Cosmetic Science (Thakur Publication)

Cosmetic »
Science i
cn a
Dr. Saiya Prakaah Stnyh

TllAJCUF] PUDUCATlOfti PVT. LTD
LUCfcUOW Dr Vljay Ntgam
COSMETIC SCIENCE
B . Pharm . , Eighth Semester
According to the syllabus based on ‘Pharmacy Council of India ’
Dr. Satya Prakash Singh

Ph.D, M . Pharm
Director,
Babu Sunder Singh College of Pharmacy,
Raebareli Road, Lucknow
Dr. Vijay Nigam

Ph . D, M.Pharm, B.Pharm
Principal,
Daksh Institute of Pharmaceutical Science ( DIPS ),
Chattarpur, Madhya Pradesh
THAKUR PUBLICATION PVT. LTD., LUCKNOW

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Cosmetic Science
- Dr. Satya Prakash Singh
- Dr. Vijay Nigam
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ISBN No. 978-93-90972-62-3

First Edition 2021
Printed at:
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“ Dedicated
to
Nature * »
- Dr. Satya Prakash Singh
“ Dedicated
to
my Parents ft Family Members "
(
- Dr. Vijay Nigam

Preface
It gives us immense pleasure to place before the B. Pharm Eighth Semester
pharmacy students the book on “ Cosmetic Science ” .
This book has been written strictly in accordance with the current syllabus
prescribed by Pharmacy Council of India , for B. Pharm students. Keeping in
view the requirements of students and teachers, this book has been written to
cover all the topics in an easy -to-comprehend manner within desired limits of the
prescribed syllabus, and it provides the students fundamentals of cosmetics and
cosmeceuticals which are required by them during their pharmaceutical career.
All efforts have been made to keep the text error-free and to present the subject
in a student friendly and easy to understand. However, any suggestions and
constructive comments would be highly appreciated and incorporated in the
future edition.
Please e- mail us at, thakurpublication @ gmail.com
Website, www.tppl.org.in
Acknowledgement
At first, I would like to thank the Almighty for his blessings and also the
extraordinary people in my life without whose cooperation and support it could
not be possible for me to complete this work .
I feel pleasure to express my sincere thanks to Honorable Chairman Sir and Vice
Chairperson ma’am of Babu Sunder Singh College of Pharmacy for extending
their huge support in completing this task.
1 would like to extend my deep gratitude to all my near and dear ones without
whom this task was not possible.
I am thankful to Mr. Vinod Awasthi ( Marketing Head ) of Thakur Publication

Pvt. Ltd. for his encouragement and advice in reviewing the manuscript and rest
of the staff of Thakur Publication Pvt. Ltd. for extending their support and
precious time.
- Dr. Satya Prakasli Singh

I am here by acknowledge and pay special thanks and regards to my Parents.
Brother , Sister & my kids who guided and motivated me towards book writing.
Without their grace, this book writing could not become a reality. With this
wiling I would like to pay respect and support to my wife, Mrs. Priyanka
Nigam.
I am highly obliged in taking the opportunity to sincerely thank my staff

members of Daksh Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Chhatarpur , M .P.
I would also like to thank Thakur Publication Pvt. Ltd. for giving me a great
opportunity to proof myself as an author.
At last but not the least I am thankful to all my teachers, students and friends who
have always helping and encouraging me throughout the year. I have no valuable
words to express my thanks, but my heart is still full of the favours received from
every person.
- Dr. Vijay Nigam

-6-
Syllabus
Cosmetic Science
( Course Code: BP802T )
Module 01 10 Hours
•Classification of cosmetic and cosmeceutical products
•Definition of cosmetics as per Indian and EU regulations. Evolution of
cosmeceuticals from cosmetics, cosmetics as quasi and OTC drugs
Cosmetic Excipients
•Surfactants, rheology modifiers, humectants, emollients, preservatives.
•Classification and application.
Skin
•Basic structure and function of skin.
Hair
•Basic structure of hair.
•Hair growth cycle.
Oral Cavity
•Common problem associated with teeth and gums.
Module 02 10 Hours
Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Skin Care Products
•Face wash, Moisturizing cream, Cold Cream, Vanishing cream and their
advantages and disadvantages.
•Application of these products in formulation of cosmecuticals.
Antiperspants & deodorants
•Actives & mechanism of action.
Principles of formulation and building blocks of Hair care products
•Conditioning shampoo, Hair conditioner, Anti -Dandruff Shampoo.
•Hair oils.
•Chemistry and Formulation of Para-Phylene Diamine based hair dye.
Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Oral Care Products
•Toothpaste for Bleeding gums, sensitive teeth.
•Teeth whitening, Mouthwash.
Module 03 10 Hours
Sun Protection
•Classification of Sunscreens and SPF.
Role of Herbs in Cosmetics
Skin Care
•Aloe and Turmeric
-7-
Hair Care
•Henna and Amla.
Oral Care
•Neem and Clove
Analytical Cosmetics
•BIS specification and analytical methods for shampoo, skin - cream and
toothpaste.
Module 04 08 Hours
Principles of Cosmetic Evaluation
•Principles of Sebumeter, Corneometer.
•Measurement of TEWL
•Skin Color
•Hair Tensile Strength
•Hair Combing Properties
•Soaps, and Syndet bars.
•Evolution and Skin Benefits.
Module 05 07 Hours
•Oily and dry Skin , Causes leading to dry skin, Skin Moisturiation.
•Basic understanding of the terms Comedogenic, Dermatitis.
Cosmetic Problems Associated With Hair and Scalp
•Dandruff , Hair fall causes ,
Cosmetic Problems Associated With Skin
•Blemishes, Wrinkles, acne, Prickly heat and body odor.
Antiperspirants and Deodorants
•Actives and Mechanism of action .
-8-
Contents
Module 1
Chapter 1: Introduction to Cosmetics
1.1. Cosmetics 15
1.1. 1. Introduction 15
1.1 .2. Definition of Cosmetics as per Indian and EU Regulations 15
1.1 .3. Classification of Cosmetics 16
1.1 .4. Cosmetics as Quasi Drugs 17
1.1.5. Cosmetics as OTC Drugs 17
1.2. Cosmeceuticals 18
1.2.2. Evolution of Cosmeceuticals from Cosmetics 18
1.2.3. Classification of Cosmeceutical Products 20
1.3. Summary 21
1.4. Exercise 21
Chapter 2: Cosmetic Excipients
2.1. Cosmetic Excipients 22
2.1. 1 . Introduction 22
2.1.2. Properties of Excipients 22
2.2. Surfactants 22
2.2. 1. Classification 23
2.2.2. Applications 23
2.3. Rheology Modifiers 24
2.3.1. Classification 25
2.3. 2 . Applications 26
2.4. Humectants 27
2.4. 1 . Classification 27
2.4. 2. Applications 28
2.5. Emollients 28
2.5 . 2 . Applications 29
2.6. Preservatives 29
2.7. Summary 30
2.8. Exercise 31
Chapter 3: Skin
3.1. Skin 32
3.1.1. Basic Structure 32
3.1.2. Functions 35
3.2. Summary 36
3.3. Exercise 36
Chapter 4: Hair
4.1. Hair 37
4.1. 1. Basic Structure 37
4.1. 2. Functions 39
4.1.3. Hair Growth Cycle 39
-9-
4.1 . 3.1 . Anagen ( Hair Growth ) Phase 39
4.1 .3.2. Catagen ( Transition ) Phase 39
4.1 .3.3. Telogen ( Resting ) Phase 39
4.1 . 3.4. Exogen ( Hair Shedding ) Phase 39
4.2. Summary 40
4.3. Exercise 40
Chapter 5: Oral Cavity
5.1. Oral Cavity 41
5.1 .1 . Mouth 41
5.1.2. Teeth 42
5.1 .3. Tongue 43
5.2. Common Problems Associated with Teeth and Gums 45
5.3. Summary 46
5.4. Exercise 47
Module 2
Chapter 6: Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Skin
Care Products
6.1. Face Wash 48
6.1. 1 . Formulation 48
6.1.2. Preparation 48
6.1.3. Evaluation 49
6.1 .4. Advantages 50
6.1.5 . Disadvantages 50
6.2. Moisturizing Cream 50
6.2. 1. Formulation 51
6.2.4. Advantages 52
6.2.5 . Disadvantages 52
6.3. Cold Cream 53
6.3.5. Disadvantages 54
6.4. Vanishing Cream 54
6.4. 2. Preparation 55
6.4. 3. Evaluation 56
6.4.5. Disadvantages 57
6.5. Summary 58
6.6. Exercise 58
Chapter 7: Antiperspirants and Deodorants

7.1. Antiperspirants and Deodorants 59
7.1 . 1 . Introduction 59
7.1.2. Difference between Antiperspirants and Deodorants 59
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7.1.3. Mechanism of Action 59
7.1.4. Formulation/Actives 60
7.1.6. Types 61
7.1 .6.1. Antiperspirant Creams 62
7.1.6.2. Antiperspirant Sprays 62
7.1.6.3. Deodorant Sticks 63
7.1.6.4. Deodorant Powders 63
7.1.6.5. Deodorant Creams 63
7.1.6.6. Roll -ons 64
7.1.6.7. Pumps 66
7.1.6.8. Aerosols 67
7.1.7. Evaluation of Antiperspirants 67
7.1.7.1. Gravimetric Method 67
7.1.7.2. Hygrometry 68
7.1.8. Evaluation of Deodorants 68
7.1.8.1. Tape Stripping Method 68
7.1.8.2. Velvet Replicate Pads Technique 68
7.1.8.3. Scrubbing Technique 69
7.1.8.4. Pressurised Spray Method 69
7.2. Summary 69
7.3. Exercise 70
Chapter 8: Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Hair

Care Products
8.1. Shampoos 71
8.1.1. Excipients 71
8.1.2. Types of Shampoos 73
8.1.2.1. General - Purpose Cleaning Shampoo 74
8.1.2.2. Conditioning Shampoo 75
8.1.2.3. Anti - Dandruff Shampoo 76
8.1.2.4. Baby Shampoo 77
8.1.2.5. Dry Shampoo 77
8.2. Hair Conditioner 81
8.2.1 . Types 81
8.2.2. Excipients 82
8.2.3. Formulation and Preparation 83
8.3. Hair Oils 85
8.3.1. Preparation of Herbal Hair Tonic 86
8.3.2. Preparation of Polyherbal Hair Tonic 86
8.3.3. Evaluation of Ayurvedic Herbal Oil 87
8.4. Hair Dyes 88
8.4.1. Types 88
8.4.2. Temporary Hair Dye 88
8.4.2.1. Formulation 89
8.4.2.2. Preparation 89
8.4.3. Semi - Permanent/Direct Hair Dye 90
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8.4.3.2. Preparation 91
8.4.4. Para - Phylene Diamine-Based Hair Dye ( Permanent or Oxidation 91
Hair Dye )
8.4.4.1. Ingredients 92
8.4.5. Lighteners or Bleaches 95
8.4.6. Evaluation of Hair Dyes 97
8.5. Summary 97
8.6. Exercise 98
Chapter 9: Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Oral

Care Products
9.1. Toothpastes 99
9.1.1. Ingredients 100
9.1.2. Types of Toothpastes 102
9.1.2.1. Fluoride Toothpaste 102
9.1.2.2. Tartar Control Toothpaste 103
9.1.2.3. Toothpaste for Sensitive Teeth 103
9.1.2.4. Whitening Toothpaste 103
9.1.3. Formulations 104
9.2. Tooth Powder 107
9.2. 1. Types 108
9.2.2. Formulation 108
9.3. Mouthwashes 109
9.3.1. Types 110
9.3.2. Ingredients Ill
9.4. Summary 114
9.5. Exercise 115
Module 3
Unit 10: Sun Protection
10.1. Sun Protection 116
10.2. Sunscreens 117
10.2.2. Ingredients 118
10.2.5. SPF 122
10.2.5.1. Classification 122
10.2.5.2. Badger’s SPF Sunscreen Testing 123
10.3. Summary 123
10.4. Exercise 123
- 12 -
Unit 11: Role of Herbs in Cosmetics
11.1. Herbal Cosmetics 124
11.1 . 3. Disadvantages 125
11.1 .5. Role of Cosmetics in Skin Care 125
11.1 .5.1 . Aloe 127
11.1 .5.2. Turmeric 130
11.1.6. Role of Cosmetics in Hair Care 131
11.1.6.1. Henna 132
11.1.6.2. A mla 133
11.1 .7. Role of Cosmetics in Oral Care 135
11.1.7.1. Neem 136
11.1 .7.2. Clove 138
11.1.8. Evaluation of Herbal Cosmetics 138
11.2. Summary 138
11.3. Exercise 139
Unit 12: Analytical Cosmetics

12.1. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS ) 140
12.1. 1. Objectives of BIS 141
12.1 .2. Activities 141
12.1 . 3. Standards Formulation 141
12.1 .4. International Activities 141
12.1 .5 . Product Certification 142
12.1 .6. Consumer Affairs and Publicity 142
12.2. BIS Specification and Analytical Method for Shampoo 143
12.3. BIS Specification and Analytical Method for Skin Cream 145
12.4. BIS Specification and Analytical Method for Toothpaste 148
12.5. Summary 153
12.6. Exercise 153
Module 4
Chapter 13: Principles of Cosmetic Evaluation
13.1. Sebumeter 154
13.1 . 1 . Principle 154
13.1 .2. Mechanism of Sebum Measurement by Sebumeter 154
13.1 . 3. Applications 155
13.1 . 5 . Disadvantage 156
13.2. Comeometer 156
13.2. 1 . Principle 156
13.2. 3. Advantages 157
13.3. Measurement of TEWL 158
13.3. 1 . Principle 158
13.3.2. Technology 159
13.3. 3. Applications 160
- 13 -
13.4. Skin Colour 160
13.4. 1 . Skin Type 161
13.4. 2. Colorimeter 161
13.4.3. Mexameter 162
13.5. Hair Tensile Strength 163
13.5. 1 . Principle 163
13.5.2. Procedure 164
13.5.3. Properties 164
13.6. Hair Combing Properties 166
13.6. 1 . Applications 167
13.6. 2. Evaluation of Hair 167
13.7. Summary 168
13.8. Exercise 168
Chapter 14: Cleansing Techniques
14.1. Soaps and Syndet Bars 169
14.1 . 1 . Types of Soaps 169
14.1 .2. Ingredients 170
14.1 .3. Difference between Soap and Syndet 171
14.1 .4. Formulation 172
14.1 .5. Preparation 173
14.1.5.1 . Cold Process 173
14.1 .5.2. Semi - boiled Process 173
14.1 .5.3. Full - Boiled Process 174
14.1 .5.4. Kettle Process 175
14.1.5.5. Continuous Process 176
14.1 .6. Total Fatty Matter of a Soap 177
14.2. Evolution of Cleansing Soaps 178
14.3. Summary 181
14.4. Exercise 181
Module 5
Chapter 15: Cosmetic Problems Associated with Skin
15.1. Oily Skin 182
15.1 . 1. Causes 182
15.1 . 2. Symptoms 183
15.1 .3. Prevention 183
15.1 .4. Treatment 183
15.2. Dry Skin 185
15.2. 1 . Causes 185
15.2.2. Symptoms 186
15.2.3. Prevention 186
15.2.4. Treatment 186
15.3. Skin Moisturisation 187
15.3. 1. Natural Moisturising Factor ( NMF) 187
15.3.2. Ingredients Moisturising the Skin 188
15.4. Dermatitis 188
15.4.1. Types 189
15.4.2. Causes 189
15.4. 3. Symptoms 190
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15.5. Blemishes 191
15.5.1. Types 191
15.5.2. Causes 192
15.6. Wrinkles 195
15.6. 1 . Causes 195
15.7. Acne 197
15.7.1. Types 197
15.7.2. Causes 198
15.8. Prickly Heat 199
15.8.1 . Causes 200
15.8. 2. Symptoms 200
15.8.3. Prevention and Treatment 200
15.9. Body Odour 201
15.9. 1 . Causes 202
15.9.2. Prevention and Treatment 202
15.10. Comedogenic 202
15.11 . Summary 203
15.12. Exercise 204
Chapter 16: Cosmetic Problems Associated with Hair and Scalp

16.1. DandrufT 205
16.1.1. Comporestion 205
16.1.2. Causes 205
16.2. Hair Fall 207
16.2. 1 . Types 208
16.2.2. Causes 209
16.3. Summary 211
16.4. Exercise 212
Introduction to Cosmetics ( Chapter I ) ( tppl .org . in ) 15
CHAPTER Introduction to Cosmetics

1
1.1 . COSMETICS
1.1.1. Introduction
The word cosmetic was derived from the Greek word “ kosm tikos” meaning
having the power, arrange, skill in decorating. Generally, cosmeceutical or
cosmetic substances refer to preparations that are meant for external use. They
are applied on external body structures like skin , hair, and nails. They are used to
make colouring, softening, cleansing, nourishing, protection, setting,
mollification, preservation, removal, and perming purposes.
A good cosmetic should have the following properties:

1 ) All the raw materials used should be of highest quality and they should be
standardized for their qualities.
2 ) All water used in cosmetics should be distilled or purified water.
3) The color used should be the permitted color.
4 ) The perfumes used should be compatible with other ingredients of the
preparation .
5) They should be tolerated all conditions particularly extreme of temperature
and humidity condition to which they are likely to encountered in the market.
6) They should be economic.
. 1.2.Definition of Cosmetics as per Indian and EU

Regulations
The cosmetic products in India are regulated under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act
1940 and Rules 1945 and Labelling Declarations by the Bureau of Indian
Standards ( BIS ). As per the Drug and cosmetic act 1940, cosmetic means “any
article intended to be rubbed , poured , sprinkled or sprayed on, or
introduced into, or otherwise applicated to the human body or any part
thereof for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the
appearance, and includes any article intended for use as a component of
cosmetic”.
The European Union Cosmetics Directive defines a cosmetic as “any substance

or preparation intended to be placed in contact with the various external
parts of the human body ( epidermis, hair system, nails, lips and external
genital organs ) or with the teeth and the mucous membranes of the oral
cavity with a view exclusively or mainly to cleaning them, perfuming them,
changing their appearance and/or correcting body odours and/or protecting
them or keeping them in good condition ”.
16 Cosmetic Science
1.1.3. Classification of Cosmetics

According to die function , cosmetics are classified into the following groups ;
1 ) Decorative function ( Example - Lipstick. Nail polish , etc.).
2 ) Corrective function ( Example - Dry cream and heavy face powder ).
3 ) Protective function ( Example - Dry cream and heavy face powder ) .
4 ) Curative function ( Example - anti perspirant, hair preparation , etc.).
According to their uses, cosmetics are again sub-divided into the following classes:
1 ) For the skin ( Example - Powder, Cream, Lotion, Deodorant, Bath and
cleansing preparation. Make up etc.) .
2 ) For the Hair ( Example - Shampoo, Hair tonic, Hair dressing, Shaving
preparation , etc.).
3) For the nails ( Example - Nail polish. Nail conditioner, Polish remover, etc.).
4 ) For the teeth and mouth ( Example - Dentifrices, Mouth washes, etc.).
5 ) Border line products ( Example - Foot powder Insect repellents Eye . .
products, etc.).
Cosmetics
I i Hair Nail Hygienic
[ Lacquers - I!
Powders, compacts Creams Lot ions .Colorants Denial :
Lipsticks , Lacquer _
Face powders, compacts. removers - Powders Soap, Bath salts
Rouges
Body powders . Prickly Nai )
Skin lotions.
heat powders and
Face pack
Astringent lotions polishes - — Pastes dentifrices
,
Cuticle - Lotions
Vanishing creams . Cold removers
creams All - purpose creams — Mouth washes
I
Hair remover, Hair wave Shampoos -
Depilatories. Epilatories. preparation. Hair Dyes. Hair lotions. Mascaras ,
Shaving prep. dressing. Hair Dandruff lotions Eye brow pencils. Kohl
conditioner
Figure 1.1: Classification of Cosmetics
According to their physical nature, cosmetics can be classified into the following
ways:
1 ) Sprays ( Perfumes, after shaving spray , hair spray , etc.).
2 ) Emulsions ( Cold cream , liquid cream, etc.).
3 ) Jellies ( Hand jelly, hair jelly, etc . ) .
4 ) Mucilage ( Hand lotion, body lotion , etc. ) .
5 ) Oils ( Hair oils , body oils, etc . ) .
6 ) Cakes ( Rough compacts or face powder ).
7 ) Paste ( Toothpaste , Deodorant paste ) .
8) Powder (Talcum powder, tooth powder ) .
9 ) Soaps (Shaving soap, toilet soap, etc.).
10 ) Solution ( After shave lotion , astringent lotion , etc. ).
11 ) Sticks ( Lipsticks, deodorant sticks etc, ).
12) Suspension ( Liquid powder, cosmetics, etc.).
Introduction to Cosmetics ( Chapter 1 ) ( tppl .org. in ) 17
1.1 .4. Cosmetics as Quasi Drugs

Quasi drugs are one of the prime set of beauty products in South Korea , other
than cosmetics. Quasi drugs can be considered as a fine line between drugs and
cosmetics, for not being suitable as drugs. South Korea’s Health Authority ( HA )
and the Ministry of Food and Drugs Safety ( MFDS ) have grouped them under
skincare products, like for acne or skin dullness.
Categorisation of Quasi Drugs
Group 1: This includes:
1 ) Commodities utilised for sanitary purpose, like sanitary napkins, tampons,
and menstrual pads.
2 ) Textiles utilised for producing masks, like dust and surgical masks.
3) Moist wipes for oral sanitation.
4 ) Sanitary items utilised for prevention, preservation, and curing of harmed
areas that include variety of bandages, plastic bandages.
Group 2: This includes:
1) Odour inhibitors like toothpastes, antiperspirants, and bath commodities.
2 ) Hair care items for external use only.
3) Nicotine-free products dor those who smoke.
4 ) Ointments and anti -inflammatories for superficial use.
Registration Process for Quasi Drugs
1) Submission: The product information should be given to the HA for product
acceptance . Thereafter, the information should be passed on to the Cosmetics
Evaluation Division (CED ) and National Institute of Food and Drugs Safety
Evaluations ( NIFDSE) for analysing the safety and efficiency of the product.
Next, it should be passed on to the Medical Product Safety Division Regional
Food and Drugs Safety.
2 ) Review: The HA will review the safety and efficacy analysis report.
Simultaneously , the HA will also examine the manufacturing sites to
evaluate the product condition and quality.
3) Approval/Notification: The HA will provide approval as well as notification
if the product certifies in the Korean Pharmacopoeia and other
pharmaceutical compendia recognised by the MFDS.
1.1 .5. Cosmetics as OTC Drugs

The medications sold directly to the patients without prescription from medical
professionals are OTC drugs. These drugs are generally regulated by the Active
Pharmaceutical Ingredient ( API ). Government gives the manufacturers the liberty
to put together ingredients by balancing the API rather than the drug formulation.
Likewise, cosmetics can be regarded as OTCs. Certain items fall in the definition
of both cosmetics and drugs. Some declarations may subject a product to be
regarded as a drug, even being marked as a cosmetic. OTC products compliant
with the OTC drugs monograph may be presented with no prior FDA approval .
For example, antidandruff shampoo and sunscreens are regarded as OTCs in the
United States. OTCs should be produced and controlled according to the cGMP
demands for pharmaceuticals for human consumption.
18 Cosmetic Science
Merits of OTC Drugs

1 ) More satisfactory and less threats.
2 ) Less chances of misuse and abuse.
3) Customer can easily self -diagnose, self -treat , and self -manage.
4) Appropriately labelled and no need of health professional.
Demerits of OTC Drugs

1 ) Less chances to know about the possible lifestyle therapies.
2) Low compliance.
3) Misdiagnosed patients are prone to its threats, and will not be benefitted.
4 ) Tough to examine drug effects.
1.2. COSMECEUTICALS
1.2.1. Introduction
Cosmeceuticals refers to the combination of cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.
Cosmeceuticals are cosmetic products with biologically active ingredients
purporting to have medical or drug-like benefits.
Cosmeceuticals are topically applied, but they contain ingredients that influence
the biological function of the skin . Cosmeceuticals improve appearance, but
they do so by delivering nutrients necessary for healthy skin. Cosmeceuticals
typically claim to improve skin tone, texture, and radiance, while reducing
wrinkling. Cosmeceuticals are the fastest-growing segment of the natural
personal care industry .
Characterisation of Cosmeceuticals
1 ) The product has pharmaceutical activity and can be used on normal or near -
normal skin.
2) The product should have a defined benefit for minor skin disorders ( cosmetic
indication ).
3) As the skin disorder is mild the product should have a very low -risk profile.
1.2.2. Evolution of Cosmeceuticals from Cosmetics

