Important Questions:Phonetics &Phonology (Sem3)

1. Define Phonetics, its branches & Difference with Phonology

2. What are Stages of Voice Production?

3. What are different type of Articulators? Discuss Articulators/SpeechOrgans

4. Discuss Air Stream Mechanism & Modes of Phonation

5. Explain “Places of Articulation”

6. Explain “Manner of Articulation”

7. Discuss English ‘Consonant’ Sounds (Place, Manner)

8. Discuss English ‘Vowel’ Sounds (Cardinal, Short, Long)

9. Discuss English ‘Vowel’ Sounds (Diphthongs & Triphthongs)

10. Define ‘Syllable’ &‘Word Stress’ .Explain ‘Word Stress’ in different English
Words/Word Classes.

11. What are Weak Forms in Connected Speech? Explain

12. What do you know about ‘Intonation Patterns’

13. How can we teach Pronunciation Effectively?

14. Phonetic Transcription of commonly used words

 Qno. 1 PHONETICS, ITS BRANCHES
AND DIFFERENCE WITH
PHONOLOGY

Phonetics – The Study of the Speech Sounds

Introduction

Phonetics is defined as the scientific study of speech sounds,

encompassing the production, transmission, and reception of the
speech sounds by human beings. In the process of speaking and listening,
a complex set of activities are involved: there is the production of speech
which is the result of simultaneous activities of several body organs. It
focuses on the processes and mechanisms of:

• The production of the speech sounds

• Transmission of the speech sounds
• Reception of the speech sounds
• Physical properties of the speech sounds
Speech production involves simultaneous actions of various body
organs, aiming to create disturbances in the air. The inhaled air acts as a
source of energy, causing vibrations in the outside air, and the resulting
sound travels to the listener’s ears.
Examples

1. Acoustic Aspect:
It involves the study of the physical transmission of speech
sounds from the speaker to the listener.
For instance, the acoustic signature of the English vowel /a/ can be
identified by its specific frequency and amplitude characteristics.
2. Auditory Aspect:
It is the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by
the listener.
An example is the listener’s perception of the difference between
the English sounds /b/ and /p/ based on the voicing and
aspiration distinctions.
3. Articulatory Aspect:
Examining the movements of speech organs during sound
production is part of articulatory phonetics.
When pronouncing the English sound /t/, the tongue makes contact
with the alveolar ridge, illustrating articulatory phonetics.

Branches of Phonetics

There are three major branches of phonetics:

 Acoustic Phonetics
Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech
sounds such as frequency and amplitude in their transmission. It
involves the analysis of speech waves using instruments, aiming to
describe the physical properties of the sound stream emanating from a
speaker’s mouth.

• Analysis of Speech Waves:

Acoustic phoneticians use instruments to break down complex sound
waves into component frequencies and relative amplitudes.

Example: When analyzing the English vowel /i/, acoustic phonetics

helps identify the specific frequencies and amplitudes associated with
its sound.
 • Developments Since World War II:
Significant advancements in acoustic phonetics have occurred since
the Second World War.

Example: Modern technology allows for detailed analysis of speech

waves, contributing to our understanding of speech production.

• Speech-Synthesis Progress:
Acoustic phonetics has played a crucial role in the progress of speech
synthesis.

Example: Text-to-speech systems utilize acoustic principles to

generate natural-sounding speech.

• Identification of Articulatory Features:

Acoustic analysis can identify articulatory features like rounding of
voice, nasality, obstruction, and friction.

Example: The articulatory feature of nasality in the French nasal

vowel /ã/ can be identified through acoustic analysis.

• Successes and Challenges

Acoustic phonetics has achieved success in studying vowels but
faces ongoing challenges with consonants.

Example: While the acoustic properties of the English vowels are

well-understood, consonants present complexities that continue to be
explored.
 Auditory Phonetics
Auditory Phonetics studies how speech sounds are heard and
perceived. This requires a close study of the psychology of perception
on the one hand, and the mechanism of the neuromuscular circuitry on
the other. It involves:

 How Brain receives Input, and

 How it forms Perceptual Representation

Hearing is a complex process, requiring an understanding of the

psychological aspects of perception and the mechanisms within the
neuro-muscular system.
 • Psychology of Perception:
Auditory phonetics involves studying how the mind interprets the
physical description of signals.

Example: When a person hears the English sound /f/, auditory

phonetics examines how the mind processes the physical
characteristics of this sound.

• Neuro-Muscular Circuitry:
Understanding the neuro-muscular circuitry is crucial in auditory
phonetics.

Example: When a speaker produces the French nasal vowel /ɑ̃/, the
auditory system must interpret the specific neuro-muscular activities
involved in producing this sound.

• Intricacies of Hearing:

Hearing implies interpreting physical descriptions of signals in terms

of auditory sensations.

Example: The listener’s ability to distinguish between the English

sounds /p/ and /b/ demonstrates the intricacies of auditory perception.

• Complex Chain of Disturbances:

Acoustic signals create a complex chain of physical disturbances

within the auditory system.
 Example: The acoustic signal of the English diphthong /aɪ/ sets off a
chain of disturbances in the auditory system, leading to the perception
of the corresponding sound.

• Correlation Between Signals and Interpretation:

Establishing a correlation between auditory signals and their
interpretation in terms of brain disturbances is necessary.

Example: The recognition of the English word “cat” involves

correlating the auditory signals with the corresponding disturbances in
the brain responsible for understanding the word.

Articulatory Phonetics
Articulatory phonetics is the production of speech sounds. It focuses on
the speech-producing mechanism within human beings. This branch of
phonetics recognizes that the apparatus responsible for producing
speech sounds is located within the human body. Various organs, initially
serving biological functions, are utilized for speech production through
cultural evolution.

• Speech-Producing Mechanism:
Articulatory phonetics acknowledges the existence of a mechanism
within the human body for producing speech sounds.

Example: When pronouncing the English sound /m/, the articulatory

phonetics perspective considers how the lips come together to create
the sound.

• Diverse Organs and Their Functions:

Different organs, including lips, teeth, tongue, hard palate, soft palate,
trachea, and lungs, have various basic biological functions.

Example: The tongue, with its versatile movements, plays a crucial

role in articulatory phonetics, as seen in the pronunciation of the
Spanish rolled /r/.

• Cultural Evolution and Verbal Communication:

Through cultural evolution, humans have devised ways to use these
organs for verbal communication.
 Example: The utilization of the teeth and tongue in producing the
Japanese sound /ɾ/ reflects cultural adaptations in articulatory
phonetics.

• Airstream as the Basis of Speech:

The outgoing airstream, driven by the lungs, forms the foundation of

speech.

Example: When producing the German fricative /χ/, articulatory

phonetics explores how the airstream is regulated to create the specific
sound.

• Regulation of Airstream in Vocal Tract:

Articulatory phonetics studies how the outgoing airstream is regulated
along the vocal tract to produce various speech sounds.

Example: The articulatory precision involved in producing the French

nasalized vowel /ɑ̃/ demonstrates the regulation of the airstream in
articulatory phonetics.

Place of Articulation
Place of articulation refers to the specific location within the vocal
tract where speech sounds are produced by the interaction of
various speech organs, such as the tongue, lips, and palate.
It indicates where the constriction or closure occurs during the
articulation of a particular sound. Different places of articulation
contribute to the diversity of speech sounds in a language. Examples
include bilabial (both lips), alveolar (against the alveolar ridge), and velar
(back of the tongue against the velum).

• Bilabial
Articulation involving both lips.
Examples: [p], [b], [m]
• Labio-Dental
Involves the upper teeth and lower lip.
Examples: [f], [v]
• Alveolar
Utilizes the tongue against the alveolar ridge.
Examples: [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l]
• Palatal
Involves the tongue against the hard
palate. Example: [j]
• Velar
Articulation with the back of the tongue against the
velum. Examples: [k], [g]
• Glottal
Involves the space between the vocal
folds. Example: [h]
Manners of Articulation
In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation refers to the
configuration and interaction of speech organs (tongue, lips, palate)
during speech sound production. Stricture, or how closely these organs
approach each other, is a crucial parameter.

• Stop
Formation and rapid release of a complete
closure. Example: [p]
• Fricative
Constriction in the vocal tract creating turbulent
airflow. Example: [s]
• Affricate
Stop followed by a longer phase of
friction. Example: [ʧ]
• Approximant
Constriction without turbulence.
Example: [ɹ]
• Nasal
Stoppage in the oral cavity, lowered velum, air through the
nasal cavity. Example: [n]
• Tap
 Brief occlusion, a single movement, very short
stop. Example: [ɾ]
• Flap
Brief occlusion, one articulator strikes the other “on
the way.” Example: [ɾ]
• Trill
Vibration of any articulator, a series of vibrations.
Example: [r]

Phonology – The Pronunciation of English

Definition
Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of
speech sounds in a language. It is the subfield of linguistics that studies
the structure and systematic patterning of sounds in human language.

Questions Addressed by Phonology

 What is sound, and how is it produced?

