - 21
- 29y = -19
 −19
y= −29
19
y= 29

Now substituting the value of y in equation 2

19
Therefore x = 3 - 2( 29 )
38
x=3- 29
3 * 29 38
x= 29
- 29
87 38
x = 29 - 29
49
x = 29

4.) Elimination Method

Here the lcm of the coefficients of one of the variables is taken and both the
equations are multiplied with the respective numbers. Then the variable for which
the lcm is taken is eliminated, giving us a linear equation in one variable.

Ex.) x + y = 5 -----------> 1
2x - 3y = 4 ----------> 2

Here, taking lcm for the coefficients of x, we get the lcm of 1 and 2 as 2
Therefore equation 1 => 2 (x + y) = 2*5
2x + 2y = 10 --------------> 3

Place the equations one below the other and subtract the second from the first.
2x + 2y = 10
2x - 3y = 4
----------------
0x + 5y = 6

5y = 6
6
y= 5
Now substituting the value of y in equation 1,
6
x+5 =5
6
x=5- 5
5*5 6
x= 5
- 5
25 6
x= 5
- 5
19
x= 5

5.) Cross Multiplication Method

Take 2 equations of the form a₁x + b₁y + c₁ = 0
a₂x + b₂y + c₂ = 0

Using the above diagram, the following equations are created:

Ex.) 2x + y = 5 -----------> 1
3x + 2y = 8 ----------> 2

Here: a₁ = 2 b₁ = 1 c₁ = -5
a₂ = 3 b₂ = 2 c₂ = -8

Therefore according to the equation, we get:

x y 1
----------------- = ---------------- = -------------
1*(-8) - 2*(-5) (-5)*3 - (-8)*2 2*2 - 3*1
Therefore,
x y 1
------------- = ------------- = -------------
2 1 1

𝑥 1
2
= 1
x=2

𝑦 1
1
= 1
y=1

6.) Reducing to a Pair of Linear Equations

If the variables x and y are in the denominator of the given equations, then the
fraction can be replaced with another variable and used to create a pair of linear
equations in 2 variables. Then the equations can be solved using any method,
preferably elimination method.

2 3
Ex.) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 13 ---------> 1

5 4
𝑥
- 𝑦
= -2 ---------> 2
1
Here, let 𝑥
=a
1
𝑦
=b

Then equation 1 becomes: 2a + 3b = 13 --------> 3

equation 2 becomes: 5a - 4b = -2 ----------> 4

Now the equations can be solved using any of the above methods of solving.
 Class 10 - Chapter 4 - Circles

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Tangent to a Circle
2. Theorem 1
3. Theorem 2

1.) Tangent to a Circle

● Tangent to a circle is a line that intersects the circle at only one point.
● There is only one tangent at a point of the circle.

2.) Theorem 1:
The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the
point of contact.
Proof -
Given: A circle with centre O and a tangent XY to the circle at a point P. To
Prove: OP is perpendicular to XY.

1.) Take a point Q on XY other than P and join OQ .

[Note: The point Q must lie outside the circle. (if Q lies inside the
circle, XY will become a secant and not a tangent to the circle).]

2.) Therefore, OQ is longer than the radius OP of the circle. That is, OQ >
OP.

3.) Since this happens for every point on the line XY except the point
P, OP is the shortest of all the distances from the point O to the
points of XY.
4.) Hence OP is perpendicular to XY.
Remarks:
1.) By the theorem above, we can also conclude that at any point on a circle
there can be one and only one tangent.
2.) The line containing the radius through the point of contact is also
sometimes called the ‘normal’ to the circle at the point.

3.) Theorem 2:
The lengths of tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal.

Proof:

Given: A circle with centre O, a point P lying outside the circle and two
tangents PQ, PR . To prove: PQ = PR.

1.) For this, we join OP, OQ and OR.