1 ) The health-giving property of cosmetics was first identified by the Egyptians.
The cosmetics were first used by Egyptians in 4000 B.C whose records are
being available.
The health -providing property of cosmetics was first discovered by the
Egyptian in 4000 B.C.
2) Up to the beginning of 19th century, there was no clear separation between
cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, the separation occurred when the first
modern pharmaceutical industry was developed.
,h
Till early 19 century , there was no definite difference between cosmetics
and pharmaceuticals, the separation happened when the first modern
pharmaceutical industry was established.
Introduction to Cosmetics ( Chapter 1 ) ( tppl .org . in ) 19
3) In 1980’s there was a rapid expansion of the cosmeceuticals due to hydroxy

acids ( natural fruit acids ) used as exfoliants against wrinkles.
In 1980’s, a rapid expansion of the cosmeceuticals occurred due to hydroxyl
( acids natural fruit acids ) used as exfoliants against wrinkles.
4 ) In 1961 the term cosmeceuticals was coined by the Raymond Reed , founding
member of the United States Society of Cosmetic Chemists.
In 1961 the word cosmeceuticals was created by the Raymond Reed,
founding member of the United States of Cosmetic Chemists.
5 ) Albert Kligman in 1971 developed a formula to improve the appearance of
UV damaged and wrinkled skin , using retinoic acid thereby reactivated
interest of the people in cosmeceuticals. World-renowned dermatologist.
In 1971, Albert Klingman, world’s renown dermatologist, created a formula to
enhance the appearance of UV harmed and wrinkled skin, utilizing retinoic
acid thereby regenerated the intrigue of the masses in cosmeceuticals.
6) Dr. Kligman made a long-lasting contribution to the world of skincare by
discovering that topical retinoic acid ( or tretinoin ) can be used for both an
acne and wrinkle treatment .
Dr Klingman made a long-standing contribution to the world of skincare by
establishing that topical retinoic acid ( or tretinoin ) can be utilized for both an
acne and wrinkle treatment.
7 ) Dr. Kligman may be described as the father of cosmeceuticals. a term he
popularized; but cosmeceuticals first appeared in the world market in 1996.
8) The several cosmetic jars have been unearthed by the Archaeologists whose
hieroglyphics say “good for sight” and “stops bleeding”.
The Archaeologist whose hieroglyphics reads “good for sight” and “stop
bleeding ” has unearthed several cosmetics jars.
9 ) A medical papyrus “Ebers,” which was written in 1600 BC, makes frequent
reference to a number of cosmeceuticals-type products.
“Ebers” a medical papyrus written in 1600 BC, makes recurring reference to
a number of cosmeceutical -type items.
10 ) The favourite was the one prepared using honey and milk that claimed to
help cure skin diseases, while different product mentioned in the Ebers,
claiming to “expel wrinkles from the face”, were made from frankincense,
balantine oil, rush oil and wax in equal proportions.
The best was the one prepared from milk and honey that declared to cure
skin diseases, while the product introduced in the Ebers, declaring to “expel
wrinkles from the face”, were prepared from frankincense, balantine oil , rush
oil, wax in similar proportion.
11 ) A dark powder knows as Kohl was being applied around the eyes in an
almond shape with a stick. Kohl was made of different colours of copper ore,
lead , ochre, ash , burnt almonds and oxidised copper.
20 Cosmetic Science
Kohl was being put around the eyes in drop shape with a stick. Kohl was a
dark powder made up of distinct colours of copper ore, lead, ochre, ash , burnt
almonds and oxidized copper.
12 ) Red clay mixed with water was the choice of makeup, for the cheeks and
lips. Henna was used to paint the finger -nails yellow or orange.
Henna was used to colour the finger-nails yellow or orange. Red clay mixed
with water was used for cheeks and lips as make-up.
13) Egg whites, gum Arabic, beeswax and gelatine were used to create nail
colour in ancient China.
In ancient China, nail colour was prepared by egg whites, gum Arabic,
beeswax and gelatine.
14) As time moved on cultures were fused and the Greeks began to move into
cosmetics history and accept the use of Egyptian cosmetics. They did it just
simply to look good and not for spiritual purposes.
With passing time cultures were mixed, the Greek showed interest in
cosmetics history and acquired the use of Egyptian cosmetics. They did it
just to look good.
15) Centuries later, as the Romans moved in they started the use of cosmetic
formulas for other purposes, such as creating aphrodisiacs. They started to
use blood mixed sheep fat for nail polish and instead of just using the
traditional body oils created by Egyptians, they took baths in mud and
crocodile excrement.
.
After Centuries Romans started using cosmetics formula for purpose like
creating aphrodisiacs. They used blood mixed with sheep fat for nail paint
and in place of using the body oils formulated by Egyptians, they took bath
in mud and crocodiles remain.
1.2.3. Classification of Cosmeccutical Products

Based on their function cosmeceuticals are classified as follows:
1 ) Skin-whitening and/or depigmenting cosmeceuticals.
2 ) Moisturising cosmeceuticals.
3) Anti -wrinkle cosmeceuticals.
4 ) Sunscreen cosmeceuticals.
5) Anti -photoaging cosmeceuticals.
Based on various products presently on the market , cosmeceuticals can be

divided into the following broad categories:
1 ) Antioxidants,
2 ) Growth factors,
3) Peptides,
4) Metals,
5) Anti -inflammatories/botanicals,
6) Polysaccharides, and
7 ) Pigment-lightening agents.
Introduction to Cosmetics ( Chapter 1 ) ( tppl .org. in ) 21
1.3. SUMMARY
The details given in the chapter can be summarised as follows:
1 ) The word cosmetic was derived from the Greek word “ kosm tikos meaning having
the power, arrange, skill in decorating.
2) The cosmetic products in India are regulated under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1940
and Rules 1945 and Labelling Declarations by the Bureau of Indian Standards ( BIS).
3) According to the function, cosmetics are classified into; decorative function,
corrective function, protective function and curative function .
4 ) Quasi drugs are one of the prime set of beauty products in South Korea, other than
cosmetics.
5 ) South Korea’s Health Authority ( HA ) and the Ministry of Food and Drugs Safety
( MFDS ) have grouped them under skincare products, like for acne or skin dullness.
6 ) Cosmetics can be regarded as OTCs, as certain items fall in the definition of both
cosmetics and drugs.
7 ) Cosmeceuticals are cosmetic products with biologically active ingredients
purporting to have medical or drug-like benefits.
1.4. EXERCISE
1.4. 1 . Very Short Answer Type Questions
1) Define the term cosmetics.
2) Under which act the cosmetic products are regulated in India ?
3) Classify cosmetics on the basis of their functions.
4) What do you mean by Quasi drugs?
5) What are the characteristics of cosmeceuticals?
1.4.2. Short Answer Type Questions

1) What are the properties of good cosmetics?
2) Classify the cosmetics according to their uses.
3) Classify the cosmetic products on the basis of their physical nature.
4) Write a note on cosmetics as OTC drugs.
1.4.3. Long Answer Type Question

1 ) Write a detailed note on evolution of cosmeceuticals from cosmetics.
22 Cosmetic Science
CHAPTER
2 Cosmetic Excipients
2.1. COSMETIC EXCIPIENTS
2.1. 1. Introduction
The substances having no or insignificant pharmacological activity but added to
active pharmaceutical ingredient, to get the intended properties of the formulation,
are called excipients. According to IPEC, “ Excipients are products having slight or
no action and intended to add in formulation to make it more effective”.
2.1 .2. Properties of Excipients

Excipients have a variety of functions, which are:
1 ) For a specific result , the physicochemical properties of excipients are taken
into consideration.
2 ) By altering the concentration of the same excipients, it can be employed for
different functions.
3 The excipients must not interfere with:
)
i ) Dosage form,
ii ) Drug release,
iii ) Stability, and
iv ) Acceptability.
2.2. SURFACTANTS
Surface active agents or surfactants
are the molecules which remain
active at the surface. These agents
decrease the surface tension at the
surface of the liquids by getting Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tail
adsorbed either at the surface
Figure 2.1: Surfactant Molecule
( junction between a gaseous phase
and either solid or liquid phase) or
at the interface ( boundary present between two immiscible phases).
A molecule of surfactant shown in figure 2.1 is an amphiphilic molecule that
comprises of a polar head ( hydrophilic ) and a non-polar tail ( hydrophobic ). The
hydrophilic head group present in surfactant can be either ionic or non -ionic,
whereas the hydrophobic tail is either branched or linear long-chain hydrocarbon
residue with a chain length of 8-18 carbon atoms.
- -
Surfactants used in cosmetics should be non irritating, non toxic, colourless,
highly stable, and have no unpleasant odour.
Cosmetic Excipients (Chapter 2 ) 23
2.2.1. Classification
Depending upon the dissociation medium of the surfactants and the charges
carried by them ( after dissociating ), surfactants are divided into:
1 ) Anionic Surfactants: Fatty acid soaps, sodium lauryl sulphate, sodium
laureth polyoxyethylene ether sulphate, sodium cetyl polyoxyethylene ether
phosphate, and soybean phospholipids ( lecithin ) are the anionic surfactants
used in cosmetic products. They are mostly used in the formation of
cleaning, wetting, emulsifying and foaming products due to their strong
detergency characteristics.
2) Cationic Surfactants: Primary , secondary and tertiary amines and quaternary
ammonium salts of higher alkyl groups ( like octadecyltrimethylammonium
chloride, C12-14 alkyl dimethylbenzylammonium chloride, double ten
octamethyldimethyl chloride, etc. are cationic surfactants. They are a good
bactericidal, antistatic agent, have softening, waterproof and fixing effects in
cosmetics.
3) Amphoteric Surfactants: Cocamidopropyl betaine and imidazoline are
some of the amphoteric surfactants used in the formation of cosmetics. They
show a good laundering effect, mildness, low toxicity, and low irritancy to
skin and eyes. They also add the properties of softening, antistatic,
emulsifying, dispersing and sterilising in the cosmetic products.
-
4) Non ionic Surfactants: Ethylene oxide adduct, polyoxyethylene lauryl
ether, coco fatty acid diethanol amide, oleic acid monoglyceride,
polyoxyethylated castor oil, and ethoxylated lanolin are the most commonly
used non-ionic surfactants in cosmetics. They do not cause skin irritation,
and show properties of emulsification, solubilisation, stability, and
compatibility ( with other surfactants ).
2.2.2. Applications
1 ) Solubilisation: It is the increase in the effect of solubility of partially soluble
or insoluble substance. Mostly, solubilisers are used in the formulation of
lotions, hair oils, and hair conditioners. Solubilisers vary in different
cosmetic products because of the difference in structure and polarity of oily
ingredients, like perfumes, oils, and oil -soluble vitamins.
For example, fragrance, oil, chemical, etc. are the solubilising objects of the
lotion ; accordingly, alkyl polyoxyethylene ether can be its solubilising agent .
Castor oil -based amphoteric derivatives have excellent solubility for perfume
oils and vegetable oils, and such surfactants are non -irritating to the eyes, so
are suitable for non -irritating shampoos.
2) Emulsification: It is the method of forming emulsion by mixing water-
insoluble substance with water. Mostly , emulsifiers are used in the
formulation of creams and lotions. Non -ionic emulsifiers are most widely
used as they cause less irritation.
3) Dispersion: It is the phenomenon in which the non -aqueous substance forms
fine particles in water and is uniformly dispersed. Powders, solvents and
dispersing agents form the dispersion system of cosmetic products.
24 Cosmetic Science
Powders can be inorganic ( talc, mica, titanium dioxide, and carbon black) or
organic pigments. They are added in the formulation for getting good colour and
sunscreen effect. Solvents can be aqueous or non-aqueous. Dispersing agents are
classified into hydrophilic dispersing agents and lipophilic dispersing agents.
4 ) Cleaning: Shampoos, shower gels, and facial cleansers are some of the cleaning
products. These products should be mild to the skin, along with the properties of
cleansing, foaming, and wetting. The surfactants used in the cleaning products
should keep the skin in a normal state, and not penetrate the skin and damage the
epidermal cells. Anionic surfactants have been used for cleaning.
Sodium lauryl sulphate shows a good cleaning effect on the skin , hence it is
the most common raw material used in the formulation of cleaning
cosmetics. Imidazoline, cocamidopropyl betaine , and amino acids are mild
cleansing amphoteric surfactants, used in the preparation of facial cleansers,
shampoos, and baby shampoos.
5 ) Softening: Generally, good softening and antistatic properties can be seen in
cationic surfactants. Hence, they are mostly used as conditioning agents in
hair conditioners. Monoalkyl and dialkyl quaternary ammonium salts ( like,
Cl 6-18 monoalkylamine salt , double Cl 6-18 alkyl quaternary ammonium
salt , and alkylbenzyl quaternary ammonium salt ) are the most common
cationic surfactants used in the preparation of cosmetic products.
6) Wetting and Penetration: The moisturising effect of surfactants gives
comfortable and soft feeling to the user. Phospholipids ( main component of
biological cells) are responsible for the metabolism of a cell and permeability
mediation of cell membrane, and provide a good moisturising and
penetration effect on the skin . Sophorolipid biosurfactant also makes the skin
feel soft and moist , as it contains affinity for the skin . Biochemical active
substances, vitamin derivatives, enzyme preparations, cell growth factors
( EGF, DFGF), collagen , elastin, ceramide, and hyaluronic acid involve in the
metabolism of skin cells and can change the skin structure ( for anti -wrinkle,
anti-aging and whitening effects ) by penetrating the skin.
2.3. RHEOLOGY MODIFIERS

Rheology is the science or study of how things flow. A personal care product
should flow in the right way . For example, a skin cream should appear highly
viscous in the jar but should be capable of being picked up and rubbed into the
skin ; nail polish should be sufficiently viscous to suspend the high volume of
suspended pigment , not drip from the brush but thin sufficiently on the nails to
cover them uniformly.
Rheology modifiers are often referred to as thickeners. It will also be essential to

choose the correct rheological characteristics to ensure the stability of finished
formulation . To achieve such varied effects, a number of different types of
rheology modifier are available. These include natural gums ( guar gum and
starch ), modified naturals (cellulose derivatives ), modified synthetics ( acrylic
polymers ) and inorganic ( clays ).
Cosmetic Excipients ( Chapter 2 ) 25
1 ) Aqueous Phase Additives
i ) Rheoluxe Associative Thickeners: These are non -ionic polymeric
thickeners designed for personal care market. Rheoluxe consists of
urethane-based and polyether polyol -based associative thickeners with
superior performance in systems containing high salt levels or with
extremes in pH. Due to its structure, Rheoluxe is soluble in water, but
associates with lipophilic materials to build viscosity .
INCI Name Use Level Chemistry
Rheoluxe 812 Bis- lauryl Cocami nopropyl amine / 1.0-3.0% Polyurethane
hDl PeG 100 Copolymer ( and )
/ -
Butylene
Rheoluxe 880 Bis-C 16-20 Iso alkoxy TMhDl/PeG - 1.0-3.0% Polyurethane
90 Copolymer
Rheoluxe PeG /PPG -450/50 0.5 -5.0% Polyether
8015 Trimethylolpropane Dodecyl ether Polyol
ii ) Hectorite: It is a unique swelling clay with several advantages. It has
lower iron content, is lighter in colour, has higher swelling capacity,
greater gel strength, platelet-shaped, and has a large surface area.
Hercorite is able to from strong, stable viscous gels. It is a very effective
thickener of water due to which it forms the basis as rheological
additives in cosmetics.
iii ) Bentone Hydrophillic Clays: Bentone MA and EW rheological
additives provide thixotropy to the aqueous phase. They form gels by
producing an open, 3-D network of the individual clay platelets. They are
stable across the range pH 6-11 and offer good tolerance to electrolytes.
Bentone LT forms a similar network, but is strengthened by the presence
of a special cellulose, greatly enhancing stability and thickening
characteristics. It is stable across a broader range, pH 3-11 , and is also
the least electrolyte-sensitive product.
-
2 ) Non Aqueous Phase Additives
i ) Bentone Organophilic Clays: Hectorite is reacted with special
vegetable quaternary ammonium salts to produce organoclays, which are
able to thicken and gel organic liquids. The correct choice of bentone
additive is determined by the polarity of the system to be thickened .
Additives Applications
'
Bentone 27 V Intermediate to high - polarity organic systems ( esters and
triglycerides ); for nail lacquers , skin care , antiperspirants, and
lip products .
Bentone 38 V Intermediate to low - polarity organic systems ( volatile silicones
and mineral oil ); for antiperspirants, creams, lotions, eye
products , and suntan products .
Bentone additives need to be efficiently dispersed using high -shear
equipment and then to be activated with the optimum level of propylene
carbonate ( a chemical activator ). Bentone organoclays form thixotropic
gels by developing hydrogen bond bridges between the edges of adjacent
platelets.
26 Cosmetic Science
ii) Bentone Gel: These additives are optimally dispersed and activated pre-
dispersions. These do not require high -shear dispersion and polar
activation. These are easy to handle and use; and can be added at any
appropriate and convenient stage in manufacture.
A wide range of gels made from various cosmetic oils, esters and
solvents are available. The use of Bentone Gel enables to achieve
maximum efficiency from the organoclay without the need for careful
shearing and activation.
iii ) Thixcin R Rheological Additive: It is the product to use for highest
degree of thixotropy in aliphatic liquids. In addition to its effective
rheological properties, it gives water repellency, stabilises emulsions ,
and acts as a stiffening agent in lipsticks and ointments.
It can also be used as a dry binder in pressed power systems ( where high -
temperature resistance is needed ). Thixcin R ( castor oil derivative )
requires temperature-controlled activation within the range 55-60°C
( 130- 140°F) and high-shear mixing to develop its full structure.
2.3.2. Applications
Rheology modifiers are used in:
1) Stick Products ( Lipstick and Antiperspirant )
i ) To maintain homogeneity in molten and setting stages
ii ) To increase high-temperature integrity
iii ) To eliminate oil migration
iv) To reduce creasing around lips and eyes
2) Mascara
i ) To improve film-build
ii ) To increase water-resistance
iii ) To eliminate oil migration
3) Emulsions
i) To elevate drop-point temperature of water-in-oil creams
ii ) To eliminate syneresis
iii ) To improve emulsion stability
iv ) To enable cold-process emulsification
v) To create novel viscosity effects
4 ) UV Sunscreen
i ) To eliminate ultrafine titanium dioxide skin -whitening problems
ii ) To enhance Sun Protection Factor (SPF)
iii ) To pptimise use of sunscreen actives
iv) To reduce separation and settlement
5) Antiperspirant Aerosols
i) To uniformly distribute the active ingredients
ii) To make skin feel soft and dry
iii ) To reduce separation and settlement
2.4 . HUMECTANTS
Hydrating substances are used in cosmetic products to retard moisture loss and
increase the moisture content in skin that is in contact with the products. Target
body area for treatment with humectants is dry skin . Hydration plays an
important role in maintaining the metabolism, enzyme activity, mechanical
properties, appearance, and barrier function of skin.
The special blend of humectants found in the stratum corneum is called as
Natural Moisturising Factor ( NMF ) . The NMF is formed from the protein
filaggrin: mutation in filaggrin gene been identified as the major predisposing
factor for atopic eczema. The water binding capacity of sodium salt of lactic acid
and 2-Pyrrolidone-5-Carboxylic Acid ( PCA ) is higher than that of glycerine and
sorbitol. The humectant solutions show that the water held by corneum decrease
in following order: sodium PCA > sodium lactate > glycerine > sorbitol.
Properties of an Ideal Humectant

1 ) It should have a high moisturise absorption over a wide range of humidities.
2 ) It should have a consistent moisture content even with changing humidity.
3) It should be non-toxic and safe to use for cosmetics.
4 ) It should have low odour and low colour.
5 ) It should have low viscosity to make compounding easier .
6 ) It should be non -reactive with other cosmetic ingredients.
7 ) It should have a low cost and be readily available.
1 ) Glycerine: It is the most common humectant . It is a molecule with 3 -OH
groups. It is an odourless, clear liquid that can be derived from natural
sources. It is also manufactured as a bi -product of chemical reactions with
fats and oils. It can also be synthesised from petroleum sources. Glycerine is
the most versatile humectant in cosmetics. Its major disadvantage is that at
high levels is can feel sticky.
2 ) Propylene Glycol: It is non-toxic, has low odour, low viscosity, and
compatible with many ingredients. It does not absorb quite as much water as
glycerine. It also does not have the stickiness problem of glycerine and is less
expensive. Propylene glycol is similar to glycerine in chemical
structure having 3 C-atoms. The main difference is that it only contains 2
-OH groups. The major disadvantage is that it is synthetically produced
from petroleum processing.
3) Sorbitol: It is a 6-C sugar that has 6 -OH groups. It can be derived from
glucose. It is more hygroscopic than glycerine and does not suffer from the
stickiness problem. However, it is more expensive which is why it is not
used as extensively as glycerine or propylene glycol.
4 ) Butylene Glycol: It is a clear, low viscosity liquid that works well as a
humectant. It is a 4-C molecule that contains 2 -OH groups. It is similar in
humectancy to propylene glycol and makes a good substitute. It is also a
more effective solubiliser than both glycerine and propylene glycol .
28 Cosmetic Science
5) PEG: With an average molecular weight of 200-2000, PEGs are the ones
that exhibit useful humectancy. When formulating, higher the PEG molecular
weight, the less water soluble it will be.
6) Sodium PCA: It is found naturally in human skin so is often included as part of
the NMF. It is a highly effective humectant and can bind water 1.5 times better
than glycerine. As humectant, it is one of the best performing ingredients.
However, due to its relatively higher cost, it has limited application.
2.4.2. Applications
1 ) The prime functionality of a humectant is to form hydrogen bonds with
molecules of water.
2 ) Humectants are considered an important ingredient for a dry, dehydrated skin.
3) They are added due to the ability to attract water like a magnet, chemically
binding water to them.
2.5 . EMOLLIENTS
The word emollient is derived from a Latin verb mollire. meaning to soften .
Thus, emollient refers to materials that soften the skin.
In the cosmetic formulating world , emollients are ingredients incorporated into
products to improve the feel of skin. Emollients are also sometimes known as
moisturizers. These are moisturising treatments applied directly to the skin to
smooth and hydrate it. They cover skin with a protective film to trap in moisture.
An emollient is a humectant , a lubricant , and an occluder. Occlusion puts a layer
of oil on the skin’s surface, slowing down water loss. A humectant enhances the
surface of the skin’s capacity to hold water .
2.5. 1. Classification
1 ) Medicated Emollients: Some emollients contain specially medicated
formulas that can be used to treat the following skin conditions:
i ) Eczema: It is a long-term ( chronic ) skin condition that causes the skin to
become red, dry, itchy and cracked.
ii) Psoriasis: It is a chronic non-infectious skin condition that causes red,
flaky patches of skin.
2 ) Soap Substitutes: Soaps, shampoos, and shower gels can remove the skin’s
surface layer of natural oils. This can make the skin dry and can further
aggravate long-term (chronic ) skin conditions, such as eczema. Soap
substitutes, such as aqueous cream or emulsifying ointment , can be used for
hand washing and bathing. Aqueous cream can also be used as a substitute
for shaving foam.
3) Emollient Bath Additives: These can be added to a lukewarm bath to help
prevent the loss of moisture from skin. Some bath oils include an antiseptic
which can help prevent infection. However, these products should only be
used occasionally unless the infection is recurrent or widespread.
4) Emollient Creams: These are easy to spread , absorb easily into the skin and
are good for use during the daytime. They can be used on weeping eczema.
5 ) Emollient Ointments: These are most suitable for very dry, thick skin and
are not suitable for use on weeping eczema.
2.5.2. Applications
1 ) Emollients are used in eczema and psoriasis.
2) If used from birth, they provide a feasible, safe, and effective approach for
atopic dermatitis prevention.
3) Emollient soap substitutes do not foam but clean the hands and skin. They
can be applied before washing or in the water.
4 ) Aqueous creams or emulsifying ointments are good alternatives for hand and
bath soaps, as they do not strip the skin of its surface layer. Aqueous creams
can be used instead of shaving foam.
5 ) For children who are at risk of developing infected eczema, bath oils with an
antiseptic may offer protection , but these should be used occasionally.
6) Emollient bath additives or bath oils are added to bathwater to help prevent
the loss of moisture from the skin.
2.6. PRESERVATIVES
Preservatives are added to the formulation to prevent the microbial growth and
subsequent degradation of the preparation.
Properties of an Ideal Preservative