 Where is sound produced in the vocal tract?
 How is sound received by the ears?
 Why do different sounds exist?

Major Concepts of Phonology

1. Phonemes
Definition: Phonemes are distinctive sound units in a language that can
change the meaning of a word when substituted.

Example: In English, /p/ and /b/ are phonemes because swapping them
in words like “pat” and “bat” alters the meaning.

2. Allophones:
Definition: Allophones are variant pronunciations of a phoneme that
do not change word meanings.

Example: The aspirated and non-aspirated pronunciations of /p/ in

English (as in “pat” and “spat”) are allophones.

3. Syllable:
Definition: A syllable is a unit of speech that consists of one vowel
sound (or a vowel sound and surrounding consonants). It is a
fundamental building block in the organization of speech.

Example: The word “water” has two syllables: wa-ter.

4. Stress:

Definition: Stress in phonology refers to the emphasis placed on a

particular syllable within a word. Stressed syllables often involve
increased pitch, loudness, and duration.

Example: In the word “elephant,” the stress falls on the second

syllable: elEphant.
 5. Rhythm:
Definition: Rhythm in phonology pertains to the pattern of stressed and
unstressed syllables in connected speech, influencing the overall flow
and timing of speech.

Example: English tends to have a stress-timed rhythm, where stressed

syllables occur at relatively regular intervals.

6. Intonation:

Definition: Intonation involves the variation in pitch, melody, and tone

patterns across larger units of speech, such as sentences or phrases. It
contributes to the expressive and communicative aspects of speech.

Example: Rising intonation at the end of a sentence in English can

indicate a question.

7. Tone:
Definition: Tone refers to the use of pitch variations to convey lexical
or grammatical meaning in a language. It is a feature prominent in
tonal languages.

Example: Mandarin Chinese is a tonal language where the pitch level

on a syllable can change the meaning of a word.

8. Suprasegmental Features:
Definition: Suprasegmental features involve aspects beyond individual
sounds, such as intonation, stress, and rhythm.
 Example: The rising intonation at the end of an English question
contributes to its distinct suprasegmental feature.

9. Phonotactics:

Definition: Phonotactics explores the permissible combinations of

sounds within a language, including which sounds can appear together
and in what order.

Example: English phonotactics dictate that the initial sound in a word

like “try” cannot be /ŋ/ (as in “ng” in “sing”).

Difference between Phonetics and Phonology

Phonetics and phonology are the two fields dedicated to the study of
human speech sounds and sound structures. Both are concerned with the
same subject matter or aspect of language, speech sounds, as the audible
result of articulation. Let’s have a look how can these two fields be
differentiated!
Phonetics (Physical Aspect of Phonology (Abstract Aspect of
Sounds) Sounds)
Basis for phonological analysis Basis for further work in
morphology, syntax, and
orthography design
Studies the production and Analyzes sound patterns by
perception of speech sounds determining significant phonetic
(phones) sounds
Focus on articulatory and acoustic Studies how sounds are organized
properties and used in natural languages
 Examines which sounds are Includes an inventory of sounds,
present in a language their features, and pragmatic rules
Describes the physical properties Investigates how sounds combine,
of phones using square brackets, [ change in combination, and
]. produce differences in meaning.
Example: In phonetics, [p] and [b] Example: In phonology, /p/ and /b/
are analyzed for their articulatory may be considered phonemes in
and acoustic differences.
English, with their distinct
meaning value seen in minimal
pairs
like “pat” and “bat.”

Relationship to Other Language Aspects:

 Phonology is connected to morphology, syntax, and other

aspects of language.
 It determines sound patterns and their significance in a
particular language, contributing to a language’s unique
phonological system.
Qno.2 Stages of voice production
Speech occurs when air flows from the lungs , up the
windpipe (trachea) and through the voice box (larynx). This
causes vocal cord to vibrate, creating sound. Sound is shaped
into words by the muscles controlling the soft palate, tongue
and lips. Voice production involves a complex process that can
be divided into several stages. These stages include respiration,
phonation, resonance and articulation.

1- Respiration
When the lungs exhale, the diaphragm relaxes and the volume
of thoracic cavity decreases, while the pressure in it increases
as a result, the lungs contract and air is forced out. When a
speaker inhales, the air flows into lungs, through Bronchial
tubes. Muscles contract and expand the space occupied by
lungs. This compression is aided by a muscle called diaphragm,
that separates lungs from intestine.
Example: Take a deep breath, the inhalation and exhalation
represent the respiratory stage, providing the airflow needed
for voice production.

2- Phonation
The vocal folds are located in larynx and consists of two
muscular folds covered by a mucous membrane. The vocal
cords are two bands of smooth muscle tissue found in larynx.
The vocal cords vibrate and air passes through the cords from
lungs to produce the sound of your voice. However this is just
beginning of sound production. It’s not the actual voice.
When air form the lungs passes from vocal
folds, they vibrate, producing sound. The pitch and loudness
of the voice are controlled by tensions and length of vocal folds.
The faster the vocal folds vibrate, the higher the pitch.
Extremely slow vocal folds vibration is about 60 vibrations/sec,
and produces a low pitch.
Example: Humming a note produces phonation. Feel the
vibration in the throat as your vocal folds come together,
creating a buzzing sounds.

3- Resonance
The third stage is resonance, which involves the modification of
sound produced by the vocal folds as it resonates in the vocal
tract .Resonance actually amplifies and enriches the sound
produced by vocal folds.
Resonance in voice production occurs when sound vibrations
amplify in the vocal tract.
Resonating chambers : The vocal tract serves as the primary
resonating chamber for the human voice. It includes the
pharynx (throat), oral cavity (mouth), and nasal cavity. Each of
these chambers contributes to the resonance of the sound in
different ways.
The shape and size of these structures affect the quality and
timbre of the voice. Resonating cavities play crucial role in
shaping and enhancing the quality of sound produced.
Example# 1: Say “ah” and notice how the sound resonates in
your throat. Now close your nose while saying it, and you’ll feel
the change in resonance, emphasizing the role of nasal cavities.
Example#2: When you “hum” and feel vibrations in your chest
or head, showcasing different resonant frequencies.

4- Articulation
The final stage is articulation, which involves the precise
movement of Articulators to shape the sound produced by
vocal folds and modify it into recognizable speech sounds.
Articulation allows us to produce different vowels and
consonants enabling us to form words and communicate
effectively.
Major Articulators:
Lips: Lips enunciates bi labial sounds (p, b, m, w, hw) and
cooperate with the teeth in f and v sounds.
Tongue: It is a key modifier. Tongue shapes out vowels and
consonants.
Teeth: They are used to produce letter “ s ” . Together with the
tongue they articulate soft and hard palate.
Jaw: It doesn’t produce specific sound but it is an important
modifier. If we do not use our jaw, we tend to mumble. We are
then said to be eating our words.
Hard palate: It is the bony part of the roof of mouth.
Soft palate: Flexible back part of roof of mouth.
Uvula: Also plays a role in articulation certain sounds.
EXAMPLE
Pronounce “p” sound. The movement of your lips and the
pressure release represents articulation. Try contrasting it with
“t” sound, where your tongue plays a key role.

Qno. 3 TYPES OF ARTICULATORS

ARTICULATORS/SPEECH ORGANS
Introduction

Definition of ORGANS OF SPEECH (Articulators)

The term “organs of speech” refers to those parts of the human body
which are concerned in various ways with the production of speech. All
speech organs are known as articulators. They are broadly divided into
two categories:

a) Mobile or Active Organs of Speech

There is significant mobility in the laryngeal and pharyngeal regions. In

fact, the whole of sublaryngeal area is active in speech production.
However, there are more noticeable movements in
the larynx and areas immediately above it. The throat forms a crucial
factor in determining resonance. The length of the pharyngeal resonator
can be changed by muscular actions which raise and lower the larynx.

i. Tongue: Among the active articulators, the centrally important

one is the tongue. It is extremely flexible and mobile. It shows an
amazing range of adjustments and movements in articulation.
The tongue has been divided into apex or tip, blade, front, back
or dorsum and root.

ii. Lower Lip: The lower lip can be used for many oral configurations.
With the upper lip it can form various degrees of rounding that
 produce different vowels. Iii. Lower Jaw: Lower jaw can move
vertically as well as horizontally to change the phonetic qualities
of sounds.