2.) Then ∠ OQP and ∠ ORP are right angles, because these are angles
between the radii and tangents, and according to Theorem 4.1 they are
right angles.

3.) Now in right triangles OQP and ORP,

OQ = OR (Radii of the same circle) OP = OP (Common)

Therefore, Δ OQP ≅ Δ ORP (RHS Congruence Rule) This gives
PQ = PR (CPCT)
Hence Proved.

Remarks:
1.) The theorem can also be proved by using the Pythagoras Theorem as
follows: PQ2 = OP2 – OQ 2= OP2 – OR2 = PR2 (As OQ = OR) which
gives PQ = PR.

2.) Note also that ∠ OPQ = ∠ OPR. Therefore, OP is the angle bisector of
∠ QPR, i.e., the centre lies on the bisector of the angle between the two
tangents
 Class 10 - Chapter 5 - Areas Related to Circles

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Perimeter or Circumference of a Circle
2. Area of a Circle
3. Sector of a Circle
4. Segment of a Circle

1. ) Perimeter or Circumference of a Circle

The distance covered by travelling once around a circle is its perimeter, usually
called its circumference.

22
Circumference = 2πr, where π is taken as 7
or 3.14 approximately, and r is the
radius of the circle.

2. ) Area of a Circle
22
Area of a circle = πr², where π is taken as 7
or 3.14 approximately, and r is the
radius of the circle.

3. ) Sector of a Circle
The portion of the circular region enclosed by two radii and the corresponding arc
is called the sector of the circle.

In the figure the shaded region is the minor sector and the unshaded region is the
major sector.
∠POQ is called the angle of the minor sector.
Therefore, the angle of the major sector is 360° - ∠POQ.

In the above figure, POQA is a sector of a circle with

centre O and radius r. The value of ∠POQ is θ.

θ
Area of the sector of angle θ = 360 x πr²

θ
Length of an arc of a sector of angle θ = 360 x 2πr

4. ) Segment of a Circle
The portion of the circular region enclosed between a chord and the corresponding
arc is called a segment of the circle.

In the figure, the shaded region is the major segment, and the unshaded region is
the minor segment.
In the figure, APB is a segment of a circle with centre O
and radius r. The value of ∠BOA is θ.

Area of the segment APB = Area of the sector OAPB - Area of △OAB
θ
= 360 x πr² - Area of △OAB

NOTE: When we write ‘segment’ and ‘sector’ we will mean the ‘minor
segment’ and ‘minor sector’ respectively, unless stated otherwise.
 Class 10 - Chapter 6 - Constructions

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Dividing a Line Segment in a Given Ratio
2. Constructing a Similar Triangle
3. To Construct Tangents to a Circle from a Point Outside it

1.) To Divide a Line Segment in a Given Ratio

Given: A line segment AB.

To construct: Divide the line segment in a ratio m:n where m and n are positive integers.
We assume,
m = 3 and n = 2.

Steps of Construction:
● Draw a ray AX, such that it forms an acute angle with line segment AB.
● Locate 5 points (m + n) A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 such that AA1 = A1A2 = A2A3 = A3A4 = A4A5.
● Join BA5.
● At the point A3, make a line parallel to BA5 by making ∠AA3C = ∠AA5B such that the
line intersects line segment AB at the point C.
● Then, AC:CB = m:n.
● Since A3C || A5B, therefore by Basic Proportionality Theorem:
𝐴𝐴3 𝐴𝐶
𝐴3𝐴5
= 𝐶𝐵
 𝐴𝐴3 3
By Construction, 𝐴3𝐴5
= 2

𝐴𝐶 3
Therefore, 𝐶𝐵
= 2
.

Thus, line segment AB is divided in the ratio 3:2.

Alternative Method:

Given: A line segment AB.

To construct: Divide the line segment in a ratio m:n where m and n are positive integers.
We assume,
m = 3 and n = 2.