1 ) It should be compatible with the formulation.
2) It should have an extent of solubility.
3) It should be stable.
4) It should give sustained antimicrobial effect.
5) It should be colourless and odourless.
6 ) It should be non-toxic, non-irritant , and non -allergic.
1 ) Acids and Acid Derivatives
i ) Benzoic acid, ii ) Formic acid,
iii ) Vanillic acid , iv ) Sorbic acid and salts,
v ) Propionic acid and salts, and vi ) Dehydroacetic acid.
2) Alcohols
i ) Ethyl alcohol, ii ) Chlorobutanol , and iii ) Phenoxy-2-ethanol .
3) Aldehydes
i ) Cinnamic aldehyde, ii) Formaldehyde, and iii ) Glutaraldehyde.
4) Formaldehyde Donors
i) Hexamethylenetetramine, and
ii) Mono-(and di -) methyloldimethyl hydantoin.
30 Cosmetic Science
5 ) Phenolics
i ) Phenol, ii ) Cresol,
iii ) Chlorothymol , and iv ) o-Phenylphenol.
6) Quaternaries
i ) Chlorhexidine and salts, ii ) Benzethonium chloride, and
iii ) Benzalkonium chloride.
7 ) Mercurials
i ) Thiomersol , ii ) Nitromersol ,
iii ) Phenyl mercuric acetate, and iv ) Sodium ethylmercurithiosalicylate.
8) Esters
i ) Methyl /7-hydroxy benzoate, ii) Ethyl /7-hydroxy benzoate,
iii ) Propyl /7-hydroxy benzoate, iv ) Butyl /7-hydroxy benzoate
9) Miscellaneous
i ) 6-Acetoxy-2, 4-dimethyl-m-dioxane, and
ii) 2,4,4-‘Trichloro-2 ' -hydroxy -diphenylether.
2.6.2. Applications
1 ) Benzoic Acid: It is used in the form of sodium or potassium salts of benzoic
acid for preserving foodstuffs, drugs and cosmetics. It is generally used in the
concentration of 0.1 % w/v and remains non -toxic until used in large quantity.
2) Parahvdroxy Benzoates: These are the derivatives of benzoic acid, particularly,
the esters of a /7-hydroxy benzoic acid . They are widely used as preservatives in
syrups and pharmaceutical preparations. Most commonly used preservatives in
pharmaceutical industries are methyl , ethyl and propyl parabens.
3) Salicylic Acid and Salicylates: Salicylic acid possesses some antiseptic
properties. In Whitfield Ointment , salicylic acid is often combined with
benzoic acid.
4 ) Phenol ( Carbolic Acid ): In the concentration of 0.5% w/v phenol acts as a
bactericide in multi-dose injections, gargles and mouth washes. In ear drops
and oily injections, it is used in 6.4% w/v concentration.
-
5 ) Parachloro Metaxylenol: In case of cuts and wounds, parachloro
metaxylenol is used as an antiseptic .
-
6 ) Dichlorophene: It is added as an ingredient in athlete foot preparations and
hair lotions.
2.7. SUMMARY
1 ) According to IPEC, “Excipients are products having slight or no action and intended
to add in formulation to make it more effective”.
2) The excipients must not interfere with: dosage form, drug release, stability, and
acceptability.
3) Surface active agents or surfactants are the molecules which remain active at the
surface.
Cosmetic Excipients ( Chapter 2 ) 31
-
4 ) Surfactants used in cosmetics should be non - irritating, non toxic, colourless,
highly stable, and have no unpleasant odour .
5 ) Surfactants are divided into: Anionic Surfactants, Cationic Surfactants, Amphoteric
Surfactants and Non-ionic Surfactants
6 ) Rheology is the science or study of how things flow.
7 ) The special blend of humectants found in the stratum corneum is called as Natural
Moisturising Factor ( NMF), which is formed from the protein filaggrin .
8) The word emollient is derived from a Latin verb mollire , meaning to soften. Thus,
emollient refers to materials that soften the skin .
9) Preservatives are added to the formulation to prevent the microbial growth and
subsequent degradation of the preparation.
2.8 . EXERCISE
1) Define the term cosmetic excipients.
2 ) What are rheology modifiers?
3) What are the properties of an ideal humectant ?
4) What are preservatives?
2.8. 2. Short Answer Type Questions

1) Write down the applications of rheology modifiers?
2) Explain humectants with its classification.
3) Write a short note on emollients.
4) What are the ideal properties of preservatives?
5) Write down the classification of preservatives.

1 ) Give a note on surfactants and its classifications.
32 Cosmetic Science
CHAPTER
3 Skin
. SKIN
Skin is the largest organ of human body. It is also known as the integument . It
has a surface area of 1.8m and comprises of 16% of the total body weight . Skin
'
performs various functions out of which, the most important one is its action as a
barrier to the external environment during selective inward and outward
movement of water, electrolytes, etc . It also provides protection by restricting the
entry of microbes, UV rays, harmful chemicals and mechanical wear and tear.
The skin is made up of three distinct structural layers, viz., epidermis dermis ,
and hypodcmiis . The derivatives of skin include nails, hair, sebaceous gland,
and sweat glands.
3.1.1, Basic Structure

Skin is the thick, protective covering of body which comprises of the following layers:
J ) Epidermis : It is the outermost covering of stratified squamous epithelial
tissue, lacking blood vessels. The major portion of epidermis is made up of
keratinocytes ( cells ). These keratinocytes synthesise a protein called
keratin Dc.smosomcs are protein structures that act like bridges for
.
keratinocytes. These keratinocytes constantly move towards the periphery of

the skin as ( figure 3.1) .
Thickness of epidermis varies from 0.05 mm (at eyelids ) to 0,8- 1.5 mm (on
soles of feet and palms of hands ). The epidermis is further differentiated into
four distinct layers made up of keratin and is distinguished by the various
maturation stages . Starting from the lowest lying layer and moving towards
the superficial layer, the layers of the epidermis are as follows:
Stratum comeum
Dead keratmocytKi
Lamellar granules
Stratum grunuiosum
Epidermis - *
DesmosomeTS-i
.angerhans cell .
-Stratum spinosum
.. - - Stratum basale
Melanocyte
Dermis „
i
Figure 3, 1 : Layers »f Epidermis
Skin (Chapter 3) 33
i) Stratum Basale: It is the deepest layer of epidermis present just above the
dermis, and consists of dividing and non -dividing keratinocytes. The
inner basal surface of epidermal hearationcytes consists of small structures
called hemidesmosomes. Gradually these keratinocytes undergo division
followed by differentiation and move towards the upper surface. Basal
cells consist of a pigment called melanin , produced by melanocytes.
ii) Stratum Spinosum: As the cells from stratum basale mature, they move
upwards to form the next layer, which is stratum spinosum. The cells in
this layer are connected by intercellular bridges called desmosomes. At
microscopic level , these desmosomes appear as ‘ prickles’ . Stratum
spinosum contains Langerhans cells which are dendrites, and are
formed in the bone marrow. Langerhan’s cells play a crucial role in
immunological reactions related to skin.
iii ) Stratum Granulosum: The cells now move upwards to reach stratum
granulosum where they become flat and anucleated. The cytoplasm of
the cells appears granular.
iv ) Stratum Corneum: The stratum comeum is composed of several layers
of hexagonal shaped non -viable, cornified cells called corneocytes.
These corneocytes are keratinocytes that are in their last phase of
maturation. The corneocytes form around 10-30 layers in almost every
part of the skin ; but , the thickest layers are found in the palms and soles.
Every corneocyte is enclosed by a protein casing which is filled with
keratin proteins having water retaining property. The main strength to
stratum comeum is provided by the shape of the cells and orientation of
keratin proteins. The corneocytes are sandwiched between the stacked
layers of bi-layered lipid in the extracellular space ( figure 3.2).
> Corneocyte ( Filled with keratin
protein filaments )
. Lipid bilayer
Water
yyy
Lipid polar head
( hydrophilic )
Lipid tail
yyy ( hydrophobic )
<
Figure 3.2: Corneocyte Lipid Bilayer
The comeocyte-bilayered lipid structure acts as a physical barrier. It also

retains water for the skin. The absorption capacity of corneocyte is 300%
more than its weight. Epidermal cells take 28 days approximately to
reach stratum corneum and this time of movement is known as
epidermal transit time.
34 Cosmetic Science
There is another thin layer of translucent cells called stratum lucidum .

It generally exists in the thick epidermis. Stratum lucidum represents the
transition phase between stratum granulosum and stratum comeum. Few
scientists refer to stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum as the
Malpighian layer .
2 ) Dermoepidermal Junction/Basement Membrane: The dermal-epidermal
junction represents the acellular zone present between the dermis and
the epidermis. It is also referred to as the cutaneous basement membrane.
The epidermis gets its nutrition by diffusion and the waste is also discarded
by the process of diffusion at these junctions. As age increases, the
dermoepidermal junction gets flattened , which is a visible sign of ageing.
3) Dermis: Thickness of dermis varies in different parts of the body , for
example, on the eyelids, it is up to 0.6mm and on the back, palms and soles
it is up to 3mm. Dermis lies below the epidermis and is made up of a hard ,
supportive cellular matrix.
It consists of the following two layers:

i ) A thin papillary layer, and
ii ) A thicker reticular layer.
4) Subcutaneous Tissue: The subcutis is composed of a loose connective tissue
and adipose tissue. It can be up to 3cm in thickness on the abdomen . This
sheet of adipose tissue is also known as superficial fascia . It contains a layer
of areolar tissue having fat and helps in the attachment of the dermis to the
underlying structure.
.
H nr shall
Sweat pore
Epidermis
Epidermal ridge
Dermal papilla
Papillary .
layer Arrector pili muscle
•
Sebaceous (oil ) gland

Dermis - Sweat gland duct
Reticular - Mcmcnne sweat gland
Artery
Subcutaneous
layer
Adipose connective tissue
Hair follicle Sensory nerve fibre
Sensory receptors
Areolar connective tissue
Figure 3.3: Cross-Section of Skin
Blood and Lymphatic Vessels
The epidermal layer of the skin is avascular ( lacks blood vessels), but dermis is a
highly vascularised tissue. Blood vessels present in dermis layer supply the glands,
hair follicle of dermis; and the metabolically active stratum basale of the epidermis.
Skin ( Chapter 3 ) 35
A characteristic feature of blood supply of skin is the presence of numerous

arteriovenous anastomoses. These anastomoses help in maintaining the body
temperature by regulating blood flow through the capillary bed.
Lymphatic meshes arise from the papillae and drain lymph from the skin, which
is then drained into the lymph nodes via larger lymphatic vessels.
Nerve Supply
Nerves of the skin are known as cutaneous nerves. Axons of the cutaneous nerves
lie in the dorsal root ganglia. They can either be myelinated or non - myelinated.
The dermis contains open sensory nerve endings that detect various stimulations
( e.g., pain , itching and temperature ). Special kind of corpuscular receptor cells
known as Meissner’s corpuscles, are present in the skin that detect touch while
the Pacinian corpuscles help in detection of pressure and vibration.
Motor receptors of the skin are affected by autonomic nervous system in which the
blood vessels and hair erector muscles are supplied by adrenergic neurons and the
eccrine sweat glands are supplied by cholinergic nerve fibres. The endocrine
system ( and not the autonomic neurons ) regulates the sebaceous glands.
3.1.2. Functions
Skin plays numerous vital roles in the physiology of the body:
1 ) Sensation: For the detection of stimuli of temperature, touch, pressure, and
pain there are numerous receptors and nerve endings present on the skin.
2 ) Protection: The skin acts as a physical barrier which helps in protecting the
deep-seated organs and tissues from microbial invasion, dehydration, UV
radiation, and physical absorption .
3) Thermoregulation: An increase in body temperature results in sweating and
when this sweat gets evaporated from the skin surface, it cools the body
( lowers the body temperature ). On the other hand, in case of decreased body
temperature sweat production gets reduced which helps in the conservation
of heat in the body .
4 ) Immunity: It provides immunologic information obtained during antigen
processing to the appropriate effector cells in the lymphatic tissues.
5 ) Excretion: The sweat released from skin excretes out the toxic substances,
ions, and several other compounds.
6) Blood Reservoir: The dermis is highly vascularised. In resting stage, the
-
blood vessels in the skin of an adult carry about 8 10% of the total blood
volume. At the time of vigorous activity, the rate of blood flow increases,
thus leading to dissipation of extra body heat.
7 ) Drug Delivery Route: Skin acts a route for delivery of drugs ( transdermal
patches ). The transdermal drug delivery system involves the absorption of
drug through systemic circulation by transdermal patches. The lipid soluble
drugs and substances with low molecular weight easily permeate through the
.
skin , e.g , nitroglycerin , hormones, scopolamine, nicotine, etc.
8 ) Endocrine Function: Skin helps in biosynthesis of Vitamin D. Ultraviolet
light is essential for the first stage of Vitamin D formation.
36 Cosmetic Science
m. SUMMARY
The details given in this chapter can be summarised as follows:
1 ) Skin is the largest organ of human body. It is also known as the integument .
2) It also provides protection by restricting the entry of microbes, UV rays, harmful
chemicals and mechanical wear and tear.
3) The skin is made up of three distinct structural layers, viz . , epidermis, dermis and
hypodermis.
4 ) Epidermis is the outermost covering of stratified squamous epithelial tissue,
lacking blood vessels.
5) Thickness of epidermis varies from 0.05 mm ( at eyelids ) to 0.8- 1.5 mm ( on soles of
feet and palms of hands ).
6) Stratum Basale is the deepest layer of epidermis present just above the dermis, and
consists of dividing and non -dividing keratinocytes.
7) Stratum Spinosum, as the cells from stratum basale mature, they move upwards to
form the next layer, which is stratum spinosum. The cells in this layer are connected
by intercellular bridges called desmosomes.
8) Stratum Granulosum, the cells now move upwards to reach stratum granulosum
where they become flat and anucleated .
9) Stratum Corneum is composed of several layers of hexagonal shaped non - viable,
cornified cells called corneocytes.
10) Dermoepidermal junction/basement membrane represents the acellular zone
present between the dermis and the epidermis. It is also referred to as the cutaneous
basement membrane.
11 ) Thickness of dermis varies in different parts of the body.
12 ) Subcutaneous tissue is composed of a loose connective tissue and adipose tissue.
13) The epidermal layer of the skin is avascular ( lacks blood vessels ), but dermis is a
highly vascularised tissue.
14 ) Nerves of the skin are known as cutaneous nerves.
15) Axons of the cutaneous nerves lie in the dorsal root ganglia.
EXERCISE
1 ) Give three distinct structural layers of skin.
2) What do you mean by dermis?
3) What do you mean by epidermis?

1 ) Explain the role of skin in thermoregulation .
2) Discuss about stratum corneum .

1 ) Elaborate the basic structure of skin with its function.
Hair ( Chapter 4 ) 37
CHAPTER
4 Hair
. HAIR
The hair follicle is a sensing, reactive, and multi -layered skin accessory that
fulfils a number of vital purposes and generally requires a specific molecular
environment in order to remain fully functional. Besides providing an insulating
layer to the skin of animals, it also aids in camouflage for survival and is also
known to provide sensory, and tactile information about the environment.
Hair follicles are formed as a result of epidermal -dermal interactions and
generally appear during the first trimester in humans. Hair growth is a distinct
and multifaceted process that includes a continuous cycle of growth, resorption,
rest and renewal . Since the hair follicles are always exposed to the environment ,
they frequently suffer direct damage from the sun, air and water. The presence of
foreign chemicals may also damage the hair shaft and follicles.
4.1.1. Basic Structure

Hair follicles are formed during the 1*' trimester of pregnancy. They are formed
from the epidermal -dermal interactions. Hair follicle is a tabular pocket like
structure in which epidermis gets inserted to reach the dermis.
Externally, the hair follicle is divided into three segments:

1 ) Infundibulum: It extends from the surface opening of the follicle to the
level of the opening of its sebaceous gland . The infundibulum is a part of the
pilosebaceous canal which is used as a route for the discharge of sebum.
2 ) Isthmus: It extends from the infundibulum to the level of insertion of the
arrector pili muscle.
3) Inferior Segment: It is the part in which the growing follicle is nearly
uniform in diameter except at its base, where it expands to form the bulb.
The base of the bulb is invaginated ( to form pouch ) by a tuft of vascularised
loose connective tissue called dermal papilla .
The papilla of the hair contains many blood vessels and provides nourishment
to the growing hair. The bulb also contains a ring of cells called the matrix ,
which is the germinal layer. They are responsible for the growth of existing
hairs and produce new hairs by cell division when older hair are shed.
-
A cross sectional structure of a hair and hair follicle is shown in figure 4.1:
depicting the internal structure of hair:
1 ) Sebaceous Glands: These glands secrete sebum thus helping in lubrication
and protection of the scalp and hair. The sebaceous glands directly open at
the hair follicles.
38 Cosmetic Science
2) Arrector pili: These muscles are involuntary muscles controlled by

autonomic nervous system. They are attached to the centre of hair follicle
and runs parallel to it . When a person senses cold or fear, the arrector pilli
muscles get contracted and the hairs become erect due to horripilation .
3) Hair Shaft: It refers to the part of the hair present outside the skin surface.
The part of hair within the skin surface is called hair root.
/ / Hair shaft
Homy layer. Epidermis
Arrector pili
muscle
Hair follicle
Sebaceous gland
•
Hair root - Dermis
f. .
Melanocyte /y
Hair matrix cell / KJ . '
Hair papilla
’ | Hair bulb
Blood capillary
Figure 4.1: Structure of Hair Root
4 ) Hair Bulb: It is a bulb-like structure present at the end of hair root. Hair bulb
has a central part which is innervated and vascularised, and is called dermal
papilla . The dermal papilla is responsible for the generation and growth of
hair by absorbing nutrients as well as oxygen.
Just like nail matrix, hair matrix is produced by hair cells that mature to form
hair. The hair matrix absorbs nutrition through the capillaries entering the
dermal papilla. Figure 4.2 shows an enlarged model of the hair bulb.
Medulla
Cortex
•
Cuticle Inner root sheath

Outer root sheath
Hair papilla
Auber critical line- Hair matrix cell
Figure 4.2: Enlarged Diagram of Hair Bulb
Auber critical line is the line drawn for obtaining the maximal diameter of
hair bulb which divides the hair bulb into two halves, lower and upper. The
part above this line shows negligible cell division while the lower part is
responsible for the rapidly dividing undifferentiated cells.
Hair ( Chapter 4 ) 39
4.1.2. Functions
1 ) The hair on the head protects the scalp from ultraviolet light , forms a cushion
round the head, and insulates the skull .
2) Eyebrows protect the eyes from small foreign particles and insects. They also
divert sweat from the eyes.
3) Vibrissae, the hairs guarding the entrances of nostrils and external ear canals,
filter the air and help to prevent the entry of small insects and foreign particles.
4 ) Body hair helps in evaporation of perspiration and drain the external water
from the body .
4.1 .3. Hair Growth Cycle

The hair growth happens in a cyclical process in hair follicles. The cycle consists
of four phases:
1 ) Anagen ( hair growth ) 2) Catagen ( transition )
3) Telogen ( rest ) 4) Exogen ( hair shedding )
4.1 . 3.1 . Anagen ( Hair Growth ) Phase

The anagen or growing phase is the first part of the hair growth cycle. During this
phase, cells of the bulb divide rapidly, resulting in new hair growth . 80-90% of
hair follicles are in the anagen phase at any given time.
The anagen phase lasts for 2-7 years. The length of the anagen phase determines
the maximum hair length. For example, people with very long hair have a very
long anagen phase. Eyelashes, eyebrows, and body hair have shorter growth phases
than for the hair on head, which is why they are much shorter than scalp hair.
There are many factors that influence the length of the anagen phase, including
genetics, nutrition, age and overall health.
4. I .3.2. Catagen ( Transition ) Phase

The catagen or transition phase follows the anagen phase. This short , transitional
phase lasts for only 2-3 weeks. During the catagen phase, the hair stops growing
and detaches itself from the blood supply . The hair becomes club hair.
4. I .3.3. Telogen ( Resting ) Phase

The telogen or resting phase follows the catagen phase. During the telogen phase,
the club hair rests while a new hair begins to grow beneath it. This new hair
eventually takes the place of the club hair. The telogen phase lasts for 3 months,
and 10-15% of all hair are in this phase at any one time.
4.1 . 3.4. Exogen ( Hair Shedding ) Phase

The exogen or shedding phase is the last part of the hair cycle. During the
exogen phase, the resting club hair detaches and falls out . Every hair eventually
sheds, and it’s completely normal to lose 50 to 100 hair each day . After the
exogen phase, the follicle then returns to the anagen phase and the cycle
repeats.
40
Anagen Phase Catagen Phase Telogen Phase Telogen Phase ( Exogen Early Anagen Phase
( Growing Phase ) ( Transition Phase ) ( Resting Phase ) or Shedding Phase ) ( Growing Phase )
Figure 4.3: Hair Growth Cycle
4.2. SUMMARY
1 ) Hair follicles are formed as a result of epidermal -dermal interactions and generally
appear during the first trimester in humans.
2) Hair follicles are formed during the 1 st trimester of pregnancy
3) Infundibulum extends from the surface opening of the follicle to the level of the
opening of its sebaceous gland
4 Isthmus extends from the infundibulum to the level of insertion of the arrector pili muscle.
)
5 ) Inferior segment is the part in which the growing follicle is nearly uniform in
diameter except at its base, where it expands to form the bulb.
6 ) Sebaceous glands secrete sebum thus helping in lubrication and protection of the
scalp and hair.
7) Arrector pili are involuntary muscles controlled by autonomic nervous system.
8) Hair shaft refers to the part of the hair present outside the skin surface.
9) Hair bulb is a bulb-like structure present at the end of hair root.
10 ) Auber critical line is the line drawn for obtaining the maximal diameter of hair bulb
which divides the hair bulb into two halves, lower and upper.
11 ) The anagen or growing phase is the first part of the hair growth cycle and lasts for
2-7 years.
12) The catagen or transition phase follows the anagen phase.
13) During the telogen phase, the club hair rests while a new hair begins to grow beneath it.
14 ) The exogen or shedding phase is the last part of the hair cycle.
15) After the exogen phase, the follicle then returns to the anagen phase and the cycle
repeats.
4.3. EXERCISE
1 ) What do you mean by catagen ?
2) What do you mean by infundibulum?
3) What are the four phases of hair growth ?

1) Explain about the phases of hair growth.
2) Explain about infundibulum and hair bulb.

1 ) Explain about the basic structure of hair with its function.
Oral Cavity ( Chapter 5 ) Jl
CHAPTER
5
Oral Cavity
5.1 . ORAL CAVITY

5* 1* 1 . Mouth
Oral cavity forms the first pan of the alimentary canal. It is surrounded by
various muscles and bones which are as follows:
1 ) Anteriorly: The anterior wall is bound by the lips.
2 ) Posteriorly: The posterior wall continues with the oropharynx ,
3 ) Laterally: The lateral walls arc bound by the cheek muscles.
4 ) Superiorly: The superior wall is bound by the bony hard palate and
muscular soft palate.
5 ) Inferiorly: The inferior wail is bound by the muscular longue and the soft
tissues of the floor of mouth.
Mucous membrane made up of stratified squamous epithelium forms the
lining of oral cavity. The epithelial cells contain small mucus-secreting glands.
Vestibule forms the pan between the gums ( alveolar ridges ) and the cheek . The
remaining part of the oral cavity is referred to as the mouth proper .
The roof of the oral cavity is formed by the palate: the anterior part is referred to
as ( he hard palate while the posterior pan forms the soft palate ( figure 5,1 ).
The maxilla and palatine bones form the bard palate. The posterior end of the
hard palate is continuous with the muscular soft palate, which curves
downwards merging with the pharyngeal walls on both the sides.
Uvula is a folded muscular structure covered with mucous membrane. It

suspends from the middle of the free border of soft palate. Pour folds of mucous
membrane originate from ihe upper end of the uvula: two of which form the
membranous arches by passing downwards at each side. The palatopharyngeal
arches are the posterior folds present on either sides, while the palatoglossal
arches are the two anterior folds t figure 5.1 ) Palatine tonsils are aggregates of
,
lymphoid tissue, present on either side in between the arches.