Some other active speech organs include:

iii. Abdominal Muscles: These are the muscles located below the
diaphragm that play a crucial role in the process of inhalation and
exhalation, which are essential for speech production.

iv. Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located

below the lungs and separates the chest cavity from the
abdominal cavity. During speech, it contracts and relaxes,
controlling the airflow from the lungs.

v. Chest Muscles: These are the muscles surrounding the chest

cavity. They are involved in the process of exhalation, which is
necessary for speech production.

vi. Epiglottis: The epiglottis is a flap of tissue located at the base of

the tongue. Its primary function is to cover the opening of the
windpipe (trachea) during swallowing to prevent food or liquid
from entering the lungs.
vii. Vocal Cords: Also known as vocal folds, these are two folds of
tissue located in the larynx (voice box). During speech, they
vibrate when air passes through them, producing sound.

viii. Glottis: The glottis is the space between the vocal cords. It can
vary in size and shape to produce different sounds during speech.

b) Immobile or Passive Organs of Speech

Passive or immobile articulators cannot be moved about, but perform a

crucial role in speech production. These organs are mostly located in the
upper part of the mouth, beginning in front with the upper lip, upper
teeth, the gum ridge or alveolum, hard palate, the soft palate, just
behind the hard palate and the back wall of the throat (pharynx).

i. The Roof of the Mouth: The roof of the mouth is dome-shaped,

hard and bony. It is known as the hard palate. The hard palate
plays a necessary, although passive role in articulation. The bony
palate forms the anterior part of the roof of mouth, separating the
oral cavity from the nasal passage. The hard palate terminates in
the soft palate which is muscular. This is also called velum or
velum palatinum which forms the posterior section of the roof of
the mouth, separating the mouth cavity from nasopharynx. The
 velum can be lowered or raised for opening or closing the
nasopharyngeal passage.

ii. Upper Lip: Though upper lip is not a rigid organ and can be moved,
in speech production it is not used as a mobile articulator; rather
the lower lip reaches up to create various constrictions with it.
Therefore, it has been classified as a passive articulator.

ix. Upper Teeth: The row of upper teeth functions as the passive
articulator. Tongue- tip and blade as well as the lower lip form
constriction (a narrowing that reduces the flow through a
channel) with them. The active organs can do so either with the
edges of the teeth or the back of them.
x. Gum Ridge: Just behind the upper teeth is located alveolar or gum
ridge. The mobile speech organs – various parts of the tongue
reach it to form either a narrow stricture (narrow passageway) or
a complete closure.

xi. Hard Palate: Behind the alveolum or gum ridge begins the hard
palate which forms the major part of the roof of the mouth. It is
made of the horizontal plates of bone which terminate in the soft
palate.

xii. Soft Palate: This is recognized as the fixed articulator though it can
be moved, being a soft and flexible organ. The principal action of
 soft place consists of opening the nasopharyngeal cavity by
lowering itself.

xiii. Uvula: The soft palate terminates into a piece of flesh which
dangles over the pharyngeal passage. This is called uvula. It is a
small flexible appendage hanging down from the posterior edge
of the velum. It can be vibrated by the outgoing breath- stream to
produce uvular sound. And oral passages. This area can be divided
into three parts:

• Hypopharynx behind the tongue

• Mesopharynx behind the velum
• Nasopharynx behind the nose.
xiv. The Trachea: Also known as the windpipe, the trachea is a tube
that connects the larynx to the bronchi of the lungs. It provides a
pathway for airflow to and from the lungs during breathing.

xv. The Cavities (Pharyngeal, Oral, Nasal): These are hollow spaces
within the head and neck that are involved in shaping the sounds
of speech. They include the pharyngeal cavity (located in the
pharynx), oral cavity (mouth), and nasal cavity (nose).

xvi. The Lungs: These are the primary organs of the respiratory system
responsible for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide. They
provide the airflow necessary for speech production.
xvii. Larynx: Also known as the voice box, the larynx is located at the
top of the trachea. It contains the vocal cords and is involved in
phonation (sound production) and protecting the airway during
swallowing.

However, some of the speech organs, while not directly involved in

active articulation or passive resonance, play crucial roles in shaping and
facilitating the production of speech sounds.

i. The Alveolus (gum ridge): This refers to the ridge of tissue behind
the upper front teeth where the tongue may make contact to
produce certain speech sounds, such as /n/, /t/, /d/, /s/, and /z/.

ii. The Alveopalate: This refers to the area on the hard palate where
the front of the tongue may make contact to produce specific
speech sounds, such as /j/, /s/, and /z/.

In a nutshell, understanding the intricate functions and interactions of

these speech organs is essential for comprehending the complex
process of human speech production, highlighting the remarkable
coordination required for effective communication.
Qno.4 Airstream mechanism and modes of
phonation
Airstream Mechanism:
The airstream mechanism refers to the process by which the vocal
tract creates airflow. There is no production of sound in the absence
of airstream mechanics. This is owing to the fact that this mechanism
is compulsory for the initiation of sound production — the first part
of the process of sound production.

Pulmonic Initiation:
This refers to the initiation of speech sounds in the lungs. The
majority of the speech sounds in human language fall under pulmonic
egressives. To make a speech sound, it goes without saying that there
is a need for airflow. It is the molecules in airflow that vibrate and
create sound waves. A good number of speech sounds, not only in
the English language but around the world, are made by the
contraction of the diaphragm muscles in such a way that air is forced
out of the lungs and passed through either the mouth or the nose. All
airflow that is initiated in the lungs is referred to as "pulmonic".
Similarly, all airflow out of the lungs is
referred to as "egressive pulmonic' airflow as the term "egressive"
refers to "going out." It is important to note that any stop that is made
with a pulmonic airstream that is egressive is referred to as a
"plosive." Example:
A good example would be an attempt to pronounce the word "bee"
while breathing in. It is difficult to accomplish. On the other hand,
egressive airflow is easy to accomplish because a speaker is able to
utilize the pressure gotten from their full lungs to command
exhalation. Glottalic Initiation:
 This refers to the initiation of airflow to make a speech sound in the
upper vocal tract with the use of the glottis or vocal cords. The
glottalic airstream mechanism is the "movement of the pharynx air by
the action of the glottis." Here, an upward movement of the glottis
that is closed will subsequently push air out of the mouth. This is as
opposed to a downward movement of the glottis that is closed which
will ultimately result in the suction of air into the mouth.
jectives" is the name given to egressives that are glottalic by
nature "Implosives" is the name given to ingressives that are glottalic
by nature. Velaric (Lingual) Initiation:

This refers to the initiation of airflow to make a speech sound in the oral
cavity and does not necessarily require the generation of airflow from
the lungs. As an alternative, there is suction to create distinct air
pressure. Here, the sound is produced by the closure of two articulation
points. In other words, the velaric airstream mechanism refers to the
movement of the air in the mouth by the tongue to produce different
speech sounds Example:
To produce a speech sound that is a lingual ingressive, one must first
close the vocal tract at two points. For example, at the back of the tongue
and simultaneously at the front of the tongue or at the lips. This may be
referred to as a "coronal "or "bilabial" stop. This may be either voiced,
voiceless or nasalized.
Airstream Contours:

Some clicks in speech production that are complex are considered to

have airstream contours. Here, the flow of air changes between the
front and the back release. There exist two main attested types of air
stream contours. The first is referred to as "Linguo-pulmonic" which
occurs where there is a release in the rear which is "uvular obstruent."
The second is referred to as "Linguo-glottalic" which occurs where
there is a release in the rear which is an "Ejective." Modes of
Phonation:
Modal voice: In modal phonation, the vocal folds are brought close
together, and air passing between them causes them to vibrate
regularly. This mode is used in most speech sounds in languages
around the world.

Breathy voice (breathy phonation):

A part, allowing air to pass through them continuously while vibrating.
This creates a breathy or airy quality in the sound. It is used in some
languages for phonemic distinctions and in certain vocal styles.

Creaky voice (creaky phonation):

Also known as vocal fry, this mode is characterized by irregular and
slow vibration of the vocal folds, creating a low-pitched and popping
or rattling sound. It is often used stylistically or for emphasis in speech.

Whispery voice (whispery phonation):

In whispery phonation, the vocal folds are held far apart, allowing
only turbulent airflow without regular vocal fold vibration. This
produces a whisper-like sound.

Falsetto:
This mode involves the vocal folds vibrating along their edges while
being stretched and thinned, resulting in a higher-pitched and þreathy
quality. It is often used in singing, particularly for high-pitched notes.

Understanding both the air stream mechanisms and modes of

phonation is crucial for comprehending the variety of sounds
produced in human speech across different languages and
contexts.
 Qno. 5 Explain place of articulation

Introduction:

The human vocal tract, with its intricate network of muscles, cartilages, and
vocal cords, forms the foundation for producing a vast array of sounds that we
use in spoken language. Understanding how these sounds are articulated, or
produced, is crucial in the fields of phonetics and phonology. This exploration
delves into the distinct places of articulation, the specific locations within the
vocal tract where different speech sounds are formed.

Overview of Places of Articulation:

• Manner of Articulation:
Places of articulation work in conjunction with manners of articulation,
which describe how the airstream is modified as it passes through the
vocal tract. Examples include stops, fricatives, nasals,vowels, and glides.
• Active and Passive Articulators: The production of speech sounds
involves a complex interplay between active articulators (mobile
structures like the tongue, lips, and velum) and passive articulators (fixed
structures like the teeth, alveolar ridge, and hard palate).
• IPA Consonant Chart: The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) provides
a systematic way to represent speech sounds, including consonants and
vowels, with each symbol denoting a specific place and manner of
articulation.The IPA consonant chart serves as a valuable resource for
visualizing and understanding these relationships.