Steps of Construction:
● Draw a ray AX, such that it forms an acute angle with line segment AB.
● Draw a ray BY, such that it is parallel to ray AX by making ∠ABY = ∠BAX.
● Locate the points A1, A2, A3 on AX (since m = 3) and points B1, B2 (n = 2) on BX so
that AA1 = A1A2 = A2A3 = BB1 = B1B2.
● Join A3B2 so that it intersects line segment AB at a point C.
● Then, AC:CB = 3:2.
● Here, △AA3C ~ △BB2C by SAS similarity criterion:
𝐴𝐴3 𝐴𝐶
So, 𝐵𝐵2
= 𝐵𝐶
 𝐴𝐴3 3
By Construction, 𝐵𝐵2
= 2

𝐴𝐶 3
Therefore, 𝐵𝐶
= 2
.

Thus, line segment AB is divided in the ratio 3:2.

2.) To Construct a Triangle Similar to a Given Triangle as per a Given Scale factor.
Given: A triangle ABC.

To construct: A triangle similar to △ABC whose sides are ¾ of the corresponding sides
of △ABC.

Steps of Construction:
● Draw a ray BX such that it forms an acute angle with BC on side opposite to the vertex
A.
● Locate 4 points (the greater number 4 from ¾) B1, B2, B3, B4 such that B1 = B2 = B3 =
B4.
● Now, join B4C and draw a line through B3 (since 3 is the smaller number from ¾) so
that it is parallel to B4C and intersects BC at C’.
● Draw a line through C’ parallel to CA such that it intersects BA at A’. This forms the
△A’BC’.
'
𝐵𝐶 3
● By Construction 6.1, ' = 1
𝐶𝐶
' ' '
𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶𝐶 1 4
Therefore, ' = ' =1+ ' =1+ 3
= 3
𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐶
'
𝐵𝐶 3
Thus, 𝐵𝐶
= 4
.

Also, C’A’ || CA, therefore △A’BC’ ~ △ABC (by SSS similarity criterion).
' ' '
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 𝐵𝐶
So, 𝐴𝐵
= 𝐴𝐶
= 𝐵𝐶
.

Thus, the sides of △A’BC’ are ¾ of △ABC.

3.) To Construct the Tangents to a Circle from a Point Outside it

Given: A circle with a center O and a point P outside it.

To construct: Two tangents from P to the circle.

Steps of Construction:
● Join PO and bisect it. Let M be the mid-point of PO.
● Taking M as the center and MO as the radius, draw a circle. Let it intersect the given
circle at points Q and R.
● Join PQ and PR.
● Then, PQ and PR are the required two tangents for the given circles.
 Class 10 - Chapter 7 - Coordinate Geometry

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Distance Formula
2. Section Formula
3. Area of a Triangle

1.) Distance Formula

The distance between two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is
2 2
d= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1)
2 2
The distance of a point P(x,y) from the origin is 𝑥 + 𝑦

2.) Section Formula

Point P(x,y) divides the line joining the points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) internally in the
ratio m1:m2 to give x and y are as follows:

The midpoint of the line segment joining the points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is
𝑥1+𝑥2 𝑦1+𝑦2
( 2
, 2
)

3.) Area of a Triangle

The area of a triangle ABC with vertices A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) is given by

Note:
1. To check if 3 points are collinear, calculate the area of the triangle formed by
the points. If the area is 0, then the points are collinear.
2. Area of a triangle is always positive. If the area calculated is negative, only
consider the magnitude to find the area.
3. To find the area of a quadrilateral, divide it into two triangles by joining two
opposite vertices, find the areas of these triangles and then add them.
 Class 10 - Chapter 8 - Real Numbers

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Theorem 1 - Euclid’s Division Lemma
2. Euclid’s Division Algorithm
3. Theorem 2 - The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
4. Theorem 3
5. Theorem 4
6. Theorem 5
7. Theorem 6
8. Theorem 7

1. ) Theorem 1 - Euclid’s Division Lemma

Given positive integers a and b, there exists unique integers q and r satisfying a =
bq + r, where 0 ≤ r ≤ b.