Teeth
Suit
Uvula
, Palatopharyngeal arch
_ Pul at ini; tonsil
; arch
Posterior wall of pharynx
Tongue
. Lower lip
Figure 5.1: St rut' t lire* of a Mouth
42 Cosmetic Science
5.1.2. Teeth
As soon as the food is taken in the mouth, it is chewed with the help of teeth to
breakdown into smaller particles. This process is known as mastication . Teeth
are hard calcified structures that help in mastication , and thus aid in the process
of mechanical digestion.
Teeth can functionally be divided into two broad categories, viz . , the deciduous
teeth ( baby or milk teeth ; 20 in number ) and the permanent teeth ( adult teeth:
32 in number ). Deciduous teeth are replaced by permanent teeth in around 6-7
years of age.
Structure Cusp
The basic structure of a tooth ( figure — Enamel
5.2) includes a crown ( the visible part ) Crown - — Dentin
Gingiva
and a root ( the part within the gum,
-Pulp cavity
holding the tooth firmly ). The crown is
- Cementum
covered with enamel ( a highly
Root canal
-
mineralised tissue) and the root is
covered with cementum ( hard Dfl- Bone
connective tissue). The part connecting Periodontal ligament
the crown and the root portion of a Dental alveolus
tooth is referred to as the neck . Crown Apical foramen
consists of enamel and dentin. Figure 5.2: Structure of Tooth
Enamel is the hardest and the most mineralised entity of the human body; it
forms the outermost covering in a tooth. The major mineral present in it is
calcium phosphate (in the form of hydroxyapatite).
Dentin (a hard connective tissue just like

Incisors
bone ) is the layer present beneath the
enamel and accounts for the largest Canine-
portion of the tooth . It surrounds the pulp Premolars
( a soft connective tissue comprising of
blood vessels and nerves innervating the Molars Socket
tooth ). The pulp tissue, dentin , and of jaw
cementum cover the root from inside out . Figure 5.3: Types and Location of Teeth
The root is held to the dental alveolus ( bony socket ) via periodontal ligament
( specialised connective tissue fibres ). The nerves and blood vessels present in the
pulpal tissue enter and exit via apical foramen ( opening at the apex of a tooth root ).
Types and Functions

1 ) Incisors: These teeth aid in biting-off large pieces of food.
2) Cuspids/Canines: These conical-shaped teeth aid in grasping and tearing the
food.
3) Bicuspids/Premolars: These teeth help in grinding the food; they are absent
in children ( appear only after 9 years of age).
4 ) Molars: These are the largest teeth and are present at the back of the mouth.
They also aid in grinding the food.
Oral Cavity (Chapter 5 ) 43
5.1 .3. Tongue

Tongue is a muscular organ situated on the floor of the mouth, which helps in
chewing and swallowing of food ( deglutition ). A large amount of nerves and
blood vessels innervates the tongue, thereby helping in its movement.
Gustation or Taste
Tongue has taste buds, which help in the perception of taste, ( or gustation ). Taste is
a form of direct chemoreception. It has the ability to identify the taste of substances
like food, minerals, and poisons. The brain of humans and some vertebral animals
perceive the flavour by combining the sense of taste with the sense of smell (less
direct ). The five common tastes recognised by the tongue are (figure 5.5):
1 ) Bitterness: Coffee, unsweetened cocoa, South American ‘mate’, marmalade,
bitter melon, bitters, olives, citrus peel , many plants of the Brassicaceae
family, dandelion greens, escarole, and quinine found in tonic water are
common bitter foods.
2 ) Saltiness: Presence of sodium ions is mainly associated with the salty taste.
However , other alkali metal ions also produce this taste. But lithium and
potassium salts produce salty taste just like sodium salts.
3) Sourness: In case of acidity, sour taste is produced. The sourness of
substances is valued comparatively as the dilute HC1 with sourness index 1.
4 ) Sweetness: Presence of sugars, some proteins, and a few other substances
produce a pleasant sensation of sweetness. This taste is linked to aldehydes
and ketones containing carbonyl group.
5 ) Savouriness or Meatiness: This taste is generated by the substances in
fermented or aged foods. Savouriness name is given to the taste perception
produced by glutamate ( amino acid ).
Structure
Tongue ( derived from the Latin term lingua and Greek term glossa ), is located at the
floor of the mouth. It is attached to the hyoid bone, mandible, styloid processes, and
pharynx via muscles. It consists of a tip ( tongue tip), margin, dorsum, ventral
( inferior ) surface, and root . The tip or apex of the tongue rests against the incisors.
Separated by a V -shaped groove which makes the terminal sulcus ( or the sulcus
terminalis ). the dorsal layer ( upper surface ) of the tongue has two parts:
1 ) An oral part , lying in the mouth ( anterior two-thirds of the tongue ), and
2) A pharyngeal part , facing backward to the oropharynx ( posterior third part
of the tongue ).
The foramen caecum is a small depression found in the midline of the sulcus
terminalis and signifies the site of origin of the embryonic thyroglossal duct .
A taste bud ( figure 5.4 ) is a sac-like oval shaped structure of about 50 pm in

size. It opens at the surface of tongue via taste pore and contains two types of
spindle-shaped cells:
-
1 ) Gustato Receptors ( Taste Cells): Taste buds contain 5-15 narrow, long,
crescent-shaped and bipolar neurosensory taste cells. The free side of these
cells possess hair-like microvilli or stereocilia , whereas the other side
44 Cosmetic Science
contains nerve fibres . These nerve

fibres unite with each other to form
either the facial ( VII) or Supporting
glossopharyngeal ( IX ) nerve. This
nerve directs the nerve impulses to the
taste area present in the cerebral
cortex. Taste cells
2) Supporting Cells: Taste buds contain lerve
about 40 supporting cells. Similar to Fibres
the gustato-receptors, these cells are Figure 5.4: A Taste Bud
also spindle-shaped but are non-sensory and hold the taste cells at their
position.
3) Papillae: The anterior two-thirds of the tongue are covered by papillae,
which are small protuberances ( projections). Papillae are present both, on the
upper surface ( dorsal surface ) as well as on the sides ( lateral surface ).
Papillae are of the following four types ( figure 5.5 ) :
i ) Filiform ( Thread -Shaped ) : These papillae are thin , long, and V -shaped
cones. They are the most numerous, and fill the entire surface of the
tongue ( hence named filiform ).
ii ) Fungiform ( Mushroom -Shaped ): These papillae are scattered
throughout the filiform papilla, though they are mainly
concentrated at
the tip and lateral margins of tongue. These help distinguish between
different tastes.
iii ) Circumvallate ( Ringed -Circle ): These papillae are also known as
vallate papillae . They are large in size and are dome-shaped. Their
number varies from 8-12.
iv) Foliate: These papillae are scattered all over the tongue, though are
constricted to the lateral sides of the circumvallate papillae.
Root of
tongue
Tonsil
Vallate
Bitter papillae
.Fungiform
Sour papillae
Salty
- Filiform
Sweet
papillae
Figure 5.5: Tongue Surface showing the Location of

Taste Buds and the Taste Zones
Oral Cavity ( Chapter 5 ) 45
Functions
1) Tongue houses various taste buds, thus help in perception of the taste of food.
The taste buds also help in sensing whether the food is noxious ( harmful ).
2 ) It plays a significant role in the digestive process. It helps in the movement
of food within the oral cavity to be available for chewing and grinding.
3) It also helps in the formation of bolus which is then swallowed.
4) It also helps in speech and phonetics where it helps producing different
sounds by altering the shape of the wind pipe and by repositioning the
tongue. Thus, the vocal cords are able to produce sound.
5.2. COMMON PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED

WITH TEETH AND GUMS
Cavities: Cavities are also called caries or tooth decay. These are areas of the
tooth that have been permanently damaged and may even have holes in them.
Cavities are fairly common. They occur when bacteria, food, and acid coat the
teeth and form a plaque. The acid on teeth starts to eat away at the enamel and
then the underlying dentin , or connective tissue. Over time, this can lead to
permanent damage.
Acute Gingivitis ( Vincent 's Infection ): It is a condition of common and mild

gum disease ( or periodontal disease ) in which the gingiva ( portion of gum which
covers the teeth base ) becomes red , inflamed , and irritated. Accumulation of
bacterial plaque between or around the teeth is the primary reason for gingivitis.
An immune response is triggered by the accumulated plaque, resulting into gum
or gingival tissue damage. This can even lead to teeth loss in severe conditions.
Periodontitis: As periodontitis progresses, the infection can spread to the jaw

and bones. It can also cause an inflammatory response throughout the body.
Gum Recession: It is a condition in which the root ( or cementum ) of the tooth

becomes exposed as the gum line pulls away from its original attachment. This
could be a result of gum disease as the jawbone surrounding the teeth is lost.
Wherever jawbone is lost , gums will follow, and this exposes the root of the
tooth . Other causes for gum recession include teeth grinding, use of
chewing tobacco, brushing too aggressively , hereditary weak gums, orthodontic
treatment , or trauma.
Cracked or Broken Teeth: A tooth can crack or break from an injury to the
mouth, chewing hard foods, or grinding the teeth at night . A cracked tooth can be
very painful.
Sensitive Teeth: Tooth sensitivity is also referred to as dentin hypersensitivity. It

is defined as intense and transitory pain caused by the exposure of dentin
( internal part of teeth ) to the oral environment. It also occurs when the teeth is
exposed to an external stimulus, like any cold , hot, acidic or sweet drink or food.
46 Cosmetic Science
It sometimes occurs temporarily after having a root canal or a filling. It can also
be the result of gum disease , receding gums, a cracked tooth , worn -down fillings
or crowns .
Oral Cancer: It can occur on all soft -tissue structures within the mouth . On the
gums, it may appear as a red or white patch or a sore that does not heal . Oral
cancers include cancer of the gums, tongue, lips , cheek, floor of the mouth , and
hard and soft palate .
5.3. SUMMARY
1 ) Oral cavity forms the first part of the alimentary canal.
2 ) Mucous membrane made up of stratified squamous epithelium forms the lining of
oral cavity.
3) The roof of the oral cavity is formed by the palate; the anterior part is referred to as
the hard palate while the posterior part forms the soft palate .
4) Uvula is a folded muscular structure covered with mucous membrane.
5) Palatine tonsils are aggregates of lymphoid tissue, present on either side in between
the arches.
6 ) Teeth are hard calcified structures that help in mastication, and thus aid in the
process of mechanical digestion.
7) Teeth can functionally be divided into two broad categories, viz. , the deciduous teeth
( baby or milk teeth; 20 in number ) and the permanent teeth ( adult teeth; 32 in
number). Deciduous teeth are replaced by permanent teeth in around 6-7 years of age.
8) The basic structure of a tooth includes a crown ( the visible part ) and a root ( the part
within the gum, holding the tooth firmly).
9) Crown consists of enamel and dentin .
10 ) Enamel is the hardest and the most mineralised entity of the human body; it forms
the outermost covering in a tooth.
11 ) Dentin (a hard connective tissue just like bone) is the layer present beneath the
enamel and accounts for the largest portion of the tooth.
12) Tongue is a muscular organ situated on the floor of the mouth, which helps in
chewing and swallowing of food ( deglutition ) .
13) Tongue has taste buds, which help in the perception of taste.
14) Tongue (derived from the Latin term lingua and Greek term glossa ). is located at the
floor of the mouth .
15) It consists of a tip ( tongue tip), margin, dorsum, ventral ( inferior ) surface, and root.
16 ) A taste bud is a sac-like oval shaped structure of about 50|im in size.
17 ) Taste buds contain 5- 15 narrow, long, crescent -shaped and bipolar neurosensorv
taste cells.
18 ) Taste buds contain about 40 supporting cells
19 ) The anterior two-thirds of the tongue are covered by papillae, which are small
protuberances ( projections ).
20 ) Cavities are also called caries or tooth decay. These are areas of the tooth that have
been permanently damaged and may even have holes in them.
Oral Cavity (Chapter 5) 47
21 ) Acute gingivitis (Vincent's infection ) is a condition of common and mild gum

disease ( or periodontal disease ) in which the gingiva ( portion of gum which covers
the teeth base ) becomes red , inflamed, and irritated .
22 ) Periodontitis is the infection can spread to the jaw and bones.
23 ) Gum recession is a condition in which the root (or cementum ) of the tooth becomes
exposed as the gum line pulls away from its original attachment.
24 ) Tooth sensitivity is also referred to as dentin hypersensitivity .
25 ) Oral cancer can occur on all soft -tissue structures within the mouth.
5.4 . EXERCISE
1) What do you mean by oral cavity?
2) What do you mean by enamel ?
3) What do you mean by cavity?

1 ) Explain about tongue with its function.
2) Explain about mouth.

1) Explain about teeth and major problems associated with teeth and gums.
48 Cosmetic Science
CHAPTER Principles of Formulation and Building

6 Blocks of Skin Care Products
6.1 . FACE WASH

Face wash has cleansing action on face and helps in proper circulation of blood.
They are formulated by using fresh fruits or herbs for beautification and improve
texture of skin. Apart from this, they also have medicated action for which some
active pharmaceutical constituents are also added ( which have anti -acne effect
and fight infection ). Face wash are either herbal or chemical, but generally a
mixture of herbal and chemical face wash is preferred.
6.1.1. Formulation
Formulation of a face wash varies as it depends on the type of skin for which it is
formulated. Formulation of a typical face wash is given used for all skin type:
1 ) Salicylic Acid: The salicylic acid helps in dissolving the oil ( sebum ) and dirt
present on face. It also fights with blackheads and white-heads. The use of
salicylic acid has a drying effect on skin if used in excess, therefore a
moisturiser is employed after using a face wash.
2) Glycerine: Glycerine is chemically a sugar alcohol and is used in various
products related to personal care such as face cleanser, etc. They act as
lubricant as well as humectants and render smooth texture to the skin by
hydrating it.
3) Sodium Laureth Sulfate: Sodium laureth sulfate ( SLS ) is an extensively
used additive which serves the purpose of both, detergent as well as
surfactant. It is added in face wash for cleansing action and as foaming agent.
4 ) Propylene Glycol: The main purpose of adding propylene glycol to the face
washes and acne cleansers is to entrap moisture and to keep skin hydrated.
5) Peppermint Oil: It is used for its cooling effect and providing healthy skin tone.
6.1 .2. Preparation

1) Carbapol 940 should be dispersed in distil water and the beaker should be
kept aside to swell the carbapol 940 to form gel .
2) Distilled water and sufficient quantity of methyl paraben and propyl paraben
should be taken and dissolved by heating on water bath.
3) Then the solution should be cooled and propylene glycol 400 and sodium
lauryl sulphate should be added.
4) Further sufficient extract quantity should be mixed to the above mixture and add
carbapol 940 gel should be added to this solution along with continuous stirring.
5) Then drop wise triethanolamine should be added to the formulation for
adjustment of required skin pH and to obtain the gel at required consistency.
Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Skin Care Products (Chapter 6 ) 49
6.1 .3. Evaluation

For evaluation of face wash following parameters are used :
1 ) Rheological Characteristics: These characteristics are evaluated for colour,
clogging, sudden viscosity change and feel properties.
2) Determination of pH: Using digital pH meter, the pH of formulations was
determined. For this evaluation one gram of face wash should be dissolved in
100 ml of demineralised water and stored for two hours. The measurements of
pH of each formulation were done in triplicate. Before using the instrument
should be calibrated using standard buffer solutions at pH 4, 7 and 9.
3) Determination of Viscosity: In this evaluation, lOOgm of each of
formulation should be weighed and transferred to beaker. Using the Brook
field viscometer ( LV viscometer ), spindle no. 3 at 10 rpm for 5 min . Before
the confirmation of the final measurement of face wash, it should be filled in
a correct viscosity of formulations that should be determined using the Wide
mouth container. Before the measurements, samples of the face wash should
be allowed to settle over 30 min at the assay temperature ( 25 ± 1 °C ). Using
the formula , the viscosity of formulation should be determined.
Viscosity (cp ) = Dial Reading x Factor
4 ) Spreadability Determination of Formulations: Spreadability of
formulations should be determined by an apparatus which was invented in
laboratory and used for study . The apparatus consists of a wooden block,
with a fixed glass slide with one end tied to weight pan rolled on the pulley
which was in horizontal level with fixed slide. An excess of whitening face
wash sample 1.5gm should be placed between two glass slides. And a
lOOOgm weight should be placed on slide for 5 minutes to between compress
the sample to uniform thickness weight ( 60gm ) that should be added to the
pan. It was calculated using the formula:
where,
S = mx L/T
=
S Spreadability in gm.cm/sec
=
m Weight tied to upper slide
L = Length of glass slide
=
T Time in seconds
Length of glass slide should be 11.2 cm and weight tied to upper slide should
be ( 60gm ) throughout the experiment
5) Washability: The product should be applied on hand and it should be
observed under running water.
6 ) Stability Study: The instant whitening face wash should also be subjected to
the following condition of temperature and relative humidity during stability
studies for 3 weeks at room temperature.
7 ) Accelerated Stability Studies: As per ICH Guidelines, the stability testing
of Face wash gel formulation should be done for 2 months at a temperature
of 40°C ± 2°C and RH 75% . The Gel formulation should be evaluated for the
change in appearance, pH and phytochemicals.
50 Cosmetic Science
8) Active Drug Content: The amount of API ( Active Pharmaceutical

Ingredient ) can be determined by taking lOmg of drug content present in the
lormulation that is equivalent to lOmg which is added in 50ml volumetric
flask containing ethanol . Then it is mixed well along with shaking or
inverting the volumetric flask for two to three times 0.1 ml of this solution
was diluted with 25ml fresh ethanol and active content was determined using
UV spectrophotometer at 270nm.
9 ) In Vivo Evaluation
i ) Skin Irritation Test: This evaluation test should be carried out on
human volunteers. For formulated face wash, volunteer were selected
and 1.0 g of formulated face wash should be applied on an area of two
square inch to the back of the hand. The volunteers were observed for
lesions or irritation.
ii ) Photographic Evaluation Human: This evaluation test should be
carried out on volunteer. Whitening face wash should be applied on skin.
Before and after application of the product the readings on the
photographs should be taken.
6.1. 4. Advantages
1) It helps to in removal and replacement of dead skin cells to the new skin cells.
2) It helps to keep skin fresh and healthy.
3) It makes the skin to look radiant .
4) It help in skin pores exfoliation which further helps in prevention of skin
problems like acne white heads, blackheads and total weary appearance that
is caused due to the combination of dead skin cells and excessive oil which
clog pores.
5) It helps in dead skin removal which later on develops as wrinkles on the face.
6.1.5. Disadvantages
1 ) By regular cleansing the face can harm the skin barrier and makes the skin
more vulnerable to rashes and other skin problems.
2) As excessive face was rinse away the natural oils of the face which give rise
to problems like skin dryness.
3) Apart from dry and lifeless skin too much face washing can also cause acne
and pimples.
6.2. MOISTURIZING CREAM

Moisturisers or Moisturising Creams are those creams that functions to restore
moisture ( water ) to the stratum corneum. They make a non -volatile residual film
on the skin , capable of retaining skin moisture as well as the moisture provided
by the cream using humectant.
The lower layer of the skin receives water lost by the stratum corneum . The
flexibility of the skin is lost due to dehydration thus making it rough. Moisture
( water ) plasticises the stratum corneum to make it soft and thus providing
flexibility.
Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Skin Care Products (Chapter 6 ) 51
Moisturisers are generally emulsion of either oil-in-water ( OAV ) or water-in-oil

( W/O) type. These products occur in two principal forms:
1 ) Semi -solid emulsions, known as creams, and
2 ) Flowable emulsions, known as lotions.
6.2.1. Formulation
Part Ingredient Wt %
(a ) Deionised water 63.90
Methyparaben 0.20
Sorbitol , 70% solution 2.00
Propylene glycol 3.00
Carbomer 940 ( 2% dispersion ) 15.0
Triethanolamine 0.60
( b) Glyceryl monostearate 4.0
Mineral oil 3.0
Caprylic/capric triglycerides 4.0
Hydrogenated vegetable oils 1.50
Stearic acid 2.00
Laureth- 23 0.80
i£l Fragrance and preservation q s.
6.2.2. Preparation
Mix all of part (a) except the triethanoamine. After all of part (a) is dispersed add
TEA ( Triethanolamine ). Now, heat both parts ( a ) and ( b) to 70°C. Add part ( b ) to
part ( a ) with good agitation. Mix to 35°C and add part (c ). Continue mixing until
dispersion is complete.
6.2.3. Evaluation
The moisturisers can be evaluated by following processes:
1 ) Cell Turnover Testing: Dansyl chloride test is employed for evaluating the
moisturisers by cell turnover rate. In this test dansyl chloride is used because
this compound shows fluorescence when treated with long wave of UV light
or Woods lamp. It should be mixed with the moisturiser and then applied to
skin as the moisturiser gets penetrated into stratum corneum. As the skin
grows the inner cells start coming out which are tested for the cell turnover
rate for the non-treatment area with respect to that of the treatment area.
2) In vivo Instrumental Tests: Profilometry test is used for the in vivo instrumental
tests. By evaluating the changes occurring to skin surface caused generally by
retinoid therapy is proved by its efficacy. This test includes two basic methods,
one in which models are used while the other that comprise of photograph
readings. The test is performed on fully hydrated skin by assessing its properties.
The comparison is done between two types of skin samples, one having least
amount of wrinkles while the other having wrinkles in considerable amount.
Gas Bearing Electrodynamometer is used for measuring the viscoelastic

properties of the stratum corneum, both in vivo and in vitro. While Twistometer
helps in measuring the resistance to torsion of the skin. It also helps in evaluating
52 Cosmetic Science
the softness and suppleness of skin. In terms of Moisture Vapour Transmission

Rate ( MVTR ) or the moisture/water loss or Transepidermal Moisture Loss
( TEML ) flow of moisture from the skin is also measured.
3) In vitro Testing for Moisturisers: There is various research paper related to in

vitro tests. The reviews given by Salter cover both the techniques, i.e., in vivo as
well as in vitro. While Reiger and Deem conducted tests related to in vitro water
vapour transmission rate. In this test, flow of moisture is checked on a synthetic
film which acts like a barrier, resembling skin. For measuring hydration or ability
of test material for maintaining humectancy this technique is combined with a
water-retentive technique and used , which proves to be beneficial in both
evaluation and prediction of potent results related to in vivo test.
Quattrone and Laden gave another method apart from MVTR and water-
holding capacity which includes scanning colorimetry , Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM ) and testing of biomechanical aspects of skin, maintaining
different in vitro conditions. These tests are useful only when there are
correlations established between in vivo and in vitro. As per theory, the tests
performed must be correlated to attain clinical values but actually the
conditions get different because of the use of excised skin or synthetic
membrane. Human skin shows biological properties of epidermis, while the
excised skin acts as inert, static or dead layer.
6.2.4. Advantages
1 ) These available homemade non greasy lotions are best for moisturising skin
regularly as almond or grape seed oil are non-greasy and are readily absorbed
by the skin.
2) They help in keeping the skin soft and supple.
3) Only aloe Vera gel lotions are not perfect for winter months, but can be
helpful in summer season as skin moisturizer without being greasy.
4 ) These nourishing lotions are chemical -free and purely healthy for the skin.
5) It is less costly in comparison of commercially available chemical
moisturising lotions.
Five Reasons to Moisturise Skin
1 ) Moisturising reduces the chances of skin problems and helps in pH maintenance.
2) Moisturising can reduce the appearance of other blemishes.
3) Moisturising helps the skin to stay young.
4) Moisturising fights wrinkles.
5) It ’s the perfect end to a hot shower .
1 ) Many moisturizers contain oils such as petrolatum ( Vaseline ), lanolin ( sheep-
wool oil ), and mineral oil which block water evaporation and generally clog
pores and increase acne.
2 ) They can inhibit the use of drugs like tretinoin ( Retin -A ) and Alpha Hydroxy
Acids ( AHAs ).
3) Moisturizers quickens skin aging because dry skin reflects more ultraviolet
light than hydrated skin.
Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Skin Care Products ( Chapter 6 ) 53
6.3 . COLD CREAM

- -
Cold creams are water-in-oil or oil in water type emulsions added with certain
fats ( generally beeswax ) and perfuming agents. These are applied on skin to
provide smoothness and remove makeup. Cold creams are named so due to the
cooling effect they impart on application.
An ideal cold cream should have the following properties:

1 ) It should have a low sensitisation index.
2) It should be elegant in appearance.
3) It should be non -dehydrating.
4) It should provide a smooth texture.
5 ) It should be non-greasy and non -staining.
6) It should not cause irritation to the skin.
7 ) It should not alter the membrane or skin functioning.
8) It should be miscible with skin secretion.
6.3. 1 . Formulation
Table 6.1: Ingredients Used in the Formulation of a Cold Cream
Ingredients Quantity ( % w/ w ) Category
Oil Phase
Mineral Oil ( Liquid Paraffin ) 45.0 Used as solvent and emollient
Beeswax 16 Thickening agent and emulsifier
Aqueous Phase
Borax 1 Emulsifier and provide whiteness
Water to 100
Preservative qs. Antimicrobial
Perfume qs. Fragrance
6.3.2. Preparation
The cold creams are prepared by the following steps:
1 ) Beeswax is melted in a container on a water bath maintained at 70°C
temperature and added with mineral oil; this is mixture A ( oily phase ).
2 ) Water is heated in another container at the same temperature and added with
borax; this is mixture B ( aqueous phase ).
3) Mixture B is slowly added to the mixture A with stirring to form a creamy
emulsion.
4 ) In the last step, the preparation is brought down to 40°C temperature and
added with a suitable perfume.
6.3.3. Evaluation
Evaluation of cold cream is performed on the basis of following parameters:
1 ) Dye Solubility Test: Some portion of the cream is taken in watch glass. A
lipophilic dye ( scarlet red ) is added to the cream and mixed properly, after
that this mixture is observed under microscope.
54 Cosmetic Science
2) Dilution Test: A small amount of cream is diluted with the oil in a test tube,
if the oil disperses throughout the cream ( emulsion ) then it is a water-in -oil
type emulsion else oil -in-water type emulsion.
3) pH of Cream: About 500mg of cream is dissolved in 50.0ml distilled water
and its pH is measured by the help of pH meter.
4) Physical Stability of Cream: The stability testing of cream is performed by
checking its consistency at 25°C for 30 days.
5) Appearance: The properties like colour, grade, roughness and pearlscence
are judged for their appearance.
6) Homogeneity: The formulations are tested for homogeneity by visual
appearance and by touch.
7 ) Irritancy Test: The dorsal surface of the left hand is marked and the cream
is applied to this marked area. Irritancy is checked at regular intervals for up
to 24 hours and then reported.
8 ) Rub-out and Emolliency: This test evaluates the spreading ability and
emolliency of the cream. Some amount of cream is applied on the dorsal
surface of hand and these properties are evaluated.
-
9) Non Volatile Matter at 105°C: The cream is evaluated for the presence of
volatile matter. About lgm of cream is taken and is subjected to heat at
105°C for 2 hours.
6.3.4. Advantages
1 ) AS cold creams contain enough amounts of water and oil , they keep skin safe
from the rough environments.
2 ) They also keep skin moisturized and safe from damages.
1 ) However, as they contain petroleum , that might block the evaporation of
water, they often clog pores resulting in pimples.
2 ) They might also dark the complexion if overused.
6.4. VANISHING CREAM

Vanishing creams are also known as day creams as they are applied in the day times.
These creams provide emollient and protective action to the skin against
environmental conditions by forming a neither greasy nor oily semi-occlusive residual
film. Vanishing creams are oil-in-water type emulsions. They are named so as they
spread as thin oil-less film when applied on the skin and this film is not visible to the
naked eye. They are used to hold powder on the skin and to improve adhesion.
Properties
1 ) It should have a high melting point.
2 ) It should be pure white in colour.
3) It should possess a very slight odour.
4 ) It should have a less amount of iodine.
6.4. 1 . Formulation
The ingredients used in the formulation of vanishing creams are enlisted in table 6.2:
Table 6.2; Ingredients used in the Formulation of Vanishing Creams
Ingredients Uses
1) Main Ingredient It controls the cream consistency and imparts
Example: Stearic acid pearlescent property by forming crystals.
2) Humectants Example: Glycerine,
sorbitol , and propylene glycol .
3) Alkalis Examples: It imparts fine texture and consistency
i ) Potassium hydroxide without providing harshness.
ii ) Sodium hydroxide It is used with potassium hydroxide, since if
used alone it makes the cream hard .
iii ) Carbonates, i.e., potassium and They are used because they liberate carbon
sodium carbonate dioxide and make the creams spongy.
iv ) Ammonia It is effective, but difficult to handle.
Because of its odour and volatility, it is also
to make cream yellow in colour with age.
v ) Borax It is used with potassium hydroxide to
produce a white emulsion.
4) Emulsifying Agent Example:
Triethanolamine soap, amino glycol
soap or glyceryl monostearate.
5) ..
Purified Water ( i e , Distilled and It provides stability to the cream. If hard
Deionised ) water is used , it forms soap of lime and
magnesium , which causes inversion of
emulsion and hence reduces stability.
6) Preservatives Example: Methyl They prevent deterioration caused by
paraben and propyl paraben bacteria or fungi.
7) Perfume, i.e., perfume solvent or It provides odour to the cream and also has
perfume dissolved in alcohol. They aesthetic value.
should be added when the cream
attains 40°C temperature.
Example: Geranium, sandal wood ,
lavender oil , terpineol, etc.
6.4.2. Preparation
The methods of preparation of different formulations of vanishing creams are
given below:
Formula 1:
Formula %
Stearic acid 24.0
Potassium hydroxide 1.0
Water 64.0
Glycerine 10.5
Perfume 0.5
100.0
56 Cosmetic Science
Method: Stearic acid is melted by heating on a water bath. Potassium hydroxide

is dissolved in water, glycerine is added , and the mixture is heated at 75°C
temperature. This heated mixture is slowly added to the melted stearic acid with
constant stirring. The obtained mixture is maintained at 40°C temperature and
added with a suitable perfume.
Formula 2:
Formula %
Stearic acid 17.0
Sodium carbonate 0.5
Potassium hydroxide 0.5
Glycerine 6.0
Water 71.0
Alcohol 4.5
Perfume 0.5
100.00
Method: Stearic acid is melted. A solution of alkalis is prepared in water and

added with glycerine. This solution is added to the melted stearic acid with
steady agitation . Stirring is continued till the temperature of mixture drops down
to 40°C. A suitable perfume is dissolved in alcohol and added to the final
solution. This batch is left undisturbed for a day before filling.
Formula 3:
Formula %
Triethanolamine 2.0
Stearic acid 17.0
Lanolin 1.0
Borax 4.0
Glycerine 5.0
Water 70.5
Perfume 0.5
100.00
Method: Lanolin and stearic acid are melted. A hot solution of borax, triethanol -
amine, glycerine, and water is prepared. The alkali solution is added to stearic
acid and stirred to emulsify. When the temperature drops down to 40°C, a
suitable perfume is added .
6.4.3. Evaluation
The evaluation of vanishing cream is done on the basis of following parameters:
1 ) Determination of Organoleptic Properties: The appearance of the cream is
judged by its colour, pearlscence, roughness and graded.
2) Determination of pH: Accurately weighed 5g of the sample is dispersed in
45ml of water. The pH of the suspension is determined at 27°C using digital
pH meter.
3) Determination of Homogeneity : The formulations are tested for their
homogeneity by visual appearance and by touch.
4) Determination of Spread Ability: Spread ability may be expressed by the

extent of the area to which the topical application spreads when applied to
the affected parts on the skin. The therapeutic efficiency of the formulation
also depends upon its spreading value. Hence, it was found necessary to
determine the spread ability of the formulation. For this purpose, sample
( about 3gm ) was applied in between two glass slides and they were pressed
together to obtain a film of uniform thickness by placing lOOOgm weight for
5 minutes.
Thereafter a weight ( lOgm ) was added to the pan and the top plate is
subjected to pull with the help of string attached to the hook. The time in
which the upper glass slide moves over the lower plate to cover a distance of
10cm is noted. The spread ability (S ) can be calculated using the formula:
S= mx—
T
Where,
S = Spreadability
=
m Weight tied to upper glass slide
L = Length moved on a glass slide
T = Time taken
The determinations are carried out in triplicate and the average of three
readings was recorded.
5) Determination of Wetness: It is determined by applying cream on skin
surface of human volunteer.
6) Determination of Type of Smear: It is determined by applying the cream
on the skin surface of human volunteer. After application of cream, the type
of film or smear formed on the skin were checked.
7) Determination of Emolliency: Emolliency, slipperiness and amount of
residue left after the application of fixed amounts of cream is checked.
8) Determination of Viscosity: The viscosity determinations are carried out
using a Brookfield Viscometer ( DV 11+ Pro model ) using spindle number S-
64 at a 20rpm at a temperature of 25°C. The determinations are carried out in
triplicate and the average of three readings is recorded.
6.4.4. Advantages
1 ) It is used as a skin moisturiser and cleanser.
2) It is helpful in skin softening and providing a shiny texture to the skin .
3) It is used as a base on the skin before the application of any other cosmetic
because it vanishes from the skin surface once applied.
4) It is used to remove any pimples or scars.
5) It is helpful in prevention of skin chapping or roughening.
It might cause skin allergies reactions like itching, peeling, irritation, reddening,
etc. due to presence of compounds in the cream .
58 Cosmetic Science
6.5. SUMMARY
1 ) Face wash has cleansing action on face and helps in proper circulation of blood, and are
formulated by using fresh fruits or herbs for beautification and improve texture of skin.
2) Formulation of a face wash varies as it depends on the type of skin for which it is
formulated.
3) Moisturisers or moisturising creams are those creams that functions to restore
moisture ( water ) to the stratum comeum.
4) Moisturisers are generally emulsion of either oil-in-water (O/W ) or water-in-oil
( W /O ) type.
5) The moisturisers can be evaluated by Cell Turnover Testing, In vivo Instrumental
Tests, In vitro Testing for Moisturisers, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM )
6 ) Cold creams are water-in-oil or oil-in- water type emulsions added with certain fats
( generally beeswax ) and perfuming agents.
7) Vanishing creams are also known as day creams as they are applied in the day times.
8) Vanishing creams provide emollient and protective action to the skin against
environmental conditions by forming a neither greasy nor oily semi-occlusive
residual film.
6.6. EXERCISE
1) Write the purpose of using face wash?
2) Define moisturizing cream.
3) Define cold cream.
4) Enlist any two advantages and disadvantages of cold cream ?
5) What are the properties of vanishing cream?

1) What are the advantages and disadvantages of face wash ?
2) Enlist some of the ideal properties of cold cream.
3) Write down the preparation method of cold cream
4) Write a short note on vanishing cream.
6.6.3. Long Answer Type Questions

1 ) Enlist the parameters used for the evaluation of any one of the following products:
face wash, moisturizing cream, cold cream or vanishing cream.
2 ) Write a detail note on cold cream or moisturiser.
Antiperspirants and Deodorants ( Chapter 7 ) 59
CHAPTER Antiperspirants and

7 Deodorants
7.1. ANTIPERSPIRANTS AND DEODORANTS

7.1.1. Introduction
Antiperspirants are products whose primary function is to inhibit perspiration. By
inhibiting perspiration , which is a necessary component for the growth of
bacteria that cause malodour, antiperspirants also act as deodorants.
Deodorants are personal care products that are applied topically, most commonly
on the underarms, to minimize the odour caused by the bacterial breakdown of
perspiration.
Properties of Deodorants and Antiperspirant

1 ) It should not be as skin irritant.
2 ) It should not deteriorate clothing.
3) It should be safe and nontoxic.
4) Easy to use and adhere well on skin.
5) Mask body odour with perfume.
6 ) Absorb perspiration or inhibit the activity of gram positive bacteria, which
cause body malodour.
7.1.2. Difference between Antiperspirants and Deodorants

Deodorants Antiperspirants
1 ) Has a topical effect ( Cosmetics ). 1) Has a therapeutic effect ( PTC) .
2 ) Does not reduce sweat amount . 2) Reduce amount of sweat secretion .
3 ) Contain adsorbent , fragrance and 3) Contain adsorbent , fragrance , germicide,
germicide . and astringent .
4 ) Deodorants are not Antiperspirants . 4) Antiperspirants are deodorants .
7.1.3. Mechanism of Action

When an antiperspirant is applied to the skin surface, then its antiperspirant
active ingredients i.e., generally aluminium salts gets dissolved in the sweat or
moisture present on the skin surface of the armpit. The dissolved substance forms
a gel creates a small temporary ‘plug near the top of the sweat gland, which
'
considerably reduces the amount of sweat producing from the skin surface.
Bathing and washing will remove the antiperspirant gel therefore re-application
of antiperspirants is essential to reduce sweating and keep fresh throughout the
day. As the antiperspirants reduce underarm sweating, they do not influence the
thermoregulation of the body.
60 Cosmetic Science
The basic principle antiperspirants action is to contract the sweat pores so that
perspiration is not freely exuded. The two common ingredients for sweat pore
contraction are aluminium chloride and aluminium sulphate. Aluminium chloride is
used while formulating liquid preparation whereas aluminium sulphate in creams.
Antiperspirant Dissolves in Forms a gel on Gel released from

applied sweat top of pore skin surface
Figure 7.1: Mechanism of Action of Antiperspirant
7.1 .4. Formulation/Actives
Antiperspirants and deodorants contain a number of ingredients to minimise
sweating and help people feel fresh, cool and smelling good.
1 ) Alcohol: It is an ingredient present in some roll -ons, aerosols and gels. The
active ingredients of antiperspirants and deodorants are often dissolved in
alcohol because it’s quickly drying property when applied to the skin which
provides an immediate sense of coolness.
2) Aluminium Salts: They are the active ingredient in antiperspirants. They act
by reducing the flow of sweat from the sweat gland to the skin surface.
Aerosol and roll-on products are likely to contain aluminium chlorohydrate,
while sticks, gels and other solid products are most likely to contain an
aluminium salt called aluminium zirconium. These salts provide a safe and
effective means of controlling sweat.
3) Antimicrobials: The skin is full of microbial flora ( bacteria ) that like to feed
on sweat which produce bad smells. In occluded areas, like the underarm,
there are about 1 million bacteria per square centimetre. Body odour can be
reduced by decreasing the number of bacteria present on the skin.
Antimicrobials agent 's acts as bacteriostatic or bactericidal to keep the body
odour-free for longer.
4 ) Fragrance and Skin Conditioners: Perfumes and fragrances are used in
most deodorants and antiperspirants in order to mask body odour and provide
a feeling of freshness to the individual. Almost all antiperspirant and
deodorant products contain some amount of emollient oils to soothe and
soften the skin. The oils also provide a gliding feeling in roll -ons and sticks,
as it is applied.
The moisturisers or skin conditioners used in antiperspirants are generally

glycerine or vegetable derived oils like sunflower oil ( Helianthus annus ).
Most of the antiperspirants contain an oil to avoid product drying out into
deposits which minimises the product residue on skin and clothes. Silica, a
natural mineral, is also used in antiperspirants and deodorants to absorb this
oiliness to avoid greasy feeling after application.
Antiperspirants and Deodorants (Chapter 7) 61
5) Carrier Substances: In order for antiperspirants to be effectively applied to the

skin, they need to be in the form of liquids used in aerosols or the solids used in
sticks. Almost in all antiperspirants, water is used as a carrier for other ingredients
because it adds fluidity to roll-ons and creams and helps in easy spreading on the
skin. In aerosol products the active ingredients are held in a neutral liquid form.
This liquid like cyclomethicone is frequently combined with a slightly denser
mineral clay-like substance, disteardimonium hectorite which provides structure to
the antiperspirant and prevents the sinking of heavier ingredients to the bottom.
6) Parabens: They are used as preservative in many personal care products. As
antiperspirants and deodorants are generally self -preserving, therefore large
quantity of antiperspirants and deodorants do not contain parabens.
7) Propellants: Aerosol antiperspirants and deodorants are intended to act as
through a thin film which is propelled onto the skin. To create this film,
products contain low, medium and high pressure propellants which produce a
strong, but comfortable, spray to reach the skin. These propellants are
commonly butane, isobutane and propane.
7.1 .5. Preparation

The formulation and ingredients vary according to whether the product is to be
supplied in aerosol , roll -on, gel or stick form, however to some extent the basic
manufacturing process is the same:
1 ) The vessel is charged with solvents like alcohol, propylene glycol , glycerine
etc. or silicones such as dimethicone. This is the oil or “continuous phase.”
2) Flake/powder ingredients, such as cetyl alcohol are dispersed into the oil phase.
3) The “dispersed phase” is prepared separately Typically this is aqueous,
however stick deodorants usually do not contain water; the dispersed phase
would also be oil based.
4 ) The active ingredient is dispersed into this phase. Suspending agents such as
bentonite may be added.
5) The phases are combined to form an emulsion.
6) The active ingredient is sometimes added at this later stage.
7 ) Gelling agents or polymers are added to stick products to form structure.
8) Fragrance and colouring agents are added.
9 ) The product is cooled and poured into containers, moulds etc.
Ingredients are combined in a jacketed stainless steel kettle. Steam heat is applied
to melt the ingredients while the batch is being mixed. During the blending
process, the temperature should be carefully controlled to avoid scorching the
waxy ingredients. Once all the ingredients have been added to the batch, it is
blended until uniformity is attained.
7.1.6. Types
Antiperspirants and deodorants are of following types:
1 ) Antiperspirant Creams, 2) Antiperspirant Sprays, 3) Deodorant Sticks,
4) Deodorant Powders, 5) Deodorant Creams, 6) Roll-ons,
7 ) Pumps, and 8) Aerosols
62 Cosmetic Science
7. I .6. I . Antiperspirant Creams

The concentrations of aluminium salts in antiperspirants differ in liquids and
creams, which is 10% and 15% respectively. These salts possess strong acidic
nature due to which it is almost impossible to blend them with conventional
creams, until some acid stabilising ingredient is added .
Table 7.1 : General Type Formula for Antiperspirant Cream ( Absorption Base Type )
a ) Absorption base 240
b) Aluminium sulphate 150
c ) Distilled water 600
d ) Milk cream 10
Preparation
The aluminium sulphate is dissolved in distilled water. Milk cream is added to
the solution. Now heat both the phases at 50°C and mix absorption base with the
mixture. Cool the mixture to 25°C while constant stirring and passing the
obtained mixture in an ointment mill.
The consistency of such creams can be adjusted by incorporating waxes such as
ozokerite or spermaceti. Absorption base offers advantage that the resultant
mixture will neither dry nor harden, but formulation and handling must be done
with utmost care so that product gives better results.
It is observed that no perfume is included in these formulas as this is not
necessary in this type of preparation. Such preparations do not include perfume
in their formula , as it is not mandatory.
7.1 .6.2. Antiperspirant Sprays

During the World War II, plastic was developed; the antiperspirant and
deodorants were dispensed in plastic spray bottles or squeeze bottles. The major
advantage of such formulation was that contamination from hand was avoided
but the spray gives wet and coarse feeling to the underarms.
The cologne squeeze pack of that era can be compared to the hydro-alcoholic
manual pump of present day.
Formula 1
Components % w /w
a) SD alcohol 40 50.0
b) Propylene glycol 3.5
c) ACH, 50% solution 40.0
d) Deionised water 6.5
e) Fragrance q - s.
Preparation
1) Mix ( a ) and (d ) using overhead stirrer.
2) Add ( b ) mix for 10 minutes.
3) Add (c) slowly.
4 ) Add (e ). When homogeneous, pour into suitable containers.
7.1.6.3. Deodorant Sticks

Deodorant sticks are typically based on sodium stearate as the gelling agent for
either propylene glycol or alcohol. They also contain an antimicrobial agent ,
humectant and perfume.
Formulation
Typical deodorant sticks contain sodium stearate, which act as gelling agent for
ethyl alcohol or propylene glycol present. Deodorant sticks also contain
humectant. antimicrobial agent along with a perfume. A typical formula for
deodorant stick is given below:
Formula 2
Components % w/ w
a ) Ethanol 75.0
b) Sodium stearate 8.0
c ) Deionised water 11.9
d ) Sorbitol , 70% 5.0
e ) Triclosan 0.1
Q Fragrance qs.
Preparation
1 ) Combine ( a ) and (c ) heat to 70°C. 2) Add ( d ), mix for 5 minutes.
3) Add ( b ) and (e ), mix until clear. 4) Cool to 65°C. Add (f ).
5) Pour into suitable containers at 60°C.
7.1.6.4. Deodorant Powders
In the preparation process of deodorant power, it is essential that the active ingredient
should be uniformly distributed within the formulation which can be done by mixing
and grinding. In case the active ingredient is a liquid, it should be sprayed over an
adsorbent powder. The powder ingredients should be well blended in a ribbon type
or somewhat like a mixer. They can be perfumed with a suitable fragrance.
Formula 3
Components % w /w
a) Talc 70
b ) Precipitated Chalk 10
c ) Boric Acid 10
d ) Zinc Oxide 09
e ) Zinc Phenol Sulphonate 01
Q Perfume q s.
7.1.6.5. Deodorant Creams

A potassium stearate-stearic acid vanishing cream act as suitable base for the
preparation of the deodorant creams.
Formula 4
Components 1 % w /w
Part A
a ) Isopropyl Myristate 4
b ) Cetyl Alcohol 2
c ) Stearic Acid 4
d ) Glyceryl Monostearate 10
e ) Hexachlorophene 0.5
0 ( Active Ingredient )
64 Cosmetic Science
Part B
Potassium Hydroxide 1
Propylene glycol 12
Purified water 66.5
Perfume q -s -
Method
All the ingredients of Part A should be heated at 75° C along with slight agitation
till then all the ingredients are melted and mixed.
In another container, all the ingredients of Part B should be heated at 75° C. Then all
the ingredients of both the parts should be mixed and the solutions should be kept at
the same temperature with quick agitation. A cream (emulsion ) is prepared with the
help of an emulsifying agent prepared in situ ( potassium soap of fatty acids). The
solutions should be continuously stirred at room temperature until cream is formed.
The perfume should be added to the preparation when the temperature is around 40°
C. Allow the preparation to stand overnight and stir again before filling.
7.1.6.6. Roll - ons

One of the most versatile and globally popular carrier, forms of antiperspirant is
the roll-on . The several types of roll -ons differ in their formulation base. Water,
alcohol, hydroalcoholic systems, esters and silicones have been used over the
years as vehicles in roll -ons. This form is well accepted due to its long history,
ease of application and high efficiency.
-
Types of Roll on
1 ) Water-Based Roll-On (Oil-in-Water ): Water-based roll-ons are a typical
example of oil-in-water emulsions, such type of emulsion is used because
water-in -oil type emulsion have lower efficacy. The oil -in-water type
emulsions provide a medium for active ingredients to get dissolved in external
phase which provides the formulator an ease of incorporating solid or liquid
antiperspirant . A typical formula for emulsion type roll -on is mentioned below
which is physically much stable and provides ease of application:
Formula 5
Components % w/ w
a) Reach 501 solution, 50% ( Reheis ) 40.0
b) Steareth-21 2.0
c) Steareth-2 2.0
d) Steareth-5 stearate 1.0
e) Clyclomethicone ( and ) PPG - 15 stearyl ether 5.0
0 Deionised water 50.0
g ) Fragrance q - s.
Preparation
i ) Combine ( b), (c), (d ) and (e) and heat to 70°C.
ii ) Heat ( f ) separately at 70°C.
iii) Add ( b/c/d/e ) to ( f ) with agitation .
iv) Homogenise the mixture for 1 -3 minutes.
v ) Add (a) to emulsion slowly with agitation .
-
vi ) Homogenise the mixture again for 1 3 minutes.
Antiperspirants and Deodorants (Chapter 7 ) 65
vii ) Cool to 35°C with continuous agitation.

viii ) Add ( g).
ix ) Fill into suitable containers.
- - -
2 ) Alcohol Based and Hydro Alcoholic Roll On: Alcohol based roll-on or
hydro alcoholic roll -on are beneficial , in case the active ingredients are
alcohol soluble and they also require very less time for drying. The examples
of such active ingredients includes alcohol soluble ACH, aluminium
sesquichloro-hydrate, aluminium zirconium pentachlorohydrate and
aluminium chlorohydrex propylene glycol . Proper formulation of roll -on
leads to an anhydrous, clear product. The particle size of active ingredient in
the initial stage does not cause hindrance as it has to be solubilised. The
formula given below depicts a typical example of alcohol -based roll -on:
Formula 6
Components % w/w
a) SD Alcohol 40 40.4
b) Propylene glycol 2.0
c) PPG-5 -ceteth-20 2.0
d) Hydroxyethylcellulo.se 0.2
e) Deionised water 17.9
0 AZCH , 40% Solution ( REZAL 67 Solution; Reheis ) 37.5
g) Fragrance q -s-
Preparation
i ) Disperse ( d ) in (e) until clear, mix for approximately 2h.
ii) Add ( f ) slowly, mix 5 minutes.
iii ) In a separate container, combine (a ), (b) and (c). Then slowly add to
batch with agitation.
iv ) Add ( g ), mix thoroughly and pour into suitable containers.
-
3) Suspension Roll On: In the late 1970s, suspension roll -ons were introduced
in the U .S.A. This formulation is anhydrous and basically a physical
-
suspension of antiperspirant salt in volatile silicon. It is the most popular roll
on in the U.S.A due to the dry application, non-tacky feel, and effectiveness.
An important factor to note is that the particle size of the active ingredient
needs to be superfine. Since this product is a suspension, settling is a
problem , hence ‘shake well’ labelling instructions are indicated on these
packages. A typical formulation is:
Formula 7
Components % w/w
a) Volatile silicone 66.0
b) Quatemium- 18 bentonite or quatemium- 18 hectorite mastergel 13.5
c) Silica 0.5
d) Activated AZCH, superultrafine 20.0
e) Fragrance q -s .
Preparation
i ) Disperse ( b ) into (a ) with an overhead mixer for 20 minutes.
ii) Add (d ), mix for 10 minutes.
iii ) Add (c) and (f ), mix for 10 minutes.
iv ) Use homomixer on batch for 3-5 minutes and pour into suitable containers.
66 Cosmetic Science
- -
4 ) Clear Water in -Oil Roll On: These compositions are relatively new on the
market. They demonstrate superior aesthetics and leave no residue or deposit
on the skin after application . Clarity is achieved simply by following the
room temperature order of addition specified.
Formula 8
Components % w/w
a) Reach 301 solution. 50% ( Rchcis ) 40.00
b) Deionised water 8.75
c) Dipropylene glycol 3.00
d) PEG -7 glyceryl cocoate 18.20
e) Cyclomethieone ( and ) dimethicone copolyol 20.00
0 Cetearyl octanoate 3.20
g) Polysorbate 20 1.00
h) Deionised water 4.10
i) Isopropyl myristate 1.00
j) Fragrance 0.75
Preparation
i ) Combine (a ), ( b ), and (c ) with overhead mixing ( medium agitation ).
ii ) Slowly add ( d ) and mix well .
iii ) Add (e) very slowly and mix well.
iv ) Slowly add ( f ), mix it thoroughly.
v ) Premix (g) and ( h ). Slowly, add to the main batch.
vi ) Premix ( i ) and ( j). Slowly , add to the main batch. Mix until clear.
vii ) Pour into appropriate containers.
7.1.6.7. Pumps
In the mid -1970s, pump antiperspirants were marketed in response to the first
ozone depletion scare and the declining aerosol market , although their success
was limited. The second generation of pump antiperspirants was again launched
in the late 1980s, in response to consumer concern over aerosols. If a consumer is
to choose a pump in preference to an aerosol, it must have comparable aesthetic
qualities, and this is best achieved by quick-drying alcoholic formulations.
Formulation
A typical formulation based on Rehydrol II (aluminium chlorohydrate propylene
glycol complex ) is given below:
Formula 9
Components % w/w
a) Volatile silicone 15.0
b) SD Alcohol 40 61.0
c) Stearic acid ( triple pressed ) 2.0
d) PPG - I 5 stearyl ether 2.0
e) Aluminium chlorohydrex PG ( Rehydrol II, Reheis ) 20.0
0 Fragrance q .s .
Preparation
1 ) Dissolve (e), then ( c) in ( b) until clear,
2) Add ( d ) until clear,
3) Add ( a ), then (0, and
4 ) Pour into suitable containers.
7.1 .6.8. Aerosols