Major Places of Articulation:

 1. Bilabial: Sounds produced by both lips coming together (e.g., /p/,
/b/, /m/).
2. Labiodental: Sounds produced by the lower lip contacting the
upper front teeth
(e. g., /f/, /v/).
3. Dental: Sounds produced by the tongue tip contacting the upper
front teeth
(e. g., /θ/, /ð/).
4. Alveolar: Sounds produced by the tongue tip contacting the
alveolar ridge (the bony bump behind the upper front teeth) (e.g., /t/,
/d/, /n/, /s/, /z/).
5. Postalveolar: Sounds produced by the tongue tip contacting the
area behind the alveolar ridge (e.g., /ʃ/, /ʒ/).
6. Palatal: Sounds produced by the middle of the tongue contacting
the hard palate (the roof of the mouth behind the alveolar ridge) (e.g.,
/j/, /ɲ/).
7. Velar: Sounds produced by the back of the tongue contacting the
velum (the soft fleshy curtain at the back of the mouth) (e.g., /k/, /g/,
/ŋ/).
8. Uvular: Sounds produced by the back of the tongue contacting the
uvula (the small fleshy appendage hanging down from the velum) (e.g.,
/q/, /ʁ/).
9. Glottal: Sounds produced by the vocal cords (e.g., /h/?).

Additional Places of Articulation:

• Linguolabial: Sounds produced by the underside of the tongue tip

contacting the upper front teeth (e.g., in some African languages).
• Linguovelar: Sounds produced by the underside of the tongue tip
contacting the velum (e.g., in some Australian languages).
• Apical: Sounds produced by the tip of the tongue (e.g., most
alveolar and dental sounds).
• Laminal: Sounds produced by the blade of the tongue (the flat part
just behind the tip).
• Dorsal: Sounds produced by the back of the tongue.
• Radiolateral: Sounds produced by the sides of the tongue.
Articulation with Secondary Places:

Many sounds involve more than one place of articulation simultaneously. For
example, the /w/ sound in English is both bilabial (lips together) and velar (back of
tongue against the velum).

Variation Across Languages:

The specific sounds used in a language and their places of articulation vary
greatly. Some languages have a small inventory of sounds, while others have
many more. For example, the Hawaiian language has only 13 consonant
sounds,while the !Xóõ language of southern Africa has over 100!

Applications of Places of Articulation:

Understanding places of articulation has important applications in various fields,

including:

• Speech therapy: Helping people with speech disorders learn to

produce sounds correctly.
• Foreign language learning: Understanding how sounds are
produced in different languages can aid in pronunciation acquisition.
• Linguistics research: Studying the distribution and patterns of
sounds across languages can provide insights into language evolution and
typology.

Conclusion:

Places of articulation are fundamental to understanding how we produce

the sounds of speech.
Qno. 6 Manners of
Articulation

To know about manners of articulation firstly:

Articulatory phonetics:
“Branch of phonetics that studies speech sounds and the way of how
they are produced by articulatory organs such as tongue, lips, and vocal
cords.”
Two key aspects of articulatory phonetics:
To describe a sound, we talk about:-
a. Place of articulation
b. Manner of articulation Manner of
articulation:
# There are different manners of articulation for consonant sounds in
English.
# Sometimes the manner of articulation is also called the quality of a
consonant.
# It refers to how the airflow is obstructed or modified in the vocal tract
to produce speech sounds.
Common manner of articulation :-
 Plosives ( stops ):-
Here the part of the vocal tract is closed off completely, then the air is
released suddenly with a sharp burst.
Full closure and no air is released, then suddenly an explosion of air
occurs.
Seven plosives in English;
/p/ - pay , gap. ( - )
/b/ - be , table. ( + )
/t/ - two , pet. ( - )
/d/ - day , mad. ( + )
/k/ - cat , make. ( - )
/g/ - go , bag. ( + )
/ʔ/ - uh-oh , uh-uh. ( - ) : which is a glottal stop, this is usually
between vowels. Here glottals opens and closes and forms a glottal
stop.

Voiced and invoiced sounds:-

Voiced ( + ) sounds:
In linguistics, voice sounds involve vibration of the vocal cords
producing a buzzing sound or a humming quality.
Unvoiced ( - ) sounds:
Also known as voiceless sounds are produced without vibration of these
vocal cords.
 Fricatives:-
Two articulators move closer so the air flows through a small opening.
So there isn’t complete closure, there’s a very narrow space for the air
to pass through. This causes air turbulence which becomes audible.
(Actually, friction of the air passing through small opening, we can
hear.)
Nine fricatives in English;
/f/ - fun, half. (-)
/v/ - very, have. (+)
/θ/ - think, tooth. (-)
/ð/ - they, breathe. ( + )
/s/ - see, less. (-)
/z/ - zebra, is. (+)
/ʃ/ - shoe, push. (-)
/ʒ/ - pleasure, Asia.

( + ) /h/ - happy,

behind. ( - )

The place of small opening for all sounds are different.

Affricates :-
These are combinations of a plosive, followed straight away by a
fricative. Affricate sounds start by fully stopping the air from leaving the
vocal tract, then releasing it through a constricted opening – not
suddenly!
Two affricates in English;
/tʃ/ - child, March. (-)
/dʒ/ - juice, orange. (+)

Nasals (related to nose):-

Here the sound is blocked through the lips or tongue from leaving
the mouth and instead is released through the nasal cavity. Three
nasals in English;
/m/ - more, come. (+)
/n/ - no, sun.

( + ) /ŋ/ - sing, think.

(+)

Approximants:-
These are produced when the two articulators come together to form a
narrow space in the mouth through which the air flows (It’s a little
different from fricatives), but not close enough to make the air friction
audible (Can’t hear). Approximants are in between fricatives and
vowels sounds.
Four approximants in English;
/j/ - yes, young. (+)
/w/ - when, between. (+)
/l/ - light, milk. (+)
/r/ - right, carry. (+)
Subgroups within approximants:
~Glides ( semi – vowels ):
Both are transitional sounds . The articulators move during sound
production.
/j/ - There’s a little movement in your tongue.
/w/ - There’s movement in lips also articulators. That’s why they are
called transitional sounds.
~Liguids :
Here air stream flows around sides of the tongue as the top of the
tongue makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge. Which are;
/l/ , /r/.
Tap:-
The flap T /ɾ/ is produced when the tongue quickly taps against the
alveolar ridge.
/ɾ/ - butter, a lot of ( in American English pronunciation)
 Qno. 7 English consonant sounds (manner
place)

Let’ talk about the manner of articulation which is the way we make sounds with
our speech organs. We use our lips, tongue, teeth and vocal cords to produce
different sounds each sound we make its own unique manner like; plucking,
blowing.
There are two basic types of speech sound Consonants: speech

sound created by a partial or total closure of the vocal tract.

Vowels: speech sounds produced without stricture in the vocal tract.

We can categorize manner of articulation in to two groups.
Obstruent: all consonants are obstructed sounds in some way. Example / P, T, K,
D, B /.
Sonorants: are speech sound created by continuous and unobstructed airflow
through the vocal tract. Sonorants can includes vowels as well as consonants. We
can find nasal, liquids and approximants. Example / j, w, m, n /.
We can categorized manner of articulation in to two further categories voiced
and voiceless sounds.
Voiced: if there is a vibration in the vocal cords during sound production so this
sound is voiced. While making /b/ and /d/ you can feel the vibration.
Voiceless: if there is no vibration in the vocal cords during sound production so
this sound is voiceless. When we making the sound /f/ and /s/ you can feel that
there is no vibration.
The five manner of articulation used for consonant sounds in the English
language.
1 Plosive
 2 Fricatives
3 Affricate
4 Nasal
5 Approximant

1 Plosive: A plosive consonant is made when the vocal tract is closed

and the airflow is blocked as it leaves the body. The blockage can be
made with the tongue, lips, teeth or glottis.
Example
Bilabial: p, b
Velar: g, k
Dental: t, d
2 Fricatives: like plosive, fricative are restricted as they leave the body
we can use teeth, lips or tongue to limit the flow of air. Unlike plosives
and fricative or longer sounds. For Example: /F/

3 Affricate: we create them with the tongue and upper teeth. The
sound /t/ and /d/ are affricates.

4 Nasal: nasal consonants are also known as nasal stops, are made by
blocking the airflow the mouth. In nasal vowels by contrast the sound is
generated by lowering the soft plates to allow the airflow out of both
mouth and nose. Nasal consonants are /m/ and /n/.
Example:
/m/ mirror
/n/ name or nose
5 Approximant: approximant are also known as lateral sounds are
created by allowing the airflow to leave the sides of the mouth.
Example: Approximant are vowel like.

Voice and Voiceless Sounds:

 When the vocal folds are spread apart , the air from the lungs
passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are
described as voiceless sounds Example
The sounds of Z-Z-Z-Z and V-V-V-V Sounds are known as Voiceless
Sounds.
The sounds of S-S-S-S and F-F-F-F Sounds are known as Voiced
Sounds .