2. ) Euclid’s Division Algorithm

To obtain the HCF of two positive integers, say c and d, with c > d, follow the
steps below:
Step 1: Apply Eulid’s division lemma, to c and d. So, we find whole numbers, q
and r such that
c = dq + 2, 0 ≤ r ≤ d.
Step 2: If r = 0, d is the HCF of c and d. If r ≠ 0, apply the division lemma to d and
r.
Step 3: Continue the process till the remainder is zero. The divisor at this stage
will be the required HCF.

The algorithm works because HCF (c,d) = HCF (d,r) where the symbol HCF (c,d)
denotes the HCF of c and d, etc.

Example 1: Using Euclid’s algorithm to find the HCF of 4052 and 12576
Solution:

Step 1: Since 12576 > 4052, we apply the division lemma 12576 and 4052, to get
12576 = 4052 x 3 + 420
Step 2: Since the remainder 420 ≠ 0, we apply the division lemma to 4052 and
420, to get
4052 = 420 x 9 + 272

Step 3: We consider the new divisor 420 and the new remainder 272, and apply the
division lemma to get
420 = 272 x 1 + 148

We consider the new divisor 272 and the new remainder 148, and apply the
division lemma to get
272 = 148 x 1 + 124

We consider the new divisor 148 and the new remainder 124, and apply the
division lemma to get
148 = 124 x 1 + 24

We consider the new divisor 124 and the new remainder 24, and apply the division
lemma to get
124 = 24 x 5 + 4

We consider the new divisor 24 and the new remainder 4, and apply the division
lemma to get
24 = 4 x 6 + 0

The remainder has now become zero, so our procedure stops. Since the divisor at
this stage is 4, the HCF of 12576 and 4052 is 4.

3. ) Theorem 2 - Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Every composite number can be expressed (factorised) as a product of primes, and
this factorisation is unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occur.
The prime factorisation of a natural number is unique, except for the order of its
factors.

For example, 32760 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 13 = 2³ x 3² x 5 x 7 x 13

Once we have decided that the order will be ascending, then the way the number is
factored is unique.

4. ) Theorem 3
Let p be a prime number. If p divides a², the p divides a, where a is a positive
integer.

Proof: Let the prime factorisation of a be as follows:

a = p₁p₂…...p where p₁, p₂,……, p are primes, not necessarily distinct.
Therefore a² = (p₁p₂…...p )(p₁p₂…...p ) = p₁²p₂²…...p ²
Now, we are given that p divides a². Therefore, from the Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic, it follows that p is one of the prime factors of a². However, using the
uniqueness part of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, we realise that the
only prime factors of a² are p₁, p₂,…, p .
Now, since a = p₁p₂…...p , p divides a.

5. ) Theorem 4
√2 is irrational.

Proof: Let us assume, to the contrary, that √2 is irrational.

𝑟
So, we can find integers r and s (≠ 0) such that √2 = 𝑠
Suppose r and s have a common factor other than 1. Then, we divide by the
𝑎
common factor to get √2 = 𝑏
, where a and b are coprime.
So, b√2 = a.
Squaring on both sides and rearranging, we get 2b² = a². Therefore, 2 divides a².
Now, by Theorem 1.3, it follows that 2 divides a.
So, we can write a = 2c for some integer c.
Substituting for a, we get 2b² = 4c², that is, b² = 2c².
This means that 2 divides b², and so 2 divides b (again using Theorem 3 with p =
2).
Therefore, a and b have at least 2 as a common factor.
But this contradicts the fact that a and b have no common factors other than 1.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that √2 is
rational.
So, we conclude that √2 is irrational.