The commercialisation of the aerosol as a cosmetic dispenser in the 1950s
attracted the attention of the antiperspirant formulators. The advantages of a
delivery system which did not involve the container or the product coming in
contact with the skin of the user were immediately obvious.
Formulation
The first water-free antiperspirant aerosol was probably produced and marketed
in Manchester in 1965, the formulation being a suspension of 2% ACH
suspended in oil . Formulation of typical aerosol antiperspirant:
Formula 10
Components % w/w
a ) Aluminium chlorohydrate, micronised 3.5
b) Isopropyl myristate 6.0
c) Silica 0.3
d ) Fragrance q.s.
Ratio Formulation : propellant ( fluorocarbon )
- 10 : 90
Preparation
1 ) Add (a ) to ( b) in high shear mixer,
2) Add (c), then (d ). Mix for 30 minutes,
3) Pass through colloid mill at 6000 p.s.i.,
4 ) Pass through 60 mesh screen, and
5) Fill into can , charge with propellant.
7.1.7. Evaluation of Antiperspirants

The efficacy of an anti -perspirant is best defined after a realistic application or a
series of application of test product which cause the percentage reduction in the
rate of sweating in the axilla. The most common methods for the determination
of efficacy are gravimetry or the use of electronic hygrometers.
7.1 . 7.1. Gravimetric Method

1 ) In this method the sweat collections are carried out in controlled temperature
rooms at 100 ± 2° F and about 35% RH .
2 ) During two successive intervals of half -an-hour (30 minute ) using tarred
absorbent pads, sweat collections are made.
3) These collections are preceded by a 40 minute conditioning period in the hot
room during which the volunteers hold unweighed pads in their axillae.
4 ) A ratio of sweat produced by the left and right axillae is determined in the
series of controlled collections.
5) The effect of anti-perspirant material on the perspiration ratio of each
individual is evaluated by comparing the post -treatment ratio with the
volunteer average control ratio.
6) The percentage change for each individual, is calculated as:
Post treatment ratio
Reduction in sweat rate ( in % ) = xlOO
Average control ratio
68 Cosmetic Science
7.1 .7.2. Hygrometry

1 ) In this method , a cup is attached to the skin and the water from the enclosed
area is evaporated by a stream of dry gas.
2 ) Then the water content of this gas stream is observed and the sweat rate is
calculated.
3) As the cell that is used to cover the skin that is not very large and it only
encloses a small area in the axilla therefore its positioning is very critical.
4) The cells should be placed in the same position for every experimental session,
because different body sites have difference in sweating. Therefore the changes
induced by the use of the anti-perspirant products might be different.
7.1 .8. Evaluation of Deodorants

Both in vitro and in vivo methods are used to screen and evaluate the various
deodorant systems. The two principal methods for the in vivo evaluation of
deodorant efficacy are:
1 ) Determination of the effect of treatment on the skin microbial flora, and
2) Olfactory assessment of the effects on skin odours.
Various techniques which are used to quantify microbial flora are as follows:
1 ) Tape stripping Method
2) Velvet Replicate Pads Techniques
3) Scrubbing Techniques
4 ) Pressurised Spray Method .
7. I .8. I . Tape Stripping Method

In the tape stripping method, scotch tape is applied on the surface and stripped.
Then the tape is dipped in a nutrient media, incubated and observed for growth of
any colonies of bacteria.
7.1 .8.2. Velvet Replicate Pads Technique

1 ) In the velvet replicate pad technique the apparatus comprises of an anodised
tapered holder and ring which holds the velvet pad .
2) Before using, the complete apparatus can be sterilised by auto-claving.
3) For sampling, the pad should be moistened on the surface of an agar plate,
pressed firmly into the axilla and then applied to the centre of a suitable
culture plate.
4) Brain-heart infusion agar, supplemented with 0.5% Tween 80 is the basic
culture media that is used .
5) Incorporation of Tween 80 promotes the growth of lipophilic diphtheroids
and inactivates any other carried -over microbe.
6) After 24-48 hours of aerobic incubation at 37° C, the common resident
microbial flora, i.e., staphylococci, pigmented micrococci and diphtheroids
are visible and clearly observed.
7) These plates are then evaluated on a 0-6 scale for density of colonies.
Antiperspirants and Deodorants ( Chapter 7) 69
7.1 .8.3. Scrubbing Technique

1 ) The mechanical scrub technique comprise of a standardised scrubbing on the
skin area, delineated by a small glass cup containing a non -ionic detergent
sampling fluid.
2) In this method, the glass cylinder should be firmly placed on to the exposed
skin of the axilla, isolating on area of 3.8 cm2.
3) 3ml of Phosphate Buffer pH 7.9, containing Triton X-100 should be added
and the skin surface should be rubbed with moderate pressure for 1 minute
using a blunted Teflon scrapper.
4 ) Sampling fluid is then removed by aspiration and the procedure is repeated.
5) The two samples containing extracted bacteria are pooled and stored on ice
prior to serial dilutions.
7.1 .8.4. Pressurised Spray Method

1 ) A commercial spray gun is used in the pressurised spray method .
2 ) In principle, over an isolated region of the axilla surface, an air pressure is
used to aspirate a sampling solution .
3) In this method , ajar containing a 100ml aliquot of sampling fluid should be
attached to the spray gun along with an empty sterile collection jar.
4 ) The tip of the spray gun should be pressed firmly against the axillary vault
and the sampling fluid is sprayed at the same time on to the surface and
aspirated from an area of 1.77cm 2.
5 ) The compressed air pressure should be 100-800 Pa.
6) The collection jars should be then removed from the gun and stored on ice
prior to serial dilution.
7 ) By rinsing with sterilised water and alcohol and between the extractions, the
spray gun should be sterilised.
8 ) By serially dilution aliquots from each sample, the total aerobic bacterial
count is calculated.
9 ) The diluted samples should be plated to Soy Agar and incubated for 48 hr. at
37° C.
10) Then the plates should be counted under a microscope and colony counter to
determine the colony forming units per unit area ( cfu/cm 2).
7.2 . SUMMARY
1 ) Antiperspirants are products whose primary function is to inhibit perspiration
2) By inhibiting perspiration, which is a necessary component for the growth of bacteria
that cause malodour , antiperspirants also act as deodorants.
3 ) Deodorants are personal care products that are applied topically , most commonly on
the underarms , to minimize the odour caused by the bacterial breakdown of
perspiration
4 ) Antiperspirants and deodorants contain following ingredients to minimise sweating
and help people feel fresh, cool and smelling good: Alcohol , aluminium salts,
antimicrobials, fragrance and skin conditioners, carrier substances , parabens and
propellants.
70 Cosmetic Science
5) The formulation and ingredients vary according to whether the product is to be

supplied in aerosol, roll-on , gel or stick form, however to some extent the basic
manufacturing process is the same
6 ) Antiperspirants and deodorants are of following types: Antiperspirant creams,
antiperspirant sprays, deodorant sticks, deodorant powders, deodorant creams, roll-
ons, pumps, and aerosols.
7) Both in vitro and in vivo methods are used to screen and evaluate the various
deodorant systems.
8) Various techniques which are used to quantify microbial flora are: Tape stripping
method, velvet replicate pads techniques, scrubbing techniques, pressurised spray
method.
7.3. EXERCISE

1) What are deodorants?
2) Name any four ingredients used in the formulation of deodorants.
3) Enlist any 4 types of antiperspirants.
4) What are the principal methods for the in vivo evaluation of deodorant efficacy?
5) What do you mean by gravimetric method?
6) Define Scrubbing technique .

1 ) Define the term antiperspirants and write its properties .
2 ) What are the difference between antiperspirants and deodorants?
3 ) Illustrate the method of preparation of deodorants.
4 ) Elaborate any two techniques used for quantifying microbial flora .

1 ) Write a detailed note on Deodorants .
2) Write a note on the evaluation of antiperspirants or deodorants .
Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Hair Care Products ( Chapter 8 ) 71

8 Blocks of Hair Care Products
8.1 . SHAMPOOS
A shampoo is a preparation of a surfactant ( i.e. surface active material ) in a
suitable form liquid, solid or powder which when used under the specified
conditions will remove surface grease, dirt, and skin debris from the hair shaft
and scalp without adversely affecting the user.
Ideal Properties of a Shampoo

1 ) It should effectively and completely remove dust or soil, excessive sebum or
other fatty substances and loose corneal cells from the hair.
2 ) It should produce a good amount of foam to satisfy the psychological
requirements of the user.
3) It should be easily removed on rinsing with water.
4) It should leave the hair non -dry, soft, lustrous with good manageability and
minimum fly away.
5) It should impart a pleasant fragrance to the hair.
6) It should not cause any side-effects/irritation to skin or eye.
7 ) It should not make the hand rough and chapped.
8.1. 1. Excipients
Generally, shampoo is formulated using following ingredients:
1 ) Water: It comprise of about 60-80% of the solution therefore is the main
ingredient in all shampoo preparations. It helps in diluting the cleaning
agents which reduces the irritation. It also makes the shampoo formula easier
to spread on the hair and scalp.
2 ) Principle Surfactants: These are generally anionic surfactants having
excellent foaming properties. They provide detergency and foam.
Table 8.1: Anionic Surfactants
Classes Examples
Alkyl benzene sulfonates Sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate
Primary alkyl sulphates Laurie acid, stearic acid and their salts
Secondary alcohol sulphates Sodium sec- lauryl sulphate
Alkyl benzene polyoxyethylene Triton x 200
sulfonates
Sulfated monoglycerides Laurie monoglyceride ammonium sulphate
Alkyl ether sulfactes Derivatives of lauryl alcohol ether with
PEG
Sarcosines Lauroyl and cocoyl sarcosines
Sulfocuccinates Aerosol OT
Maypon Protalbinic and lysalbinic acid derivatives
( maypon 4C )
72 Cosmetic Science
3) Secondary Surfactants: These are basically foaming agents that are

ampholytic or anionic detergents and help in improving detergency and
condition of hair.
Table 8.2: Non - Ionic Surfactants
Classes Examples
Fatty acid Laurie monoethanolamide
alkanolamides ( should not be used Stearic ethanolamide
> 15% ) Oleic ethanolamides
Polyalkoxylated derivatives Ethoxylated fatty alcohols
Block polymers ( pluronics )
Sorbitol esters ( TWEENS )
Amine oxides Coconut and dodecyl dimethyl amine oxides
Amphoteric Surfactants
N-alkyl aminoacids P-aminoacid derivatives
Aspargine derivatives
Betains Amido betains
Alkyl imidazoline MIRANOLIM
4) Miscellaneous Ingredients: To achieve desired properties or intended purpose,
various ingredients are added in shampoos. That are classified as follows:
i ) Foaming Agents:
a ) These agents are used to introduce gas bubbles into the water. It is
important to form foam or lather, as it spreads the detergent over the
hair and scalp, but it does not participate in cleaning.
b ) It is true that a shampoo applied to dirty hair will not foam as much
as the same shampoo applied to clean hair because the sebum inhibit
bubble formation.
c) Some of the prescription corticosteroid shampoos do not foam as
compared to cosmetic shampoos but they have a cleaning effect on
the scalp.
d ) For examples, Lauroyl monoethanolamide, sarcosinates.
ii ) pH Adjusters: These agents are used to prevent the hair shaft from
alkalinisation . Many detergents have alkaline pH that results in hair shaft
swelling. This swelling loosens the protective cuticle predisposing the
hair shaft to damage. For Example, Citric acid, Glycolic acid.
iii ) Germicides and Anti - Dandruff Agents: These are added in a
preparation so as to treat and prevent dandruff and any microbial
infection . The shampoos which are in contact with the scalp for only a
short time contain small amount of these actives. In order to be
effective the active ingredient must work in the oil - water
environment of the scalp and must be readily substantive to the scalp
for continuing activity. For Example, Selenium sulfide, zinc
pyrithone, salicylic acid .
iv ) Conditioning Agents: They are usually fatty substances like lanolin,
oils, etc., or natural products like egg, lecithin, amino acids, polymeric
substances and several herbal extracts, which are used for giving
conditioning effect to hair.
The conditioner that are generally fatty alcohols, fatty esters, vegetable
oils, mineral oils, or humectants functions to impart manageability, gloss,
and antistatic properties to the hair. Hydrolyzed animal protein , glycerin,
dimethicone, simethicone, polyvinylpyrrolidone, propylene glycol , etc
are commonly used conditioning substances. Protein -derived substances
are popular conditioners for damaged hair, as they can temporarily mend
split ends because they hold the cortex fragments together until the next
shampooing occurs. Split ends arise when the protective cuticle has been
lost from the distal hair shaft and the exposed cortex splits.
v ) Pearlescent Agents: These substances enhance brightness of the hair and
reflect light and are used in the concentration of 0.2- 1 % with pH around
4.5-6. Chemically, they are derivatives from 4- methyl coumarins like 4-
methyl -7-diethylaminocoumarin, 4-methyl-5,7-dihydrocoumarin, etc.
vi) Sequestrants: These are added in the formulation so as to remove
hardness of water. They act by making complex with Ca ++ and Mg + + and
make them water soluble which prevents the reaction between these
divalent ions. These are the agents to chelate magnesium and calcium
ions, present in hard water, preventing formation of insoluble soaps
( scum ). This scum film will make hairs look dull and may contribute to
itching and symptoms of seborrheic dermititis. For example, EDTA
vii ) Opacifying Agents: They are chemical agents added to the preparation
to give pearly shine and to make it opaque, so that light does not pass
through it. For example, Spermaceti, Alkanolamides of higher fatty
acids, propylene glycol, Mg, Ca and Zn salts of stearic acid, etc.
viii ) Thickening Agents or Viscosity Modifiers: These are the agents used for
enhancing the viscosity in the preparation, For example, polyvinyl alcohol,
methyl cellulose, alginates, polyethylene glycol esters, colloidal silicates, etc.
ix ) Colours: They are used to enhance the organoleptic property of the
preparation and create a visual impact on the customer. The colours used
must be certified ( for toxicity and usage) and water soluble.
x ) Perfumes: They are used for masking the odour of ingredients present,
especially detergents and are used in concentration of 0.3-1% . For
example, fruit fragrance.
xi ) Preservatives: Following effects can be caused in the product due to
the microbial attack:
a ) Product degradation , b ) Malodour,
c ) Turbidity, and d ) Discoloration.
To solve these problems water-soluble preservatives like phenyl mercuric compounds,
p-hydroxy benzoic acid and its methyl esters, formaldehyde, etc., are used.
8.1.2. Types of Shampoos

They are broadly eight categories of the shampoos, but these are not always
sharply delineated, because there is some overlapping.
-
1) Liquid, Non Acid Shampoos: All shampoos in this group have a pH of 6.5
or higher. The addition of an opacifier, like glycol stearate makes it an
74 Cosmetic Science
opaque, pearly lotion. When the egg is added to an opacifier, it becomes an

egg shampoo. Many of these shampoos contain a protein or protein
derivative.
2) Non - Acid Shampoos With Cationic Conditioners: These are basically
neutral shampoos containing a cationic agent that is compatible with anionic
surfactants and suitable to cause conditioning effect to the hair.
3) Acid- Balanced ( Low -pH ) Shampoos: They are used for professional
purpose. The most popular surfactant in these products is ammonium lauryl
ether sulphate, followed by ammonium lauryl sulphate and some amphoterics.
4) Low pH Shampoos Cationic Conditioners: Cationic conditioning agents
find wide -spread use in low pH shampoos. These are mainly quaternary
ammonium compounds, fatty amines and their salts, and fatty amine oxides
which become substantive to hair at an acid pH.
5) Baby Shampoos: These have become very popular for general family use
and have properties like mildness to the hair and skin , non-irritating to the
eyes, and non -stinging in the eyes.
6) Gel Shampoos: These are available as consumer items that are packaged in
plastic tubes. They are found in concentrated form and are popular for
professional use. Gelation is generally achieved by the use of alkanolamides,
methocel or certain combinations of anionic and amphoteric surfactants.
They range in appearance from viscous liquids to extrudable gels.
7) Dilutable Shampoos for Professional Use: Conventional liquid shampoos
have been replaced by either the concentrated gel shampoo or liquid dilutable
shampoos for professional use. Before using, it should be diluted with water
because are present in very high concentration. The diluted product should
have respectable foaming qualities along with good viscosity.
8) Cream- Paste Shampoos: These became famous in the late 40’s and early
50’s, and were packaged in jars. They are not widely used except for the
medicated forms for the control and treatment of dandruff .
8.1 . 2.1 . General - Purpose Cleaning Shampoo

These shampoos share a large portion of the market and these are used for their
cleansing action. They are clear liquids or lotions having suitable consistency so that,
they can be poured easily on palms and applied on hair. In their formulation, the
amount of surfactants used is slightly more than required, so as to give strong
‘detersive’ (detergent-like) action and to produce intense and large amount of lather.
There are several sub-categories in this type, e.g., shampoos for normal hair, oily
hair, dry hair, damaged hair, etc. These sub-categories are expanding day-by-day
as per the demand of the consumer and need of the market. These shampoos are
well accepted by the consumers. This is because they contain such synthetic
detergents which can act well in both hard and soft water, and also do not leave
any unwanted residue on the hair.
The main component of the cleansing shampoo is anionic surfactants, which
constitutes about 15-20% of the shampoo. Along with the anionic surfactants,
foam stabilisers like alkanolamides are also used . Dense and copious foam is
Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Hair Care Products ( Chapter 8) 75
considered essential for a good cleaning action. Table 8.3 depicts the two
formulations for this type of shampoo:
Table 8.3: Typical Formulations for General - Purpose Cleaning Shampoos
Ingredients Wt%
Formula 1
a ) Sodium laureth sulphate, 40% active 30.0
b Ammonium lauryl sulphate 40% active
) , 15.0
c) Glycerine 3.0
d ) Laurie diethanolamide 2.0
e ) Lauramine oxide 1.0
0 Sodium chloride 1.0
g ) Methylcellulose 1.0
h ) Preservative, dyes, and fragrance q.s.
i ) Citric acid to pH 6-6.5 q.s.
j Deionised water
) q.s. to 100
Formula 2
Sodium lauryl sulphate, 40% active 30.0
Sodium lauryl sarcosinate, 30% active 10.0
Sodium chloride 5.2
Cocamide MEA 1.0
Quatemium-22 1.0
Preservatives 1.0
Disodium EDTA 0.2
Deionised water q .s. to 100
8.1 . 2.2. Conditioning Shampoo

Conditioning shampoos are formulated to provide the dual benefit of a shampoo
as well as conditioner. It is a sophisticated hair care product , which has a
shampoo and conditioner in one. Conditioning shampoos condition from within
while cleaning and nourishing your hair.
Conditioning shampoos are formulated to cleanse the hair and scalp, remove dirt
and grime without stripping away too much of the natural sebum and condition
the hair keep it shiny and healthy. These shampoos are made using cleansing
agents, perfume, preservatives and conditioning agents, which can coat the hair
shaft to make it appear thicker and healthy. The conditioning agents in these
shampoos smooth the cuticle scales, to ensure that the hair does not tangle, and
help hair eliminate static electricity when it dries. The formulation of
conditioning shampoo contains pearlescent agent or opacifier which lets the user
to perceive a rich conditioning effect. The conditioning shampoo, during its
development phase, was formulated by mixing the conditioning agent like
amphoteric surfactants into shampoo base.
Typical formula for a conditioning shampoo is given by means of following two
examples:
Table 8.4: Formulations for Conditioning Shampoos
Ingredients Wt %
Formula 1
a ) TEA lauryl sulphate, 40% active 18.5
b ) Cocoamphodiacetate ( and ) disodium cocamido MIPA -sulphosuccinate 18.5
c) Cocamide PEA 4.0
76 Cosmetic Science
d ) Propylene glycol 2.0

e ) Polyquaternium- 10 0.7
0 Citric acid 0.5
g ) Preservative, fragrance qs
h ) Deionized water qs to 100
Formula 2
a ) Ammonium lauryl sulphate, 40% active 16.00
b) Xanthan gum 0.75
c) Cocamide MEA 2.00
d ) Dimethicone 1.00
e ) Cetearyl alcohol 1.00
f ) Silicone gum 1.00
g ) Fragrance 1.00
h ) Sodium chloride 0.10
i ) Preservatives 0.03
j) Caustic soda, 50% active 0.01
k ) Ethylene glycol 0.75
l ) Dye solution 0.65
m ) Water ( double reverse osmosis) qs to 100
8. I .2.3. Anti- Dandruff Shampoo

They are the basic shampoos which are along with normal surfactants or some
medicinal ingredients that are added to treat seborrhoea . In seborrhoea, there is
chronic scaling of scalp which is usually non -inflammatory. The ingredients
responsible for the medicinal activity are selenium sulphide, zinc pyrithione, coal
tar, salicylic acid, and sulphur. These ingredients act by slowing down the
process of keratinisation or obstructing the flakes of dandruff by converting them
into smaller particles. These medicinal ingredients are mostly insoluble; therefore
they are prepared as opaque creams or lotions.
-
Table 8.5: Typical Formulations for Anti Dandruff Shampoos
Ingredients Wt %
Formula 1
Sodium lauryl sulphate, 40% active 40.00
Myristamide DEA 5.00
Zinc pyrithione 2.10
Magnesium aluminum silicate 1.20
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate 0.06
Citric acid, to pH 7.0 q.s.
Preservatives, colour, and fragrance q.s.
Formula 2
Sodium Cl 4- 16 olefin sulphonate, 40% active 30.0
Cocamidopropyl betaine 8.3
Magnesium aluminium silicate 1.0
Selenium sulphide 1.0
Titanium dioxide 0.7
Methylcellulose 0.7
Ammonium chloride 0.7
Preservative, colour, and fragrance q.s.
Deionised water q.s. to 100
8. I .2.4. Baby Shampoo

These shampoos are well -known for their mildness, they show very low or
negligible amount of eye and scalp irritation. The baby shampoo constitutes 5%
of the total market of shampoo and is intended for neonates and infants.
Amphoteric surfactants, which have the lowest degree of irritation, are the main
ingredient in the formulation of baby shampoo. As per the instructions given
during its patent, it must contain a blend of surfactants that help in lowering
irritation and also act as a counter-irritant. The major disadvantage in formulation
of baby shampoo is the use of amphoteric surfactants, which have a poor foaming
quality. This can be overcome by using foam boosters and betaines. Formulations
of baby shampoo are shown in table 8.6:
Table 8.6: Typical Formulations for Baby Shampoos
Ingredients Wt %
Formula 1
Cocoamphocarboxyglycinate, 30% active 20.0
TEA-N -cocoyl glutamate , 30% active 20.0
Coco-betaine 5.0
Cocamide DEA 5.0
PEG - 120 methyl glucose dioleate 2.7
Preservative, colour, and fragrance q . s.
Formula 2
Sodium myreth sulphate , 40% active 11.7
Oleoamphohydroxypropyl sulphonate 9.2
Lauramide DEA 3.0
Dimethicone copolyol 1.0
Isopropyl PPG -2 isodeceth-7 carboxylate 1.0
Sodium laureth- 13 -carboxylate 0.5
Propylene glycol and preservatives 1.0
Deionised water q . s . to 100
8.1 . 2.5. Dry Shampoo