PLACE OF ARTICULATION :
Once the air has passed through the larynx it comes up and out through
the mouth and the noise. Most consonant sounds are produced by
using the tongue and other parts of the mouth to constrict. In some
way the shape of the oral cavity through which the air is passing. The
term used to describe many sounds are those which denote the place
of articulation of the sounds that is the location inside the mouth at
which the constriction takes place.
When we need is a slice of head if you crack a head right down the
middle you will be able to see which part of the oral cavity are crucially
involved in speech production. To describe the place of articulation of
most consonant sounds we can start at the front of the mouth and
work back. We can also keep the voiced voiceless sounds. These symbol
will be enclosed with the square bracket[ ].
Bilabials
These are sounds formed using both(=bi) upper ad lower lips (labia).
The initial sounds in the word pat, bat and mat are all bilabials.
They are represented by [P] [b] [m].
Labiodentals
These are sounds formed by the upper teeth and the lower lips. The
initial sounds of the word is fat and vat .the final sounds in the word is
save and safe.
These words are [f] and [V]
Dentals
These are sounds formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front
teeth. The initial sounds of thin and the final sounds of bath are both
voiceless dentals . These are represented by the symbol (0). The word is
eth.

Alveolars
These are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue on the
alveolar ridge which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind and
above the upper teeth.
The symbols for these sounds are easy to understand [t] [d] [s] [z] [n]

Palatals
These are the initial sounds in the word shout and child. Which are
voiceless. The sh- and sound is produced by upper palatal and lower
jaws.
The symbol of these sounds are represented by [tf].

Velars
The voiced velar sound heard at the beginning of words like go gun and
give are represented by [g].
The velum can be lowered to allow air to flow through the nasal cavity
and thereby produce another voiced velar represented by the symbol
[n].
Glottal

There is a sound that is produced without the active use of the tongue
and other part of the mouth. It is the sound [h] which occurs at the
beginning of have and house. The glottis is the space between the
vocal folds in the larynx.
Qno.8 Discuss English ‘Vowel’ Sounds
(Cardinal, short and long vowels).
English vowel sounds play a crucial role in pronunciation and are essential for
effective communication. They can be categorized into several types based on
their qualities and characteristics:

Cardinal Vowel Sounds

“Cardinal vowel sounds are a set of reference points used in phonetics to describe
and categorize the vowel sounds of human languages. Developed by Daniel Jones
in the early 20th century, the cardinal vowel system consists of a series of points
that represent the extremes of vowel articulation. These points are defined based
on the position of the tongue, the height of the tongue, and the position of the
lips. They are language independent and are used to mark the relationship
between vowels of different languages. In simple words, Cardinal vowels are not
vowels of any particular language, but a measuring system. Cardinal Vowels are
classified into Primary and Secondary based on the position of the tongue relative
to the roof of the mouth. Let us understand them briefly.

Examples of Primary Cardinal Vowels:

Mouth position Tongue in front Tongue in back
Close i u
Close mid e o
Open mid ? ?
Open a ?

Here, i is produced with the most front, closest position of the tongue which does
not produce audible friction, whereas ? is produced with the most back and most
open possible tongue position, again without audible friction.
Primary Cardinal Vowels.
Examples of Secondary Cardinal Vowels:
Mouth position Tongue in front Tongue in back
Close y ?
Close mid ø ?
Open mid œ ?
Open Π?

For example, primary vowel i is close, front, unrounded and so secondary vowel y
is close, front and rounded. To take another example, vowel u is close, back,
rounded whereas vowel ? is close, back, unrounded.

Secondary Cardinal Vowels.

There are typically eight primary cardinal vowels, represented on a vowel chart:

[i]: This is a close front vowel, where the tongue is high and front in the mouth. It
is similar to the vowel sound in “see.”
[e]: This is a close-mid front vowel, where the tongue is slightly lower and less
tense than
[i]. It is similar to the vowel sound in “bet.”

[ɛ]: This is an open-mid front vowel, where the tongue is mid-height and front in
the mouth.
It is similar to the vowel sound in “bed.”

[a]: This is an open front vowel, where the tongue is low and front in the mouth. It
is similar to the vowel sound in “father.”

[ɑ]: This is an open back vowel, where the tongue is low and back in the mouth. It
is similar to the vowel sound in “calm.”

[ɔ]: This is an open-mid back vowel, where the tongue is mid-height and back in
the mouth.
It is similar to the vowel sound in “caught.”

[o]: This is a close-mid back vowel, where the tongue is slightly lower and less
tense than
[u]. It is similar to the vowel sound in “boat.”

[u]: This is a close back vowel, where the tongue is high and back in the mouth. It
is similar to the vowel sound in “boot.”

These cardinal vowels serve as reference points for describing and comparing
vowel sounds across different languages and dialects. They provide a
standardized framework for phoneticians to analyze and classify vowel
articulations, aiding in the study of phonetics and linguistic variation. Additionally,
they help learners understand and produce accurate vowel sounds by providing
clear reference points for tongue and lip positioning .

Short Vowels Sounds

“Short vowel sounds are brief, distinct vowel sounds produced with a relatively
relaxed tongue and mouth position.” In English, there are typically five short
vowel sounds:

1. /æ/ (as in “cat”): This is a low front vowel sound. The tongue is
positioned low and towards the front of the mouth, and the mouth is
slightly open.

2. /ɛ/ (as in “bed”): This is a mid-low front vowel sound. The tongue is
positioned midheight and towards the front of the mouth, and the mouth is
moderately open.

3. /ɪ/ (as in “sit”): This is a high front vowel sound. The tongue is
positioned high and towards the front of the mouth, and the mouth is
relatively closed.

4. /ɒ/ (as in “hot”): This is a low back vowel sound. The tongue is
positioned low and towards the back of the mouth, and the mouth is
slightly open.
 5. /ʌ/ (as in “fun”): This is a mid-low back vowel sound. The tongue is
positioned midheight and towards the back of the mouth, and the mouth is
moderately open.

Short vowel sounds are characterized by their brevity and clarity, making them
important for distinguishing between words in English pronunciation. They are
commonly found in unstressed syllables and contribute to the rhythm and flow
of spoken English. Mastering short vowel sounds is essential for achieving
accurate and fluent pronunciation in the language. Practice and attentive
listening can help learners differentiate between these sounds and produce
them correctly in various contexts.
Long Vowel Sounds
“Long vowel sounds in English are characterized by their duration and distinct
quality. They are produced with a prolonged duration compared to short vowels
and often involve a change in tongue position within the mouth.” In English, there
are typically six long vowel sounds:

1. /iː/ (as in “beet”): This is a high front vowel sound. The tongue is
positioned high and towards the front of the mouth, and the mouth is
relatively closed. It is similar to the short vowel sound /ɪ/ but held for a
longer duration.

2. /eɪ/ (as in “day”): This is a mid-high front vowel sound followed by a

glide. It begins with a position similar to /e/ and glides towards /ɪ/. The
mouth starts relatively open and gradually closes.
 3. /aɪ/ (as in “time”): This is a low front vowel sound followed by a
glide. It starts with a position similar to /a/ and glides towards /ɪ/. The
mouth starts open and gradually closes.

4. /ɔː/ (as in “four”): This is a mid-back rounded vowel sound. The

tongue is positioned mid-height and towards the back of the mouth, and
the lips are rounded. It is similar to the short vowel sound /ɒ/ but held for a
longer duration.

5. /uː/ (as in “food”): This is a high back rounded vowel sound. The
tongue is positioned high and towards the back of the mouth, and the lips
are rounded. It is similar to the short vowel sound /ʊ/ but held for a longer
duration.

6. /oʊ/ (as in “go”): This is a mid-back rounded vowel sound followed

by a glide. It starts with a position similar to /ɔ/ and glides towards /ʊ/. The
mouth starts relatively open and gradually closes.

Long vowel sounds are important for distinguishing between words in English
pronunciation and often play a significant role in word meaning. They are
commonly found in stressed syllables and contribute to the rhythm and melody of
spoken English. Mastering long vowel sounds involves both understanding their
articulation and practicing their production in various contexts.
Vowel sounds:
A sound that is pronounced with opened mouth, no contact between the tongue
and the top of the mouth or teeth and no obstruction to the flow of air. We can
use five letters of English represent the vowel sound: a, e, i, o, u. 20 vowels in
total: 7 short vowels: /ɪ/ /ʊ/ /ə/ /e/ /ɒ/ /ʌ/ /æ/
20 vowels in total:
 7 short vowels: /ɪ/ /ʊ/ /ə/ /e/ /ɒ/ /ʌ/ /æ/
 5 long vowels: /iː/ /uː/ /ɑː/ /ɔː/ /ɜː/
 8 diphthongs: /eɪ/ /aɪ//ɔɪ/ /əʊ/ /aʊ/ /ɪə/ /eə/ /ʊə/
2.1.2. Classification of vowels

Vowels are divided into different categories based on

1. Length of the sound

2. Position of the tongue
3. Shape of the lips
Length of the sound

 Long (tense) vowels

 Short (lax) vowels
Position of the tongue

 close (high) or open (low)

 The distance between the tongue and the top of the mouth
 front or back
 The part of the tongue that is raised

Shape of the lips

 Rounded ( e.g. /ʊ/)

 Neutral (e.g. /ə/)
 Spread (e.g. /iː/)
Short vowels:
Short vowels are vowel sounds that are pronounced briefly and do not have an
extended duration like long vowels. In English, there are five primary short vowel
sounds. These are sometimes represented by these symbols: /æ/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ɒ/,
and /ʌ/ or they can be represented by a curved symbol above the vowel e.g. ă, ĕ,
ĭ, ŏ, ŭ.