6. ) Theorem 5
Let x be a rational number whose decimal expansion terminates. Then x can be
𝑝
expressed in the form 𝑞
, where p and q are coprime, and the prime factorisation of
q is of the form 2ⁿ5ᵐ, where n, m are non - negative integers.

7. ) Theorem 6
𝑝
Let x = 𝑞
be a rational number, such that the prime factorisation of q is of the form
2ⁿ5ᵐ, where n, m are non - negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion
which terminates.

8. ) Theorem 7
𝑝
Let x = 𝑞
, where p and q are coprimes, be a rational number, such that the prime
factorisation of q is not of the form 2ⁿ5ᵐ, where n, m are non - negative integers.
Then, x has a decimal expansion which is non-terminating, repeating
(recurring).

We can conclude that the decimal expansion of every rational number is either
terminating or non - terminating repeating.
 Class 10 - Chapter 9 - Polynomials

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Degrees of Polynomials
2. Zeroes
3. Geometrical Meaning of Zeroes
4. Relationship Between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial
5. Division Algorithm

1. ) Degrees of Polynomials
If p(x) is a polynomial in x, the highest power of x in p(x) is called the degree of
the polynomial.

Polynomial with degree 1 - Linear polynomial

Polynomial with degree 2 - Quadratic polynomial
Polynomial with degree 3 - Cubic polynomial
Polynomial with degree 4 - Biquadratic polynomial

2.) Zeroes of a Polynomial

● A number k is said to be a zero of a polynomial p(x), if p(k) = 0
● The zero of a linear polynomial ax+b is given by -b/a

3.) Geometric Meaning of Zeroes

For a linear polynomial ax + b where a ≠ 0, the graph of y = ax + b is a straight line
which intersects the x axis at the point (-b/a, 0). And hence this linear polynomial
has exactly one zero, namely the x coordinate of the point where the graph of y =
ax + b intersects the x axis.
The graph of a quadratic polynomial ax² + bx + c, where a ≠ 0 is a parabola (U
curve). The zeroes of this polynomial are the x coordinates of the points where the
graph intersects the x axis.
Therefore a quadratic polynomial can have between 0-2 zeroes.

4.) Relationship Between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial

If 𝛂 and 𝛃 are the zeroes of a quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax² + bx + c, where a ≠
0, then x - 𝛂 and x - 𝛃 are the factors of p(x).
𝛂 + 𝛃 (sum of zeroes) = -b/a
𝛂𝛃 (product of zeroes) = c/a

If 𝛂, 𝛃, 𝛄 are the zeroes of a cubic polynomial ax³ + bx² + cx + d, then

𝛂 + 𝛃 + 𝛄 = -b/a
𝛂𝛃 + 𝛃𝛄 + 𝛄𝛂 = c/a
𝛂𝛃𝛄 = -d/a

5.) Division Algorithm

If p(x) and g(x) are any two polynomials with g(x) ≠ 0, then we can find
polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that:
p(x) = g(x) x q(x) + r(x),
where r(x) = 0 or degree of r(x) < degree of g(x).
 Class 10 - Chapter 10 - Quadratic Equations

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Standard Form of a Quadratic Equation
2. Factorisation Method
3. Completing the Square Method
4. Quadratic Formula
5. Nature of Roots

1.) Standard Form of a Quadratic Equation

A quadratic equation in the variable x is of the form ax² + bx + c = 0, where a,
b, c are real numbers and a ≠ 0. It is a polynomial in one
variable with degree 2.

2.) Factorisation Method

This method is used by “splitting the middle term” of the equations.