This type of shampoo is quite different from others as in this type of shampoo
surfactant is not used as a cleansing agent. Powders like starch are used in the
form of an aerosol and sprayed all over the hair to absorb sebaceous secretions
and after some time removed by brushing. This preparation is used when a
person does not have sufficient time to go through various steps involved in wet
shampoo, for the geriatric and bedridden patients.
Typical formulation of dry shampoo as an aerosol is shown below:
Talc 400
Starch 150
Kieselguhr 450
1000
Perfume 0.5%
78 Cosmetic Science
8.1.3. Evaluation
Some of the important properties that are to be evaluated are as follows:
1 ) Performance Characteristics
i ) Foam and Foam Stability: The test used for measuring the height and
-
stability of foam is called " Ross Miles foam column test . This test is
1
performed by dropping 200ml solution of surfactant into a glass cylinder

Filled with 50ml of same solution. The first formed foam height is
measured and then after specific time intervals.
Barnett and Powers developed a latherometer to measure the effect of
variables like water hardness, type of soil and quantity of soil on foam
speed , volume and stability.
Fredell and Read are titrated with additive increments of shampoo to
the actual standard oiled hair till a persistent lather end point appeared.
ii ) Detergency and Cleaning Action: The cleansing or detersive action of a
shampoo is very important property and considered as a measure to
check the cleansing ability of a shampoo.
Cleansing power is evaluated by the method of Barnet and Powers. In
this method 5gm sample of soiled human hair is placed at 35°c in 200cc
of water containing lgm of shampoo. The flask is shaken 50 times within
4 minutes. Then washed once again with sufficient amount of water, then
after filter the hair dried and weighed. The amount of soil is removed
under these condition is calculated.
iii) Dirt Dispersion: In this method the evaluation is done by putting two
drops of shampoo in a large test tube. 10ml dirt water and one drop of
Indian ink is added. Then close the test tube and shake for 5min. Estimate
the amount of ink in the foam. The dirt should stay in water portion.
iv) Conditioning Action: It is difficult to evaluate this property because of
its dependence on subjective assessment . The conditioning action on
broader terms means that it must be a composition of various aspects like
convenience, comfort , and desired property to the user. These properties
include softness, radiance, smoothness, easy to comb and should
maintain the hairstyle. No method has been published for measuring
conditioning action. The degree of conditioning given to hair is
ultimately judged by shampoo user who is making the evaluation on the
basis of past experience and present expectations.
v ) Wetting Action Canvas Disk Sinking Test: In this evaluation
procedure, a mount veron cotton duck of 6 inch and canvas disk of 1 inch
in diameter is floated on the surface of a solution, and the time required
for it to sink is measured accurately.
vi ) Rinsing: For evaluating this property, skilled beauticians are employed
to make comparisons on the performance of several shampoos.
vii ) Softness: It represents a feeling of suppleness, smoothness along with
making hair free from stiffness and stickiness; it also reduces the twining
and tangling effects of hairs. In this method the dirt and oil removed that
accumulates between the consecutive washings should also be taken into
Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Hair Care Products (Chapter 8 ) 79
consideration. Moreover, the imparting of a capacity for reducing the

development of static charge while combing and brushing the hair should be
useful in reducing tangling and snarls. Henkin, Mills, and Ester, and
Barber and Posner have discussed the means of measuring electrostatic
charge on hair and have described techniques for studying this phenomenon.
viii )Lustre: In clean state the hair show their lustre, but it decreases
considerably when there is accumulation of filth or when the hair gets
damaged. By using a set of amplified photovoltaic photometer along with
.
a polarising filter Mills and Thompson measured the lustre. An inference
was made that the use of hard water causes decrement in the lustre.
ix ) Lubricity: It is a vital property and provides easy combing effect it also acts
as supplement for the natural oils which are removed during the cleansing
action. A correlation study was performed by Schwartz and Knowles which
measures the physical parameters related to combing effect and
measurement of friction. While Waggoner and Scott introduced a device
for the measurement of raspiness in dry hair, using an electric comb.
x ) Body, Texture, Set Retention: If the body of the hair is in good health
then the hairs can be easily styled into any design and can be retained
over a long period of time. Major problems that can arise during the
evaluation because the users along with shampoo also apply hair
grooming aids, setting aids, sprays, etc. The hairs which have low
retaining property are called very fine or limp. Whereas a strong
adhesive force present in the hairs will hinder ease of combing and
restyling the hair, this type of hair are called wiry or coarse hair.
xi ) Microbiological Assay
-
a ) Preparation of Pre Inoculum: For preparing the pre-inoculum, the
loopful culture of staphylococcus aureus ( ATCC6532) should be taken
aseptically and transfer to sterilised and cooled 100ml SCDM ( broth ).
And mix them well. And incubate the broth at 370°C for 24 hours.
b ) Preparation of Media: Soya bean casein digest agar and nutrient agar.
c ) Preparation of Pour Plates: To prepare pour plate sterilised SCD
agar ( 100 ml ) is cooled to 40°C and mixed with 5ml of 24 hours old
pre inoculated culture. This is immediately poured in plates ( 340ml
each ) and allows setting.
d ) Making the Wells on Agar Plates: The wells are dig on agar plates
with sterilised well digger aseptically. Take 100pml of each sample, add
to well aseptically. Then the plates are incubated at 37°C for 24 hours to
48 hours. Observe the effectiveness of sample on culture growing on the
agar plate and we can see the effectiveness of sample in the form of
zone of inhibition around each well containing different sample.
xii ) Evaluation of Eye Irritancy
a ) The test calls for dropping 0.1 ml of liquid shampoo in the conjunctiva
sac of one eye of the rabbit, the other eye serving as control.
b ) In case of the First three animals, the treated eye remains unwashed.
Since washing the eye may or may not alleviate symptoms of injury.
80 Cosmetic Science
c ) The six remaining animals are divided into two equal groups.
d ) In the first of these groups eyes instilled with the substances are
washed with 20 ml of lukewarm water two seconds after treatment
and in the second group after instillation .
e ) Readings are taken at an interval of 24, 48 and 72 hour and again
four and seven days after treatment.
0 If the lesions have not cleared up in seven days the test material is
considered as severe irritant .
xiii ) Viscosity
a ) Using a Brookfield viscometer, viscosity of the liquid shampoo is
determined.
b ) 100 ml of the shampoo is taken in a beaker and the spindle is dipped
in it for about 5 min and then the reading is taken.
xiv ) Anti-Dandruff Efficacy: The evaluation for efficacy of an anti -dandruff
shampoo is performed by the following two methods. The research done by
various scientists support the visual test i.e., the first method. In this test, a
trained professional categorises the dandruff condition as per its severity on
a numerical scale. On the other hand, the second method is more objective
as in this method vacuum cleaner is used for quantitative measurement.
2 ) Product Characteristics
i ) Fragrance: It is a very essential characteristic of a shampoo. In several
cases, consumer feedback has indicated that only fragrance is considered
over other characteristics. One can say that it is a very complicated as
well as an enthralling activity to compound a fragrance.
The evaluation of fragrance can be done in following manner:
a ) Fragrance sniffed in packed bottle.
b ) While using the fragrance experienced by the consumer.
c ) Fragrance left after the rinsing, drying and coiffing of hairs.
d ) At the time of storage stability testing of fragrance is also performed.
e ) Interference of fragrance with other ingredients.
In case of essential oils used in a particular fragrance, emphasis is given
on their yield because their yield changes from season to season.
Therefore, consistency must be maintained for its quality.
ii ) Colour: Nowadays, the colourant used in shampoo is becoming more
and more bright , light, and in striking shades. For the shampoos certified
colors should be used. Apart from this, there is no need for other
characteristics of colourant to be taken into consideration.
iii ) Consistency: It varies from free flowing fluid to that of viscous like
creams and gels. For dispensing the required quantity of shampoo there
is a direct relationship between consistency and packing.
The consistency must be kept to an optimum because a very viscous
shampoo will be easy to pour and will reduce spillage for sure, but it will
be difficult to disperse. Whereas, a shampoo with water-like consistency
will be easy to disperse in hair, but the handling will be difficult and
spillage will be unavoidable.
8.2. HAIR CONDITIONER

The conditioners or hair creams are viscous emulsions or an oily mass, applied to
the hair. They are not generally perfumed and are white, off -white or uniform in
their shades. The conditioner provides smoothness and softness to the hair by
moisturising them. The water used for moisturising is almost futile, as it
evaporates in the meantime.
The primary purpose of a hair conditioner is to reduce the magnitude of the
forces associated with combing or brushing of the hair.
Benefits of Hair Conditioner
1 ) It causes the hair to feel softer and more moisturised.
2) It reduces fly away hair.
3) It makes the hair more manageable and easier to comb.
4 ) Increase in hair shine.
Purpose of Conditioners
1 ) Restoring moisture is one of the main important purposes.
2 ) Hair should be manageable after wash.
3) Its vital role is to be smoothing the hair follicles.
4) Should maintain the pH of the hair.
8.2. 1. Types
1 ) Pack Conditioners
i ) They are heavy and thick.
ii) A high content of surfactant is able to bind the hair structure and glue the hair
surface scale together and are likely to form thicker layer on the hair surface.
iii ) Generally, they are applied to the hair for a longer time.
2) Leave in Conditioners
i ) They are thinner and have different surfactants.
ii ) They are lighter, less viscous mixture and provide a significantly thinner
layer on the hair.
iii ) They are designed to be used in a similar way to hair oil preventing
tangling of hair and keeping it smooth .
3) Ordinary Conditioners
i ) They are mixture of both packs and leave ones.
ii) Generally, they are applied after the using shampoo.
Further, it can be characterised into three main types:
i ) Moisturisers
a ) They are organic solvent concentrated with humectant.
b ) Humectant is to retain the moisture into the hair.
c) These conditioners do not contain protein.
-
ii ) Re Constructers
a) For hydrolisation they contains proteins.
b ) Human hair keratin protein has a low molecular weight.
c ) By penetrating inside the hair shaft and this protein gives a shiny hair.
82 Cosmetic Science
iii ) Det anglers

a ) These are acidifiers and have low pH.
b ) The function is to close the hair cuticle, which cause tangles.
c) The protection or shield mechanism is done by surfactant and polymers.
8.2.2. Excipients
1 ) Surfactants
i) Cetyltrimethylammonium like chloride cationic surfactant are used .
ii ) Longer chain alkyl compounds have the best conditioning properties.
iii ) In small amounts, quaternary ammonium derivatives are used because it
improves manageability, prevent fly away by neutralisation negative
charges in the scalp.
iv ) A wide variety of others cationic surfactants have been proposed and
introduced into conditioners.
2 ) Partially or Totally Hydrolysed Proteins
i ) They are mainly used to protect , enrich or repair hair fibers.
ii ) They are hydrolysates of collagen , keratin ichthyocolla and milk casein .
iii ) A cream rinse formulation containing 5% hydrolysed animal protein has
been shown to repair 50% of split ends verses 25% for the same rinse
without protein.
iv ) Combinations of elastin and collagen hydrolysates have been found to
impart volume and softness to hair.
3) Oily Materials
i ) It is used to improve hair condition.
ii ) They are used to provide lubrication and lustre.
iii ) They help to reduce fibre friction and the abrasive effects of handling
and they improve the condition of hair.
iv ) Silicon oil is often used.
v) Lanolin derivatives are highly praised and used for emollient qualities -
hydroxylated and acetylated lanolin and lanolin ester, add lustre and a
pleasant feel .
4) Glossers
i ) They are light reflecting chemicals which bind to the hair surface.
ii) They are generally found to be polymers, silicones. For example,
Dimethicone or cyclomethicone.
5) Sun Screening Agents
i ) They provide protection against protein degradation and colour loss.
ii ) Benzophenone-4 ethylhexyl methoxy -cinnamate are the two agents that
are used in hair products.
iii ) The common sunscreen used in skin cosmetics are rarely used for hair
products because of their texture and weight effect.
6) Humectants
i ) A variety of humectant are used i.e., polyols, sod. Pyrrolidone carboxylate.
ii ) Some others humectants are glycerin , P.G .
iii ) The natural humectants used are jojoba oil.
7) Thickeners
i ) Cellulose derivatives are used as thickener agent.
ii ) As carbomers are incompatible with most cations therefore they are
rarely encountered.
iii ) Example of thickeners is sodium chloride .
8 ) Bodying Agents
i ) Generally, by using quite high levels of fatty alcohols along with waxy
esters in shampoo and conditioners, they are found to be more effective.
ii ) By incorporating this agent , it gives improvement in wet hair condition ,
as it becomes soft and easy to comb without breaking hair .
9 ) Perfumes
i ) It is added in conditioner in low level of perfume .
ii ) Conditioners are fairly easy to perfume, but the stability of the perfume
in the often quite strongly acidic environment of hair conditioners must
be check.
8.2.3. Formulation and Preparation

Table 8.7: Thick Creamy Hair Conditioner
Ingredients % Uses
Glycerol stearate 5.0 Conditioning agent
Cetyl alcohol 3.0 Helps the conditioner to make creamy .
Lanolin quaternary 5.0 Emulsifier
Synthetic beeswax 2.0 Viscosity modifier
PEG 75 3.5 Surfactant
P.G . 2.5 Humectant
Sesame oil 1.5 Promotes hair growth
Stearic acid 1.5 It makes product thick
Lecithin 1.0 Moisturising agent
Hydroxypropyl cellulose 7.5 Excellent film former
M . P. & P. P. 0.2 Preservatives
Demineralised water Up to 100 ml Solvent
Table 8.8: Protein Conditioner
Ingredients % Uses
Stearyl -amido- propyl - 1.5 Provides mild cleansing
di - methylamine
Cetyl alcohol 2.0 Viscosity modifier
Stearyl stearate 1.0 Emulsion stabilizer
Lactic acid 0.7 Smooth the hair and making it more
manageable .
Sodium chloride 0.5 Thickener agent
Hydrolysed animal 1.5 Strengthens and moisturises hair
protein
M.P & P.P 0.2 Preservatives
2- bromo-2- nitro- 1,3- 0.05 An effective preservative agent
propanediol
Perfume and dye 2-3 drops
Water Up to 100 ml Solvent
84 Cosmetic Science
Dissolve NaCb Add remaining Except

water dye & perfume
Stir & add perfume .

I
Heat up to 70° to
Then fill at 30°C •
"
dye at 45 °C *|
| 75 °C
Figure 8.1: Method of preparation of Protien Conditioner
Table 8.9: Oil Based Conditioner
Ingredients % Uses
Acetylated lanolin 3.5 Emollient
GMS 13.5 Self -emulsifier
Spermaceti 1.5 Emollient
Amerchol L- 101 9.0 Preservatives
Mineral oil 8.5 Emollient
Glycerol 4.5 Humectant
Water Up to 100ml Solvent
Preservatives and perfume Q .S
Melt the oils at 85 °C
I
Dissolve water soluble
materials in water
I
Mix the 2 phases
I
Cool slowly while
mixing
I
Fill the container
Figure 8.2: Method of preparation of Oil Based Conditioner
Table 8.10: Hair Cream with Natural Oils and Conditioners
Ingredients %
Part A
Meadowfoam ( Limnathes alba ) seed oil 3.00
Apricot ( Prunus armeniaca ) seed oil 3.00
Phenyl trimethicone 2.00
Ci 2- is alkyl benzoate 2.00
Glyceryl stearate 2.00
Octyl methoxycinnamate 4.00
Tocopheryl acetate ( Vit. E acetate ) 0.50
Part B
Acrylates/C10.3o alkyl acrylates crosspolymer 0.25
Carbomer 0.15
Part C
Deionized water 78.92
Part D
PVP 100%
, 1.00
Part E
Triethanolamine , 99% 0.38
Part F
PEG -20 almond glycerides 0.20
Part G
Linoleamidopropyl PG -dimonium chloride phosphate 0.30
Perfume 1.00
Cocodimonium hydroxypropyl hydrolyzed wheat protein 0.30
Propylene glycol , methyl paraben and propylparaben and diazolidinyl urea 1.00
The following steps are involved during the formulation of conditioner:

1 ) The ingredients mentioned under Part A are taken in appropriate
concentration, further heated at 60°C-65°C and then mixed uniformly.
2 ) The ingredients mentioned under Part B are mixed in Part A till they get
evenly dispersed.
3) Now disperse Part D in Part C by maintaining temperature at 55°C-60°C.
4 ) When Part D gets hydrated add Part E.
5) Mix both the phases with each other, i.e.. Part A and B with Part C, D and
E at 55°C-65°C.
6 ) When the above mixture gains a uniform texture, add Part F and maintain
the temperature to 40°C-45°C.
7 ) Finally, add Part G and mix in such a manner that it maintains uniformity.
8) Thus, the emulsion formed must be thick, glossy and creamy. It must have a
pH between 5.8-6.2, and
9) The viscosity of the emulsion should be between 45,000-60,000 centipoise.
8.2.4. Evaluation
As in any other cosmetic products, these products should also be evaluated for
the contents estimation and their identification. On the basis of purpose some
other tests are also required to be performed , that are as follows:
1 ) Antiseptic Property: Test for this property evaluation can be performed by
using liquid or solid medium in vitro antimicrobiological tests against some
specific organisms.
2) Stability Test: Stability of the products or the ingredients and the effects of
heat , light , etc on the stability should be studied. It is well known that most
of the phenolic materials will discolour on exposure to light and thus may
make fair hair dark, particularly in the presence of traces of alkali or soap.
For stability study accelerated stability study may be done.
3) Sensitivity Test: Some of the ingredients, like antiseptics which may cause
irritation, sensitisation or photosensitisation of the skin should be evaluated
by patch test, either open or occlusive.
8.3 . HAIR OILS

Hair oils are the hair care preparations used for the prevention and treatment of
baldness and other ailments. They are mainly intended to cool the scalp and for
luxurious growth of hair in women. Hair oil containing herbal drugs are used as
hair tonic. Hair care products are classified in two main categories i.e., hair tonics
and hair grooming aids. These are basically the extracts of medicinal plants in an
oil base.
86 Cosmetic Science
Various types of oils like coconut oil , mustard oil, castor oil , olive oil are applied
to scalp in admixture with suitable herbal drugs. Among these coconut oil is the
best suitable oil base due to its effective activity. Hence coconut oil enriched with
herbal drugs is best mentioned method for thick hair growth. For this process of
obtaining polyherbal hair tonics, coconut oil is extracted initially and at the same
time the required crude drugs are collected and dried.
8.3. 1 . Preparation of Herbal Hair Tonic

The coconut oil is termed as hair tonic when it is blended with various drugs
having medicinal activity. It can be prepared by the following processes:
1 ) Cloth Method: In this method, the dried drug was weighed and tied in a muslin
cloth. This cloth should be hanged in coconut oil base, that is continuously
boiling. Continuously stir the mixture and then the oil should be filtered.
2 ) Paste Method: This method was used where fresh fruit or pulp or the desired
part of the plants were converted into paste with very little amount of water and
is kept overnight. After drying, the wetted drug should be mixed in coconut oil
base. The mixture is then boiled with continuous stirring at a constant
temperature till the water droplets in oil stop knocking and the drug has
completely extracted in the oil. The oil was then filtered through a muslin cloth.
3) Direct Boiling Method: In this method, the crude drugs should be
powdered, weighed and directly boiled in coconut oil with continuous
stirring and heating till the drug is completely extracted in the base oil.
8.3. 2. Preparation of Polyherbal Hair Tonic

Following steps are carried out for the preparation of polyherbal hair tonic:
1 ) Preparation coconut oil base
2) Boiling of crude drug powders in coconut oil base to form enriched hair tonic.
Coconut oil is extracted from kernel by dry process. It is used as oil based and
preserved.
By the following methodsc, rude drugs are processed:
1 ) Collection of Crude Drugs: Crude drugs like neem, hibiscus, eclipta , amla
should be collected.
2 ) Drying of Crude Drugs: In order to hasten the drying process, these drugs
should be dried under shade and proper aeration should be provided. Drying
under shade will retain the active constituents. Therefore shade drying is
preferred over artificial drying.
3) Mixing and Blending of Dried Crude Drugs: By using mixer The dried
crude drugs were made into coarse powder. Later on all these coarsely
powdered drugs are passed through mesh number 80. Thus obtained powders
are blended individually to get a uniform mixture.
4) Formulating Herbal Hair Tonic: Pure coconut oil extracted from cocos
nucifera is used. At first the oil is heated under low flame. To this hot oil, crude
drugs in required quantities were added by taking them in a muslin cloth. The
crude drug mixture present in muslin cloth should be dipped in hot oil.
The process is then continued by taking the cloth in and out of hot coconut oil
under low flame. Thus the active ingredients of the crude drugs will be absorbed
into the hot coconut oil. Later the hot oil is cooled and any traces of crude drug
powders are removed by filtration process. Initially the oil is brown in colour and it
turns colour to pale green afetr standing of crude oil under cool place for a week.
5) Packing of Polvherbal Hair Tonic: For hair growth the oil has pleasant smell
with rejuvenating activity. The prepared hair oil is completely obtained from
natural drugs so it has no side effects and are effective. They are packed in amber
coloured bottles and sealed tightly. Then the bottles are sealed in air tight bottles.
6) Storage of Polvherbal Hair Tonic: The sealed bottles are stored under cool
conditions that incraese the stability of the oil without undergoing ranicidity
or saponification.
8.3.3. Evaluation of Ayurv edic Herbal Oil

The formulated Ayurvedic herbal oil are subjected to following physical and
biological evaluation:
1 ) Acid Value: For evaluating this value the 0.1 molar solution and sample
solution is prepared. For preparing 0.1 molar solution, 0.56g of KOH pellets
is weighted for hair growth. It is then dissolved in lOOmL of distilled water
and stirred continuously. The prepared 0.1 molar KOH solution is then filled
in the burette. For preparing the sample, lOmL oil is measured and is
dissolved in 25mL of ethanol and 25 mL of ether mixture and then the
mixture is shacked. lmL of phenolphthalein solution is added to the mixture
and is then titrated with 0.1 molar KOH solution.
2) Saponification Value: For evaluating this value, lmL of oilis accurately weighed
and mixed into 250mL of conical flask and lOmL of ethanol - ether mixture in
the ratio of 2 : 1. 25mL of 0.5N alcoholic KOH was added to this flask. Then the
flask is kept for 30 minutes and titrate the flask with 0.5N HCI using
phenolphthalein indicator. Similarly the blank titration should be performed
without taking oil (sample). Amount of KOH in mg used should be calculated.
3) pH: Using pH meter, the pH of ayurvedic herbal oil should be determined. The
most accurate common means of measuring pH is through a lab device called a
probe and meter, or simply, a pH meter. The probe consists of a glass electrode
through which a small voltage is passed. The meter is a voltmeter that
measures the electronic impedance in the glass electrode and displays pH units
instead of volts. A pH meter typically has to be calibrated before each use with
two standard liquid solutions of known pH. Measurement is taken by
submerging the probe in the liquid till a reading is registered by the meter.
4) Viscosity: Using Ostwald ’s viscometer, the viscosity of ayurvedic herbal oil
should be determined.
5 ) Specific Gravity: Take the specific gravity bottle, rinsed it with distilled
water, dry it in over for 15 minutes, cool closed it with cap and weigh it:
i ) The same specific gravity bottles are filled with the sample and closed
using a cap and again weigh it.
ii) The weight of sample is determined per milliliter by subtracting the
weight ( b-a ).
88 Cosmetic Science
6) Sensitivity Test: The prepared Ayurvedic herbal oil was applied on 1 cm skin
of hand and exposed to sunlight for 4-5 minutes.
7 ) Skin Irritation Test: The back side skin of rats is uncovered using electric
shaver followed by hair remover cream. Then the uncovered area is kept
under visual observation for any irritation or erythema for next 24 hours.
Same procedure is performed after applying test samples on denuded area,
except time which was extended up to 48 hours.
8.4 . HAIR DYES