These are the vowel sounds heard, for example, in ‘hat’, ‘bed’, ‘big’, ‘hot’ and
‘tub’.

Let's take a closer look at each short vowel sound:

/æ/ - This sound is commonly represented by the letter ‘a’ (e.g., cat, hat) and
occasionally by ‘ai’ (e.g., rain, said).

/ɛ/ - The short ‘e’ sound can be represented by the letter ‘e’ (e.g., bed, red) and
‘ea’ (e.g., head, bread).

/ɪ/ - This sound is usually represented by the letter ‘I’ (e.g., sit, hit) and
occasionally by ‘y’ (e.g., gym, symbol).

/ɒ/ - The short ‘o’ sound can be represented by the letter ‘o’ (e.g., dog, hot) and
occasionally by ‘a’ (e.g., watch, want).

/ʌ/ - This sound is commonly represented by the letter ‘u’ (e.g., bus, sun) and
occasionally by ‘o’ (e.g., come, love).
Qno. 9 Discuss English vowel sounds
(Dipthongs & Tripthongs)
Long vowels:
Long vowels are vowel sounds that are pronounced for a longer duration
compared to their short counterparts. In English, there are five primary long
vowel sounds: /ɑː/, /iː/, /ɜː/, /ɔː/, and /uː/. These may also be represented by a
horizontal line above the vowel to show it is a long sound e.g. ā, ē, ī, ō, ū.

When we say a long vowel sound, we hold the sound for a longer period of time
without closing any part of our mouth or throat. Unlike short vowels, which are
usually represented by a single letter, long vowels are often represented by a
vowel digraph or a vowel followed by a silent ‘e.’

Here are the longer vowel forms in more detail:

/ɑː/ - This sound is commonly represented by the letters ‘a’ (e.g., name, gate) and
‘ai’ (e.g., rain, paint).
/iː/ - The long ‘ee’ sound can be represented by the letters ‘ee’ (e.g., bee, tree)
and ‘ea’ (e.g., sea, heat).

/ɜː/ - This sound is usually represented by the letters ‘er’ (e.g., her, term) and ‘ir’
(e.g., bird, firm).

/ɔː/ - The long ‘o’ sound can be represented by the letters ‘o’ (e.g., go, hope) and
‘oa’ (e.g., boat, coal).

/uː/ - This sound is commonly represented by the letters ‘u’ (e.g., mule, music)
and ‘oo’ (e.g., moon, soon).

Diphthongs:
• A diphthongs is a vowel that contains two different vowel sounds in
one syllable.
• Diphthongs are gliding vowels, as the first vowel sound glides into
the next.
• In the English language, there are eight diphthongs.
• Diphthongs are categorised in terms of how they sound and how
they are pronounced. These categories are: rising and falling diphthongs,
opening, closing, centring diphthongs, and narrow and wide diphthongs.
8 diphthongs:
They are:

• /eɪ/ as in day, pay, say, lay.

• /aɪ/ as in sky, buy, cry, tie.
• /ɔɪ/ as in boy, toy, coy or the first syllable of soya.
• /ɪə/ as in beer, pier, hear.
• /eə/ as in bear, pair, and hair.
• /ʊə/ as in tour, poor or the first syllable of tourist.
• /əʊ/ as in oh, no, so, or phone.
• /aʊ/ as in all the words of "How now brown cow!"
 Types of Diphthongs

Linguists divide diphthongs into different categories to help classify their various
sounds.

The first category is the falling diphthongs, which begin with higher pitch or
volumes and end with lower pitch or volumes. These are also referred to as
/aɪ/ diphthongs and are often found in words that sound similar to “eye.”
Examples include “like,” “fly,” “light,” and “lime.”

rising diphthong. These begin with vowel sounds of lower pitches or volumes and
end with more prominent ones. Falling diphthongs are found in the words
“few,” “yell,” “weed,” “chute,” and “walk.” Similar to falling and rising,
diphthongs can be classified based on whether they are closing or opening.
Closing diphthongs have similar characteristics to falling, while opening is
similar to rising.
Triphthong:

: A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced
rapidly and without interruption. For example, a careful pronunciation of the word
‘hour’ begins with a vowel quality similar to ‘ɑ:’, goes on to ‘ʊ’ then ends in ‘ə’. It’s
called /aʊə/.

English triphthongs are composed of five closing diphthongs with ‘ə’ added on the
end as discussed below:

1. The sound /eɪə/:which is composed of the closing diphthong /eɪ/ and

the schwa /ə/; thus, /eɪ/ + /ə/ = /eɪə/ as in the following words: layer =
/leɪə/, player = /pleɪə/, sayer = /seɪə/.
2. The sound /aɪə/:composed of the closing diphthong /aɪ/ and the
schwa sound /ə/; thus, /aɪ/ + /ə/ = /aɪə/ as in the following words: liar =
/laɪə/, admire = /ədmaɪə/, buyer = /baɪə/, tyre = /taɪə/, tier = /taɪə/, tire =
/taɪə/, flier = /flaɪə/.
3. The sound /ɔɪə/:composed of the closing diphthong /ɔɪ/ and the
schwa sound /ə/; thus, /ɔɪ/ + /ə/ = /ɔɪə/ as in the following words:
 employer = /ɪmplɔɪə/, destroyer = /dɪstrɔɪə/, enjoyable = /ɪndʒɔɪəbl/,
buoyant = /bɔɪənt/.
4. The sound /əʊə /:composed of the closing diphthong /əʊ/ and the
schwa sound /ə/; thus, /əʊ/ + /ə/ = /əʊə/ as in the following words: goer
= /gəʊə/, borrower = /bɒrəʊə/, lower = /ləʊə/, thrower = /θrəʊə/, mower
= /məʊə/.
5. The sound /aʊə /:composed of the closing diphthong /aʊ/ and the
schwa sound /ə/; thus, /aʊ/ + /ə/ = /aʊə/ as in the following words: hour
= /aʊə/, flour = /flaʊə/, flower = /flaʊə/, power = /paʊə/. Examples:

Here is the quick reference list of words that are being considered triphthong

• Hour
• Fire
• Cure
• Player
• Our
• Lower
• Year
• Buyer
• Flyer
• Higher

Qno. 10 Syllabus and Word Stress in

Linguistics
In linguistics, syllabus and word stress are fundamental
concepts that play crucial roles in the study of phonology and
morphology, respectively. Let's delve into each of these
concepts in detail:

*Syllabus:*

A syllabus is a unit of organization in spoken language. It refers

to a unit of sound that typically consists of a vowel sound and
optionally surrounding consonant sounds. Syllables are the
building blocks of words and play a significant role in
phonological processes such as syllable structure, syllable
stress, and syllable weight.

- *Syllable Structure:* The structure of a syllable can vary

across languages but often consists of an onset (consonant(s)
before the vowel), nucleus (vowel), and coda (consonant(s)
after the vowel). For example, in the word "cat," the syllable
structure is (C)(V)(C), where C represents a consonant and V
represents a vowel.

- *Syllable Stress:* Syllable stress refers to the emphasis placed

on a particular syllable within a word. Languages differ in their
patterns of syllable stress, with some languages having fixed
stress patterns (e.g., English) and others having variable stress
patterns (e.g., Russian). In English, for example, stress can fall
on different syllables in different words (e.g., "telegraph" vs.
"telegraphy").

- *Syllable Weight:* Syllable weight refers to the relative

duration or complexity of a syllable. Syllables can be light
(containing a short vowel or no vowel at all) or heavy
(containing a long vowel or a short vowel followed by one or
more consonants). Syllable weight can affect phonological
processes such as stress assignment and syllable reduction.
Understanding syllables and their properties is essential for
analyzing phonological processes, understanding word
formation, and predicting pronunciation patterns across
languages.

*Word Stress:*

Word stress, also known as lexical stress or accent, refers to the

prominence or emphasis placed on a particular syllable within a
word. Word stress patterns vary across languages and can have
important implications for phonological processes, word
recognition, and language acquisition.
Types of Word Stress: Languages can exhibit different types of
word stress patterns, including:

- Fixed Stress: Languages like English typically have fixed stress

patterns, where stress falls on specific syllables within words
based on phonological rules (e.g., initial stress in "elephant").