Taking an example: x2 + 6x + 8 = 0
a) In order to factorize x2 + 6x + 8, we find two numbers p and q such that p + q
= 6 (Sum is ALWAYS the middle term b of equation) and pq = 8 (Product of
first and last term of the equation i.e product of a and c)
b) In the above question, we have
a=1,b=6,c=8
c) Now when we split the middle term, we get SUM = 6 and PRODUCT = 8
d) Now we think of a combination of numbers so that we get the product as 8 and
sum as 6. Suppose we take p and q as 8 and 1 respectively,
the product (pq) is 8. But sum 8+1 ≠ 6.
Hence , we try another combination.
Clearly, 2 + 4 = 6 and 2 × 4 = 8.
 Here, p = 2, q = 4
e) We now split the middle term 6x in the given quadratic as 2x + 4x, so that x2 +
6x + 8 = 0
x2 + 2x + 4x + 8 = 0
x (x + 2) + 4 (x+ 2) = 0
(x + 2) (x + 4) = 0
Hence , x = - 2 and x = - 4 are the roots of the given equation.

3.) Completing the Square Method

Step 1 Divide all terms by a (the coefficient of x2).
Step 2 Move the number term (c/a) to the right side of the equation.
Step 3 Complete the square on the left side of the equation and balance this by
adding the same value to the right side of the equation.

We now have something that looks like (x + p)2 = q, which can be solved
rather easily: Step 4 Take the square root on both sides of the equation.
Step 5 Subtract the number that remains on the left side of the equation to find x.

Note: If “a” is not a square number, we need to multiply the whole equation “a”
times in order to solve it easily.
To solve x2 + 4x + 1 = 0

Step 1 This step can be skipped in this example since the

coefficient of x2 is . Step 2 Move the number term to the right
side of the equation:
x2 + 4x = - 1

Step 3 Complete the square on the left side of the equation and balance this by
adding the same number to the right side of the equation.

(b/2)2 = (4/2)2 = 22 = 4
x2 + 4x + 4 = -1 + 4
(x + 2)2 = 3

Step 4 Take the square root on both sides of the equation:

x + 2 = ±√3 = ±1.73 (to 2 decimals)

Step 5 Subtract 2 from both sides:

x = ±1.73 – 2 = -3.73 or -0.27

4.) Quadratic Formula

If “b2 – 4ac ≥ 0”, Roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c =
0 are given by

5.) Nature of Roots

b2 – 4ac is called the discriminant (D) of the quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0.
The quadratic equation has:
● two distinct real roots, if b2 – 4ac > 0
● two equal real roots, if b2 – 4ac = 0
● no real roots, if b2 – 4ac < 0
 Class 10 - Chapter 11 - Introduction to Trigonometry

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Trigonometric Ratios
2. Trigonometric Ratios of Specific Angles
3. Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles
4. Trigonometric Identities

1.) Trigonometric Ratios

This is a right angled triangle ABC.

With respect to ㄥACB or ㄥC the sides of the triangle are defined as follows:

AC = Hypotenuse

BC = Side adjacent to angle C, called base or adjacent

AB = Side opposite to angle C, called altitude or opposite

There are six trigonometric ratios, sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant
and cotangent.

Note: From the above ratios, we can say that:

𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
tan θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
cot θ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
1
tan θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ

Note: The values of the trigonometric ratios of an angle do not vary with
the lengths of the sides of the triangle, if the angle remains the same.

2.) Trigonometric Ratios of Specific Angles

Note:
1. Since the hypotenuse is the longest side in a right triangle, the value of
sin A or cos A is always less than or equal to 1.
2. The values of secA or cosecA are always greater than or equal to 1.

3.) Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles

sin (90° – C) = cos C

tan (90° – C) = cot C

sec (90° – C) = cosec C

cos(90°– C) = sin C

cot (90° – C) = tan C

cosec (90° – C) = sec C

4.) Trigonometric Identities

sin2 A + cos2 A = 1

sec2 A - tan2 A = 1 OR 1 + tan2 A = sec2 A

cosec2 A - cot2 A = 1 OR 1 + cot2 A = cosec2 A

 Class 10 - Chapter 12 - Some Applications of Trigonometry

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Heights and Distances

1.) Heights and Distances

Line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point in the object
viewed by the observer.
The angle of elevation of the point viewed, is the angle formed by the line of sight with
the horizontal when the point being viewed is above the horizontal level (The case
when we raise our head to look at the object).
The angle of depression of a point on the object being viewed is the angle formed by
the line of sight with the horizontal when the point is below the horizontal level (The
case when we lower our head to look at the point being viewed).

Heights and distances are calculated making use of the various properties of triangles
and trigonometry. It is recommended to practice application problems from this chapter
since the theory needed has been covered in the chapter - Introduction to Trigonometry.
 Class 10 - Chapter 14 - Probability

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Probability of an Event
2. Sum of all Probabilities
3. Complementary Events
4. Impossible and Sure Events
5. Tossing a Coin
6. Rolling Dice
7. Deck of Cards

1. ) Probability of an Event
The probability of an event E, written as P(E), is defined as

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐸

P(E) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

An event having only one outcome of the experiment is called an elementary event.

2. ) Sum of all Probabilities

The sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is 1.

3. ) Complementary Events
For every event E, there is an event ‘not E’ denoted by the symbol Ē. The event Ē,
is called the complement of the event E. We also say that E and Ē are
complementary events.

P(E) + P(Ē) = 1
P(Ē) = 1 - P(E)
4. ) Impossible and Sure Events
From the definition of the probability P(E), we see that the numerator is always
less than or equal to the denominator.

Therefore, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
An impossible event is an event which is impossible to occur, and such an event
has a probability of 0.

A sure or certain event is an event which is sure to occur, and such an event has a
probability of 1.

5.) Tossing a Coin

A coin has two sides, heads and tails ( H and T ).
● When we toss a single coin, the possibilities are: H or T
● When we toss two coins, the possibilities are: HH, TT, HT, TH
● When we toss three coins, the possibilities are:
HHH, TTT, HHT, HTH, THH, THT, TTH, HTT

6.) Rolling Dice

One die has 6 faces each with a number from 1 to 6.

● When we roll one die, the possibilities are : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6

● When we roll two dice. the possibilities are:
(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
(2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
(3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
(4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)
(5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
(6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)
7.) Deck of Cards
One deck of playing cards has 52 cards.

● Number of suits = 4 (clubs, spades, diamonds, hearts)

● Number of cards in each suit = 13 (A, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, J, Q, K)
● Total number of cards in a deck = 13 x 4 = 52
● Number of red cards = 13 x 2 = 26 (diamonds, hearts)
● Number of black cards = 13 x 2 = 26 (clubs, spades)
● Number of face cards in a suit = 3 ( J, Q, K )
● Number of face cards in a deck = 3 x 4 = 12
 Class 10 - Chapter 15 - Surface Areas and Volumes
Combinations

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Cylinder and Hemisphere
2. Hemisphere Embedded in a Cylinder
3. Cylinder and Two Hemispheres
4. Two Hemispheres Embedded in a Cylinder
5. Two Cubes
6. Hemisphere and Cube
7. Hemisphere Embedded in a Cube
8. Half Cylinder and Cuboid
9. Cone and Cylinder
10.Cone Embedded in a Cylinder
11.Cylinder and Two Cones
12.Cone and Hemisphere
13.Hemisphere, Cylinder, and Cone

Note: Students need not memorise any of the below formulae. The concept of a
combination of solids must be understood, after which, the student can derive the
formula using existing knowledge about surface areas and volumes of a
combination of the given solid figures.