- Variable Stress: Some languages, such as Russian, have

variable stress patterns, where stress can fall on different
syllables depending on factors such as word form, grammatical
function, or morphological structure.

Effects of Word Stress: Word stress can influence various

aspects of language, including:

- Word Recognition: Word stress can help listeners identify

and distinguish between words with similar phonetic forms but
different stress patterns (e.g., "record" as a noun vs. "record" as
a verb).
 - Morphological Processes: Word stress can affect
morphological processes such as affixation and compounding
by influencing syllable structure and stress patterns in derived
or compound words.

Acquisition of Word Stress: Learning word stress patterns is an

important aspect of language acquisition, as it enables speakers
to produce and perceive words accurately. Children typically
acquire word stress patterns through exposure to spoken
language and through implicit learning processes.
Overall, understanding word stress is crucial for analyzing
phonological patterns, studying language variation, and
facilitating language learning and teaching.
Word stress refers to the emphasis or prominence given to a
particular syllable within a word. In English, word stress plays a
crucial role in determining the meaning and pronunciation of
words. It can vary depending on the word's part of speech, its
suffixes, and its position within a sentence.

Examples:

1.Record (noun) - RE-cord (a document) Record (verb) - re-

CORD (to make a recording)
2.Present (noun) - PRE-sent (a gift) Present (verb) - pre-SENT (to
show or introduce)

3.Object (noun) - OB-ject (a thing) Object (verb) - ob-JECT (to

express disagreement)

4.Conduct (noun) - CON-duct (behavior) Conduct (verb) - con-

DUCT (to lead or manage)

5.Produce (noun) - PRO-duce (agricultural products) Produce

(verb) - pro-DUCE (to create or manufacture)

6.Import (noun) - IM-port (goods brought into a country)

Import (verb) - im-PORT (to bring in from another country)

7.Increase (noun) - IN-crease (a rise or growth) Increase (verb) -

in-CREASE (to make or become larger)

8.Address (noun) - AD-dress (location) Address (verb) - ad-

DRESS (to speak to or write to)
9.Contest (noun) - CON-test (a competition) Contest (verb) -
con-TEST (to challenge or dispute)

10.Present (adjective) - PRE-sent (existing or occurring now)

Present (verb) - pre-SENT (to give or offer)

11.Refuse (noun) - RE-fuse (garbage) Refuse (verb) - re-FUSE (to

decline or reject)

12.Subject (noun) - SUB-ject (a topic) Subject (verb) - sub-JECT

(to make someone or something undergo)

13.Rebel (noun) - RE-bel (a person who resists authority) Rebel

(verb) - re-BEL (to resist or defy authority)

14.Export (noun) - EX-port (goods sent out of a country) Export

(verb) - ex-PORT (to send out to another country)

15.Combine (noun) - COM-bine (a machine for harvesting)

Combine (verb) - com-BINE (to join or merge)
16.Permit (noun) - PER-mit (an official document) Permit (verb)
- per-MIT (to allow or authorize)

17.Progress (noun) - PRO-gress (advancement or improvement)

Progress (verb) - pro-GRESS (to move forward or make
progress)

18.Content (noun) - CON-tent (the substance or material)

Content (adjective) - con-TENT (satisfied or pleased)

19.Increase (noun) - IN-crease (a rise or growth) Increase (verb)

- in-CREASE (to make or become larger)

20.Invalid (noun) - IN-va-lid (a person with a disability) Invalid

(adjective) - in-VAL-id (not valid or acceptable)
Qno. 11 What are weak forms in
connected speech? Explain.

Introduction to Weak Forms

Weak forms are phonetic alterations of certain words in connected speech,

primarily used for function words like articles, pronouns, prepositions, and auxiliary
verbs. These modifications occur to maintain the rhythm and flow of speech,
allowing speakers to articulate words more efficiently. Understanding weak forms
is essential for comprehending spoken English and improving pronunciation.

Function Words and Their Role

Function words are crucial for sentence structure and coherence but often receive
less emphasis in speech. Examples include articles (a, an, the), pronouns (he, she,
it, they), auxiliary verbs (do, be, have), prepositions (to, for, at, of), and conjunctions
(and, but, or). In connected speech, these words frequently undergo weak form
alterations.
In English, weak forms are primarily used for function words, such as articles (a, an,
the), pronouns (he, she, it, they), auxiliary verbs (do, be, have), prepositions (to, for,
at, of), and conjunctions (and, but, or). These words are usually unstressed in a
sentence, and weak forms allow speakers to pronounce them quickly and with less
effort.

The use of weak forms is influenced by factors such as sentence stress, word
emphasis, and the surrounding context. For example, in a sentence like "I am going
to the store," the weak form of "am" is pronounced as /əm/ instead of the full
/æm/. Similarly, in the sentence "She is coming with us," the weak form of "is" is
pronounced as /ɪz/ instead of the full /ɪz/.

One common weak form is the schwa sound /ə/, which is the most neutral and
reduced vowel sound in English. It often replaces other vowel sounds in weak
syllables, contributing to the smooth flow of speech. For example, in the word
"banana," the second and third syllables are typically pronounced with the schwa
sound in connected speech.

Another common weak form alteration involves the reduction or elision of

consonant sounds. For instance, in the phrase "could have," the /v/ sound is often
reduced or even dropped altogether, resulting in pronunciations like /kədəv/ or
/kədə/. Similarly, in the word "them," the final /m/ sound is often elided in
connected speech, leading to pronunciations like /ðəm/ or /ðə/.

The use of weak forms varies across different dialects and accents of English. For
example, British English tends to use weak forms more extensively than American
English, particularly in unstressed syllables. Additionally, the degree of reduction
and the specific weak forms used can vary depending on regional accents and
individual speech patterns.

Understanding weak forms is essential for learners of English as a second language,

as it significantly impacts comprehension and pronunciation. Mastery of weak
forms allows learners to speak more fluently and naturally, assimilating into
conversations more effectively.

Common Weak Forms

1. The Pronoun "I": Pronounced as /aɪ/ in isolation, it often becomes /ə/ or /ɪ/
in connected speech. Example: "I am" pronounced as /aɪ æm/ becomes /aɪm/
or /əm/.

2. The Verb "Have": Typically pronounced as /hæv/ in isolation, it weakens to

/əv/ or /v/ in connected speech. Example: "I have" pronounced as /aɪ hæv/
becomes /aɪv/ or /aɪv/.

3. The Verb "To": Pronounced as /tuː/ in isolation, it weakens to /tə/ or /t/ in

connected speech. Example: "I need to" pronounced as /aɪ niːd tuː/ becomes /aɪ
niːd tə/ or /aɪ niːd t/.

4. The Preposition "For": Pronounced as /fɔːr/ in isolation, it weakens to /fər/

or /fɜːr/ in connected speech. Example: "This is for me" pronounced as /ðɪs ɪz
fɔːr miː/ becomes /ðɪs ɪz fər miː/ or /ðɪs ɪz fɜːr miː/.
Reduction and Elision of Consonants

Consonant sounds within weak forms are often reduced or even elided in
connected speech. For instance:

1. Reduction of "Have": The /v/ sound in "have" is often reduced or elided,

leading to pronunciations like /həv/ or /hæv/.

2. Elision of "To": In phrases like "going to" or "want to," the /t/ sound in "to"
is frequently elided, resulting in pronunciations like /ˈɡoʊɪŋə/ or /wɑːnə/.

Prosodic Features of Weak Forms

Weak forms are closely tied to sentence stress and intonation patterns. In English,
weak forms typically occur in unstressed syllables or in positions where the
emphasis falls on other words. This prosodic feature helps maintain the natural
rhythm of speech and contributes to overall fluency.

Factors Influencing Weak Forms

Several factors influence the use of weak forms in connected speech, including
speech rate, sentence structure, and regional dialects. Speakers adjust their
pronunciation based on the context and familiarity with the listener, demonstrating
the flexibility and adaptability of weak forms in everyday communication.

Teaching and Learning Weak Forms

For language learners, understanding weak forms is crucial for achieving fluency
and naturalsounding speech. Teachers employ various techniques such as drilling
exercises, listening comprehension tasks, and phonetic training to help students
recognise and produce weak forms accurately.

Conclusion

Weak forms play a vital role in the natural rhythm and flow of spoken English. By
modifying certain words in connected speech, speakers can convey meaning more
efficiently while maintaining fluidity and coherence. Recognising and mastering
weak forms is essential for effective communication and language proficiency. As
language learners and educators continue to explore the nuances of weak forms,
they gain deeper insights into the intricacies of spoken English and enhance their
ability to engage meaningfully in conversations.

Qno. 12 Intonation Patterns

Definition: Intonation patterns refers to the variations in pitch,rhythm,and

stress in spoken language that convey meaning beyond the actual words
themselves. In linguistics intonation patterns are crucial for understanding the
speaker's attitude emotion emphasis and the structure of their utterances.
Intonation is "rise and fall in the volume of pitch .