1.) Cylinder and Hemisphere

2
Curved Surface Area = 2πrh + 2π𝑟
2
Total Surface Area = 2πrh + 3π𝑟
2 2 3
Volume = π𝑟 h + 3
(π𝑟 )
2.) Hemisphere Embedded in a Cylinder

2
Total Surface Area = 2πrh + 3π𝑟
2 2 3
Volume = π𝑟 h - 3
(π𝑟 )

3.) Cylinder and Two Hemispheres

2
Total Surface Area = 2πrh + 4π𝑟
2 4 3
Volume = π𝑟 h + 3
(π𝑟 )

4.) Two Hemispheres Embedded in a Cylinder

2
Total Surface Area = 2πrh + 4π𝑟
2 4 3
Volume = π𝑟 h - 3 (π𝑟 )

5.) Two Cubes

2
Total Surface Area = 10𝑎
3
Volume = 2𝑎

6.) Hemisphere and Cube

2 2 2 2
Total Surface Area = 5𝑎 + 2π𝑟 + (𝑎 - π𝑟 )
 2 2
= 6𝑎 + π𝑟
3 2 3
Volume = 𝑎 + 3
(π𝑟 )

7.) Hemisphere Embedded in a Cube

2 2 2 2
Total Surface Area = 5𝑎 + 2π𝑟 + (𝑎 - π𝑟 )
2 2
= 6𝑎 + π𝑟
3 2 3
Volume = 𝑎 - 3
(π𝑟 )

8.) Half Cylinder and Cuboid

2
Total Surface Area = lb + 2(lh + bh) + πrh + π𝑟
1 2
Volume = lbh + 2
π𝑟 h

9.) Cone and Cylinder

2
Total Surface Area = πrl + 2πrh + π𝑟
1 2 2
Volume = 3
π𝑟 h’ + π𝑟 h
10.) Cone Embedded in a Cylinder
2
Total Surface Area = πrl + 2πrh + π𝑟
2 1 2
Volume = π𝑟 h - 3
π𝑟 h

11.) Cylinder and Two Cones

Total Surface Area = 2πrl + 2πrh

2 2 2
Volume = π𝑟 h + 3
π𝑟 h’

12.) Cone and Hemisphere

2
Total Surface Area = πrl + 2π𝑟
1 2 2 3
Volume = 3
π𝑟 h + 3
(π𝑟 )

13.) Hemisphere, Cylinder, and Cone

2
Total Surface Area = 2π𝑟 + 2πrh + πrl
2 3 2 1 2
Volume = 3
(π𝑟 ) + π𝑟 h + 3
π𝑟 h’
 Class 10 - Chapter 15 - Surface Areas and Volumes

Split Up of the Chapter:

1. Cylinder
2. Cone
3. Sphere
4. Hemisphere
5. Cube
6. Cuboid
7. Frustum of a Cone

1.) Cylinder

2
Area of cross section = π𝑟
Perimeter of cross section = 2πr
Curved Surface Area = 2πrh
2
Total Surface Area = 2πrh + 2π𝑟
2
Volume = π𝑟 h

2.) Cone

2 2
Curved Surface Area = πrl, where l = 𝑟 +ℎ
2
Total Surface Area = πrl + π𝑟
1 2
Volume = 3
(π𝑟 h)
3.) Sphere

2
Total Surface Area = 4π𝑟
4 3
Volume = 3
(π𝑟 )

4.) Hemisphere

2
Curved Surface Area = 2π𝑟
2
Total Surface Area = 3π𝑟
2 3
Volume = 3
(π𝑟 )

5.) Cube

2
Total Surface Area = 6𝑎
2
Lateral Surface Area = 4𝑎
3
Volume = 𝑎

6.) Cuboid

Total Surface Area = 2(lb+bh+hl)

Volume = lbh

7.) Frustum

Curved Surface Area = 𝜋𝑟1𝑙 + 𝜋𝑟2𝑙 ,

 2 2
where 𝑙 = ℎ + (𝑟1 − 𝑟2)
2 2
Total Surface Area = 𝜋𝑟1𝑙 + 𝜋𝑟2𝑙 + 𝜋𝑟1 + 𝜋𝑟2
1 2 1 2 1
Volume = 3
𝜋𝑟1ℎ+ 3 𝜋𝑟2ℎ+ 3 π𝑟1𝑟2ℎ
 sitaraakka.org

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