Intonation Patterns:
Pitch: Pitch is the highness and lowness of voice.

Rhythm: The timing and pace of speech. Intonation affects the rhythm by
influencing the length of syllables and pauses.

Stress: The emphasis placed on certain syllables or words. Intonation can alter the
stress pattern of a sentence, highlighting key information
Types of Intonation Patterns:
Falling intonation

Rising intonation

Fall -rise intonation

Rise - fall intonation

Falling Intonation: The pitch of the voice falls towards the end of the
utterance Used for statements .i.e ; He is very old. Used for questions
beginning with question words .i.e; Who was the man?
Rising Intonation: This pattern involves the pitch of the voice rising towards
the end of a phrase or sentence . Used for questions without a question word
.i.e; Are the books on the table ? Used for tag questions .i.e; He is very old .
Isn't he ?
Fall - Rise Intonation: This pattern starts with a fall in pitch followed by a rise.
Used for showing surprise.i.e; She has got a new car. Really !
Rise - Fall Intonation: In this pattern , the pitch rises initially and then falls
towards the end of the sentence. Used for being impressed.i.e; Really ,she is
very lucky

Functions of Intonations:
Actually , intonation is a very difficult area of phonetic investigation . When a
foreign learner tries to observe intonation, it is often difficult for him to recognize
, what falling time is, what a rising time is. But I'm conversation we perceive and
react to these differences and it plays an important part in conversation.
Intonations has following main functions.

Attitudinal Function:
It enables us to express emotions and attitudes when we speak. This adds a
special kind of meaning to speech. This is often called the attitudinal function.
When can you come? (normal question , falling tone )

When can you come? ( polite question , rising tone )

Grammatical Function:
It enables us to recognize the grammatical and syntactical structure of what is
being said and it is the grammatical function of intonation. This function may
show that an utterance is a question or a statement.

He is arriving late ( statement, falling

tone ) He is arriving , late? ( question ,

rising tone )

Accentual Function:
Intonation helps to produce the effects of prominence on syllables that need to
be perceived when stressed. This has been called the accentual function of
intonation. By accents , we change meaning.

| went to college (to college , nowhere else )

I went to college (1, and no one else )

 Qno. 13 Teaching Of Pronunciation

Pronunciation involves more than individual sounds. Word stress, sentence stress,
intonation, and word linking all influence the sound of spoken English. English
pronunciation involves too many complexities for learners to strive for a complete
elimination of accent, but improving pronunciation boosts self-esteem, facilitate
communication, and possibly lead to a better job. These techniques help to learn
pronunciation effectively:

Teach basic notions of where and how sounds are physically

produced:
Teaching students how to use their mouth, tongue, throat and voice (articulatory
phonetics) helps them produce the sounds of English.
Understanding where the sounds are produced (place of articulation), and how
(manner of articulation), helps them visualize movements which would not
normally be visible.

Voicing:
This includes explaining the difference between voiced and voiceless sounds and
providing examples in words. Voicing refers to the vibration of the vocal cords
during the production of speech sounds. Voiced sounds are speech sounds
produced with vocal cord vibrations, e.g., vowels (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/) and
certain consonants (/b/, /d/, /g/, etc.). Unvoiced (voiceless) sounds are speech
sounds without vocal cord vibrations, e.g., consonants like /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/,
/s/.Voicing is an important aspect of pronunciation, particularly in languages that
make use of phonemic distinctions based on voicing, such as English.
Aspiration:
Aspirated sounds can distinguish words with different meanings in certain
languages. For example, in English, the aspirated /p/ in "pat" contrasts with the
unaspirated /p/ in "spat." Teaching learners to produce and recognize aspirated
sounds correctly helps them understand and communicate meaning accurately.
The role of aspirated sounds in teaching pronunciation varies depending on the
language being taught. The use of the aspirated phonemes helps the listener to
distinguish minimal pairs in English, which are pairs of words, such as pill/bill, that
differ only by a single sound. English consonants that are aspirated often present
difficulties for speakers of languages, such as Spanish or French, which lack these
sounds.

Drilling:
Drilling is key to mastering pronunciation. Encourage students to practice
pronouncing sounds, words, and phrases repeatedly. Pronunciation drills, where
students repeat target sounds or words after the teacher, help build muscle
memory and improve pronunciation accuracy and fluency.
Drilling aims to help students achieve better pronunciation of
language items, and to help them to remember new items.

Minimal pairs:
Minimal pairs are pairs of words that differ by only one phoneme, such as "pat"
and "bat" in English. By contrasting these minimal pairs, learners can identify and
practice the specific sounds that distinguish meaning in the target language.
Minimal pairs are useful for identifying and correcting pronunciation errors. When
learners mispronounce words that are minimal pairs, instructors can use these
pairs to demonstrate the correct pronunciation and help learners understand the
importance of accurate sound production.

Tongue Twisters:
Tongue twisters are phrases or sentences that are specifically designed to be
difficult to articulate, typically due to their repetitive or alliterative nature. Tongue
twisters often focus on specific phonetic sounds or combinations of sounds,
challenging speakers to articulate them rapidly and accurately. They are
commonly used in language learning contexts to improve pronunciation,
articulation, and fluency, as well as to add an element of fun and humor to
language practice.For example:
1."Red lorry, yellow lorry, red lorry, yellow lorry."
2."Toy boat. Toy boat. Toy boat."
3."I scream, you scream, we all scream for ice cream."
4."Betty bought a bit of butter but the butter was bitter, so Betty bought a bit of
better butter to make the bitter butter better."
5."Six slippery snails, slid slowly seaward."
6."How can a clam cram in a clean cream can?"
7."Sheena leads, Sheila needs."
Intonation:
Intonation refers to the variation in pitch, stress, and rhythm in spoken language.
Intonation patterns can change the interpretation of a sentence or phrase,
indicating factors such as mood, emphasis, question or statement status, and
sarcasm.
Intonation plays a crucial role in teaching pronunciation because it helps convey
meaning, mood, and intention in spoken language. Intonation helps distinguish
between different types of sentences, such as declarative, interrogative,
imperative, and exclamatory sentences. By teaching learners the characteristic
intonation patterns associated with each sentence type, instructors enable them
to produce grammatically correct and contextually appropriate utterances.

Qno.14
Phonetic transcription of commonly used
words
1. run [ˈrʌn]

2. Pleasure [ˈpleʒə(r)]
3. Nose [nəʊz]
4. Paper [ˈpeɪpə(r)]
5. Shed [ʃed]
6. Men [men]
7. Toe [təʊ]
8. Morning [ˈmɔːnɪŋ]
9. Then [ðen]
10. Beg [beɡ]
11. Lamb [læm]
12. Cat [kæt]
13. Pat [pæt]
14. Measure [ˈmeʒə(r)]
15. But [bət]
16. Put [pʊt]
17. Treasure [ˈtreʒ.ər]
18. Thought [θɔːt]
19. Mischief [ˈmɪs.tʃɪf]
20. Music |ˈmjuːzɪk|
21. Other /ˈʌðə(r)/
22. People /ˈpiː.pəl/
23. Pretty /ˈprɪt.i/
24. Same /seɪm/
25. Saw /sɔː/
26. Sergeant /ˈsɑː.dʒənt/
27. Spinach /ˈspɪn.ɪtʃ/
28. Schism /ˈskɪz.əm/
29. Suede /sweɪd/
30. Taxi /ˈtæk.si/
31. tortoise /ˈtɔː.təs/
32. yield /jiːld/
33. chronic /ˈkrɒn.ɪk/
34. cross /krɒs/
35. fleece /fliːs/
36. growl /ɡraʊl/
37. phrase /freɪz/
38. spray /spreɪ/
77. Then /ðən/
78. Under /ˈʌndə(r)/
79. While /wʌɪl/
80. Would /wʊd/
81. Wise /wʌɪz/
82. Which /wɪʧ/
83. Yes /jes/
84. Z /zed/
85. Ballet /ˈbæleɪ/
86. Banquet /bæŋkwɪt/
87. Biscuit /bɪskɪt/
88. Cellophane /seləfeɪn/
89. Caesar /siːzə/
90. Cause /k ɔːz/
91. Cello /ʧeləʊ/
92. Chute /ʃuːt/
93. Cognac /kɒnjæk/
94. Comb /kəʊm/
95. Could /kəd/ (strong form /kʊd/)
96. Hurt /hɜ:rt/.
97. Heard /hɜː(r)d/.
98. Marry /ˈmæri/
Merry / meri/
99.
100. Turn /tɜː(r)n/
101. Purr. pɜː|
|
102. Jury [ˈdʒʊr.i]
103. Hoarse /hɔː(r)s/
104. Horse |hɔːs|
Murray ˈmɜːɪ|
105.
106. Hairy /ˈheəriː/
107. Hurry /hə́rɪj/
108. Harry /hæriː/
109. Furry. /fə́ːrɪj/
110. Story [ˈstɔːri]
111. Starry. ˈstɑːri/
112. Orange [ɒrɪndʒ]