Hair dyes or colourants are used by both the genders to change the natural hair colour
or to mask grey hair. An ideal hair dye should have the following properties:
1 ) It should have a stable formulation.
2) It should colour the hair uniformly.
3) It should impart a stable colour to the hair.
4 ) It should not result in the loss of natural shine of hair.
5) It should not result in the loss of natural moisture of hair.
6) It should not damage the hair shaft .
7) It should be non -irritant, non -toxic, and non -sensitising.
8) The coloured hair should not get affected by air, water, sunlight , sweat ,
friction , shampoos, lotions, gels, oils, etc.
8.4. 1 . Types
Hair dyes are classified as follows:
1 ) Temporary hair dye
2 ) Semi -permanent hair colourants/direct dye
3) Permanent hair dye
4 ) Lighteners or Bleaches
8.4.2. Temporary Hair Dye

Temporary hair colourants are leave-in preparations, i.e., after their application
the hairs are not washed. These colourants get easily removed by washing the
hair once with shampoo because they are only absorbed into the cuticles and do
not enter the hair cortex.
1 ) They are available in various product forms like rinses, shampoos, gels,
sprays, foams.
2) They are typically used to give brighter, more vibrant shades or colours like
orange or red that is difficult to achieve using semi-permanent and permanent
hair colour.
3) These products hold a lesser market than semi -permanent and permanent
agents, they have value in which they can be easily and quickly removed
without bleaching or application of a different colouring product .
4 ) These colourants do not penetrate into cortex or medulla.
5 ) As such the dye is easily removed using shampoo so known as temporary
hair colour.
Temporary hair colourants comprise of dye stuffs, For example, acid dyes, basic
dyes, metalised dyes, and disperse dyes. Chemically, the dye stuffs are azo dyes,
anthraquinone dyes, benzoquinone imine dyes, triphenylmethane dyes,
phenazanic dyes, and xanthenic dyes.
8.4.2.1 . Formulation
Temporary hair colorants are available in different formulations, like powders,
crayons, liquids, and shampoos. The common ones are discussed below:
1 ) Powder Formulations: These colorants consist of dye stuffs and acids ( like
citric acid or tartaric acid ). They are used in theoretical make up and
masquerades. They are available in sachets. For application, the powder is
dissolved in 250ml of water and then applied on wet hair after shampooing.
Formula 1 Quantity for lOOgm
Certified colour 5gm
Tartaric acid ( buffer ) 95gm
2) Crayon Formulations: These colourants consist of soap, waxes, dyes, or
pigments. They are applied between the applications of permanent hair
colourants. They colour the newly growing hair. They are available in many
different shades.
Stearic acid anionic surfactant
( ) 15gm
Triethanolamine surfactant
( ) 7gm
Beeswax ( wax ) 50gm
Carnauba wax ( wax ) 13gm
Ozokerite wax
( ) 7gm
Glyceryl mono stearate ( surfactant ) 6gm
Tragacanth ( gum ) 2gm
Colour q s. -
Formula 3: Temporary Colour in Shampoo
Water 50.10%
Polyquaternium- 10 1.50%
Methyl Paraben 0.15%
Propylene Glycol 2%
Disodium Cocamido Propionate 15%
Lauramide DEA 2%
Citric acid 0.70%
Lauramide Oxide 5.55%
PEG-5 hydrogenated tallow amine 4%
Colourant 1%
8.4 . 2.2. Preparation

1 ) Triethanolamine, glyceryl monostearate, and tragacanth are heated at 70°C
temperature.
2) Stearic acid is added to the obtained mixture and heated at 75°C temperature.
3) Beeswax and carnauba wax are separately melted at 70-80°C temperature.
4) The obtained molten waxes are added to and stirred well in the above mixture.
5) Colour is properly mixed with the resultant mixture by stirring.
6) This mixture is poured into the moulds.
90 Cosmetic Science
8.4.3. Semi- Permanent/Direct Hair Dye

Semi-permanent hair colourants on application leave a long lasting colour in
comparison to other colour shampoos. They produce a stronger colour. They produce
dark colours; however, they do not contain H202. This offers an advantage that the
semi-permanent hair colourants do not bleach but only mask the hair melanin.
1 ) Differ from colour shampoo in respect to time.
2 ) Give stronger and more permanent colouration to hair.
3) Some colours are removed in 4-8 shampooings.
4 ) Dyes used are:
i) Nitrophenyledenediamine. ii) Nitroaminopheols.
iii ) Aminoanthraquinones.
5 ) Before preparing colour shades, mixture is prepared.
6) They are ammonia free.
The colour obtained on the grey hair is different than that on the black
( pigmented ) hair, and thus the hair appears highlighted. The colour produced by
these colourants is not lost in one wash with shampoo, but loses gradually in 5-8
washes. These colourants may be added with fragrance.
8.4.3.1. Formulation
The semi -permanent hair colourants are composed of:
1) Dye,
2 ) Water,
3) Organic solvent like alcohol or glycol derivatives,
4) Fatty acid and fatty acid amide,
5) Thickener,
6) Surfactant,
7) Perfume, and
8) Aliphatic primary amines as co-solvent and buffer .
Formula 4: Liquid Hair Colour
Basic dye <1
Cetyl trimethyl ammonium chloride - 30% 3
Oleth- 20 0.5
Hydroxy propylmcthyl cellulose 0.8
Triethanolamine Up to pH 8
Preservative qs .
Perfume qs.
Benzyl alcohol 3
Deionised water Up to 100
Formula 5: Cream Hair Colourant
Basic dyes <1
Cetyl trimethylammonium chloride-30% 4
Oleth -20 0.2
Cetosteryl alcohol 3
Glyceryl sterate/PEG - 100 steratc 3
Triethanolamine Up to pH 8
Preservative qs
Perfume qs
Formula 6; Shampoo Hair Colourant

Metallised dyes <2
Ammonium lauryl sulphate - 30% 10
Qleth - 20 0.5
Hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose 0.5
Citric acid 0.3
Preservative q -s
Perfume qs
Benzyl alcohol 2
PPG -2 butyl ether 2
8.4.3.2. Preparation
1 ) Alkanolamide and the anionic surfactant are mixed.
2) Dye is dissolved in the obtained mixture.
3) Acid and the quaternary ammonium compound are dissolved in water.
4) This aqueous solution is added to the dye solution [obtained in (2) ] with stirring.
5) This dye is investigated for the effects of quaternary ammonium compounds,
pH, aldehydes, and alcohols additions.
6 ) The dye viscosity is adjusted by adding hydrophilic colloids like
methylcellulose, natural gum, etc.
7 ) The colourant viscosity is increased by adding non -ionic thickener in its
composition.
8) Amphoteric surfactant is added to the colourant followed by basic dyes.
8.4.4. Para- Phylcne Diamine - Based Hair Dye ( Permanent

or Oxidation Hair Dye )
Oxidative dyes are also called para dyes. They are colourless when applied on
the hair, but turn to the particular colour after undergoing chemical reactions
( oxidation, coupling, and condensation ).
1 ) All “ permanent” hair colour products and lighteners contain both a developer
(dye intermediate ) and oxidising agent, and an alkalising ingredient as part of
their ammonia or an ammonia substitute.
2 ) The main purpose of using this is to:
i ) Raise the cuticle of the hair fibre so the tint can penetrate.
ii ) Facilitate the formation of tints within the hair fibre.
iii ) Bring about the lightening action of peroxide.
3) When the tint containing the alkalising ingredient is combined with the
developer i.e., generally hydrogen peroxide , the peroxide becomes alkaline
and diffuses through the hair fibre, entering the cortex, where the melanin is
located.
4) When the alkaline peroxide breaks up the melanin and replaces it with new
colour then the lightening occurs.
5) Permanent hair-colouring products consist of two components that are
packaged separately and mixed together immediately before application.
92 Cosmetic Science
6 ) The two packages in which one package contains hydrogen peroxide solution
( usually 6% ) that is mixed in water or a lotion base and the other package
generally contains an ammonia solution of dye intermediates and preformed
dyes-called couplers.
7 ) Dye intermediates are blends of primary intermediates and coupling agents
or modifier, in a suitable base.
8) The primary intermediates are gradually oxidised and then undergo coupling
reaction with modifiers.
9) The primary intermediate should be an aromatic compound with least
electron donating groups in the 1 , 2 or 1, 4 positions.
10) The most effective combination is either two amino groups or one amino group
or one amino and one hydroxyl group attached to benzene or toluene ring.
/j- phenylene diamine /vtoluylene diamine p-aminophenol

11 ) Oxidation then takes place to from quinonimine. For example,
12 ) Permanent dye systems are able to dye hair a lighter shade than the original.
13) These dyes are capable of confusing the difference in colour between
individual hair.
14) Very effective on mixed coloured white hair and black hair.
8.4.4.1 . Ingredients
1 ) Formulation Bases: These are used as dye vehicles and modifiers. The
vehicle facilitates uniform distribution of the colourant mixture on the hair.
Some examples of vehicles are a mixture of water (48-79% ), ethyl alcohol
( 20-50% ), and glycerine (0.5-2% ) for amino dyes as they have a low aqueous
solubility; for an emulsion type product, cream or lotion ( instead of a solution )
is used. The emulsion type preparations tire of the following two types:
i) Foaming Type Creams: These are emulsified by adding surfactants, like
monoethanolamine lauryl sulphate and ethylene glycol monostearate.
Monoethanolamine lauryl sulphate ( surfactant ) IQgm
Ethylene glycol monostearate ( surfactant ) lgm
Preservative qs
Water ( solvent ) To make lOOgm
-
ii ) Non Foaming Type Creams: These are emulsified by adding mineral
oils, cetyl alcohol , and non -ionic emulsifiers.
Mineral oil (emulsifying agent + emollient ) l - 5gm
Cetyl alcohol ( emulsifying agent + emollient ) 5gm
Non -ionic emulsifier ( emulsifying agent ) 3-5gm
Preservative q- s
Water ( solvent ) To make lOOgm
2) Dye Components:
i ) Oxidation Bases: Varying concentrations of p-phenylenediamine or p-
toluene diamine are used to obtain different shades of colour.
Formula 9
Percent of Oxidation Base Shade Obtained
0.3 Light brown
045 Medium brown
0.5 Brown
0.9 Black
ii ) Coupling Agents: These agents modify the shade and stabilise it.
3) Oxidising Agents: Amino dyes when exposed to air turn black; thus, an
..
oxidising agent, e g , hydrogen peroxide ( the preferred one), ferric chloride,
potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, etc., is added to achieve the
desired colour. Hydrogen peroxide is used in 5-6% concentration and
generates 20 volumes of oxygen. It develops colour on the hair. It is sold in a
package containing two containers. One container contains dye and the other
contains the developer.
4) Alkalis: Since the oxidative dyes serve well in alkaline medium, an alkali is
added in their composition . Ammonium hydroxide ( in 1-2% concentration )
is the preferred one as it leaves no remnants on the hair. However, it has a
strong odour due to which it has been replaced with ammonium carbonate,
monoethanolamine, guanidine or arginine derivatives, diethanolamine,
triethanolamine, alkanolamide, etc.
.
5) Couplers: These are aromatic compounds, e.g , 2,4-diaminoanisole, resorcinol ,
w-chlororesorcinol, and m-phenylenediamine, and are referred to as modifiers.
They are benzene derivatives that show -NH2 and -OH substitutions at mew-
position. Their oxidation with hydrogen peroxide is difficult.
94 Cosmetic Science
6 ) Antioxidants: While preparing amino dyes, a nitrogen atmosphere is

maintained to prevent the darkening of dyes. Also a chemical antioxidant like
sodium sulphite can be added in the formulation instead of maintaining a
nitrogen atmosphere. The total amount of base and the coupling agent added
in the formulation gives the amount of sodium sulphite to be used. If darker
shades are desired , sodium sulphite is added in increased amount.
8.4.4.2. Formulation
1 ) Vegetable Dyes
i ) Henna: The henna leaves are non-toxic and non-sensitizing. Its active
constituent is lawsone. which chemically is 2-hydroxy-14-napthoquinone,
and imparts colour. Indigo leaves or synthetic indigo is added to henna to
change the colour. Pyrogallic acid and metallic salts (like copper sulphate )
are also added. By increasing the level of pyrogallic acid, darker shades
can be obtained. The henna leaves are available in powdered form, which
is mixed with hot water to form a paste. This paste is directly applied on
hair and a warm towel is wrapped around the head to enhance the
colouring effect. A reddish colour is imparted to the hair.
Powdered henna ( colour ) 89gm
Pyrogallic acid ( colour ) 6gm
Copper sulphate ( colour ) 5gm
ii ) Camomile: The camomile flowers are used to impart colour. It is also
available in powdered form, which is mixed with hot water to form a
paste. This paste is applied on hair and a warm towel is wrapped around
the head to enhance the colouring effect. The colour achieved is due to
the navy blue volatile oil present in the flowers. Kaolin ( 2 parts ) or
fuller’s earth ( 11 parts ) is added to camomile powder to form a cohesive
composition. Henna can also be mixed with it to modify the colour.
Formula 11
Camomile flowers 10.00 gm
Alcohol 44.00 gm
Water 45.75 gm
Perfume 0.25 gm
Formula 12
Powdered henna leaves 18.200 gm
Powdered camomile flowers 5.820 gm
Pyrogallic acid 0.150 gm
Citric acid 0.073 gm
Alcohol 2.200 gm
Glycerine 0.730 gm
Water 78.827 gm
2 ) Metallic Hair Dyes: Colours caused by metallic compounds like lead acetate
are either due to sulphides formed by sulphur in the keratin or due to metallic
oxide formed by reduction. The hair shaft is coated with a dull , metallic
sheen, leaving the hair brittle. The main compounds used for this purpose are
lead acetate , bismuth citrate, silver nitrate.
i ) Lead Dyes: They are generally based on solutions of lead acetate and it
is considered that the reducing action of keratin forms the insoluble lead
salts. The colouration process is slow and gives an illusion of restoring of
natural colour. The rate of colouring is dependent on concentration of
lead and influenced by air and light.
Lead acetate is normally used in combination with precipitated sulphur
or sodium thiosulphate.
Formula 13
Precipitated sulphur 1.3 gm
Lead acetate 1.6 gm
Glycerine 9.6 gm
Water 87.5 gm
The shades produced depend on the concentration of lead used. It is
relatively non -toxic.
ii ) Bismuth Dyes: They also produce a range of colours from blond to dark
chestnut.
Formula 14
i ) Bismuth citrate 50.0 gm
Water 50.0 gm
ii Sodium thiosulphate
) 6.0 gm
Water 94.0 gm
Ammonium hydroxide qs.
iii ) Silver Dyes: The hair is first treated with an aqueous ammoniacal
solution of silver nitrate. After a short while, a solution of pyrogallol is
applied. The proportion of silver may be reduced for lighter shades. A
greenish black colour is produced, which stains skin too. Salts of copper,
nickel and cobalt may be added to modify the colour.
Formula 15
Solution 1 :
Silver nitrate 5.0 gm
Ammonium nitrate 3.0 gm
Water To 100.0 gm
Ammonium hydroxide q . s.
Solution 2:
Pyrogallol 4.0 gm
Alcohol 46.0 gm
Water 50.0 gm
8.4.5. Lighteners or Bleaches

Lighteners or bleaches are the products that alter the colour of the hair and are
also known as decolouring preparations because they lighten or remove the
natural colour.
The colour of the hair is due to the melanin which is produced in the living cells
of matrix of the follicle and then distributed in the dead keratinised cortex and
cuticle. So, the bleaching process is known to be modification or lightening
process by destruction of the melanin using some chemical reactions.
96 Cosmetic Science
The bleaching effect is produced by the oxidation effect of the oxygen released
by the action of alkali on the oxidising agent hydrogen peroxide. During this
oxidation sulphur linkages of the hair get damaged . The extent of damage is
dependent on the time of exposure of the hair to the bleaching agent.
Materials
Though permanganate solution is recommended for bleaching purpose but its use
can cause serious damage to the hair. Alkaline hydrogen peroxide solution is
more preferred over permanganate solution . For domestic use 3-4% peroxide
solution is suggested but for professional application 5-6% solution can be used
for faster bleaching.
Acetanilide, diluted acids, ammonium bisulphate arc common stabilising agents
that are incorporated in hydrogen peroxide solution to stabilise it. As presence of
various metals causes damage to the hair, sequestering agent EDTA may also be
added to the preparation. Cholesterol, lanolin derivatives, fatty alcohols or other
hair conditioning substances are incorporated in the hydrogen peroxide solution
to have a better appearance of the hair. Ammonia is added for faster degradation
of peroxide and better bleaching effect before use which also softens the hair.
The products are marketed in powder, paste, and solution forms. Powder preparations
contain inert materials like kaolin, magnesium carbonate mixed with peroxide and
ammonia to achieve better control in the application to the hair. Also there are
oxidising agents which when mixed provide ammonia and active oxygen, for
example, mixture of magnesium peroxide and sodium perborate. Sodium perborate,
sodium peroxide when mixed with water produces alkaline hydrogen peroxide.
Formula 16
Ammonium bicarbonate 20.0gm
Ammonium bisulphate lO .Ogm
Light magnesium carbonate 50.0gm
Light calcium carbonate 2() .0gm
Before using, the powder mixture should be mixed with hydrogen peroxide
solution.
Formula 17
Ammonium persulphate 20.0gm
Ammonium bisulphate 3.0gm
Sodium perborate monohydrate 2.5gm
Calcium carbonate ( light ) 20.0gm
Magnesium silicate 51.5gm
Formula 18
Ammonium persulphate 20.0gm
Sodium percarbonate 20.0gm
Sodium perborate monohydrate 2.5gm
Magnesium carbonate ( light ) 54.5gm
The preparations are prepared by mixing all the ingredients except oxidising
agent, sodium perborate monohydrate. The oxidizing agent is later mixed
slowly along with base. Before suing the products are to be mixed with water.
8.4.6. Evaluation of Hair Dyes

1 ) Consistency: It should not be too viscous, otherwise it will difficult to apply
it , the consistency should be less so that after application it will not drain off .
2) Spreadabillity: The dyes should be easily spreadable so that it can be evenly
applied.
3 ) Colour Uniformity: The colour of hair dye and hair colour should be
uniform and also the colour shade should remain same and gives desired
colour after application .
4) pH : The pH should be neutral .
5 ) Allergy Test : Following procedure is performed to test allergy :
i ) The earrings should be removed . A small quantity of unmixed
colourant product sufficient to cover an area of 1 - 2 cm 2 ( For
example , the size of a small coin) should be applied behind the ear
and using a cotton bud .
ii ) The dye should be re-applied two or three times and allowed to dry after
each application . The colourant container should be resealed and the dye
should be kept for 48 hours after application .
iii ) In case any abnormal reactions like itching, redness or swelling in or
around the test area are visible during this period then discontinue the use.
8.5. SUMMARY
1 ) A shampoo is a preparation of a surfactant ( i.e. surface active material ) in a suitable
form liquid , solid or powder which when used under the specified conditions will
remove surface grease, dirt, and skin debris from the hair shaft and scalp without
adversely affecting the user.
2 ) They are broadly eight categories of the shampoos, but these are not always sharply
delineated, because there is some overlapping
3) The main component of the cleansing shampoo is anionic surfactants, which
constitutes about 15-20% of the shampoo.
4) Conditioning shampoos are formulated to provide the dual benefit of a shampoo as
well as conditioner.
5) Baby Shampoo are well-known for their mildness, they show very low or negligible
amount of eye and scalp irritation.
6) The conditioners or hair creams are viscous emulsions or an oily mass, applied to the
hair, which provides smoothness and softness to the hair by moisturising them.
7) Hair oils are the hair care preparations used for the prevention and treatment of
baldness and other ailments.
8) Hair care products are classified in two main categories i.e., hair tonics and hair
grooming aids.
9 ) The coconut oil is termed as hair tonic when it is blended with various drugs having
medicinal activity. It can be prepared by the following processes: Cloth Method,
Paste Method , Direct Boiling Method
98 Cosmetic Science
10) Hair dyes or colourants are used by both the genders to change the natural hair
colour or to mask grey hair.
11 ) Hair dyes are classified as: Temporary hair dye, semi-permanent hair
colourants/direct dye, permanent hair dye, lighteners or bleaches
12) Lighteners or bleaches are the products that alter the colour of the hair and are also
known as decolouring preparations because they lighten or remove the natural
colour.
8.6 . EXERCISE
8.6. 1. Very Short Answer Type Questions
1) What do you mean by shampoo and dry shampoo?
2) Define hair conditioners.
3) What are the benefits of using hair conditioners?
4) Name any four types of hair oils.
5) Name any two main categories of hair dyes.
6) Define hair dyes and semi - permanent hair dye.
7) What do you mean by lighteners and bleaches?
8) Enlist some ingredients used in para- phylene diamine-based hair dye.
9) Name any two evaluations of hair dyes.

1) What are the ideal properties of shampoo?
2) Enlist some excipients used in the preparation of shampoo.
3) Write a short note on conditioning shampoo.
4) Enlist types of hair conditioners along with their characteristics.
5) Mention different methods of preparing herbal hair tonic?
6) How Ayurvedic herbal oils are evaluated?
7) What are the properties of hair dyes?

1) Explain in detail about types of shampoos.
2) Enlist the excipients used in the formulation of hair conditioners and explain them.
3) Briefly explain the formulation and preperation of polyherbal hair tonic?
4) Write a detailed note on types of hair dyes.
Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Oral Care Products ( Chapter 9 ) 99

9 Blocks of Oral Care Products
9.1 . TOOTHPASTES
Toothpastes are used for removing stains from the teeth and to impart freshness
to the mouth and breath. These purposes are solved as the toothpastes are added
with mild abrasives and some flavours. They are the most popular form of
dentifrices.
For the purpose of cleaning the accessible surfaces of the teeth , a substance is
used with a toothbrush that is known as toothpaste or dentifrice.
Purposes
l ) Cleaning 2) Polishing 3) Removal of stains
4 ) Reduce incidence of tooth decay 5) Reduction of oral malodours.
Advantages
1 ) To help in prevention of tooth and gum disease, active ingredients like
fluoride or xylitol are delivered. High efficacy of oral health delivery is
enabled by the recent advances in toothpaste:
i ) Toothpaste for kids are separated having fluoride and relatively low
abrasion value.
ii ) Desensitising toothpaste.
iii ) Whitening toothpaste.
2) They are easy to use and are available in collapsible tubes.
3) Its formulation contains combination of various contents to combat different
oral healthcare requirement.
Disadvantages
1 ) Excess consumption of large volumes of fluoridated toothpaste can result in
fluorosis. In case fluoridated toothpaste is swallowed in large amount they
can be acutely toxic and in case swallowed in any amount consistently then
can be chronically toxic.
2) Triclosan, is an active ingredient found in many toothpastes that can combine
with chlorine in tap water and converts to chloroform which is a human
carcinogen. According to some scientists it can cause brain damaged to the
unborn babies.
3) Although it has been found that whitening toothpaste having the ability to
improve tooth colour also have side effects. The most significant one is
enamel and dentin abrasion which in turn leads to increased tooth
sensitivity .
100 Cosmetic Science
9.1. 1 . Ingredients
The ingredients used in the formulation of toothpastes are enlisted in table 9.1:
Table 9.1; Ingredients used in the Formulation of Toothpastes
Ingredients Examples
Agents responsible for cleansing action: i ) Precipitated calcium carbonate .
1 ) Polishing agents/abrasive agents ii ) Phosphates of calcium .
iii ) Dental graded silica/polymers of silica
(Si02 ) n.
iv ) Trihydrated alumina .
2 ) Foaming agents/surfactants i ) Sodium lauryl sulphate ( ROSO ^Na ) .
ii ) Sodium lauryl sarcosinate .
Agents responsible for the formation of i ) Sorbitol 70
toothpastes:
1 ) Humectants ii ) Glycerine
iii ) Propylene glycol
2) Ceiling agents/binding agents i ) Sodium Carboxy Methyl Cellulose
(SCMC) .
ii ) Cellulose ethers.
Agents responsible for improving palatability i ) Sodium saccharin
1 ) Sweetening agents ii ) Chloroform
2 ) Flavouring agents iii ) Cinnamon bark
iv ) Spearmint oil
Miscellaneous agents
1 ) Colouring agents
2) Whitening agents
3 ) Preservatives
4 ) Therapeutic agents
The following raw materials are used in the formulation of toothpastes:

1 ) Polishing or Abrasive Agents: These agents polish the teeth and remove
food debris from their surface. They are used in 20-50% concentration of the
total formulation .
Some common examples of abrasive agents are:

i ) Precipitated Calcium Carbonate ( CaCO.O or Precipitated Chalk: It
is available in a number of grades. Its crystalline form is available as:
a ) Calcite: It contains rhombohedral crystals.
b ) Aragonite: It contains orthorhombic crystals.
ii) Phosphates of Calcium: Various insoluble calcium phosphates are available:
a ) Dicalcium Phosphate ( DCP ) Dihydrate ( CaHP04.2H20 ): It is a
commonly used abrasive agent among the phosphates of calcium.
b ) Dental Grade Silica/Polymer of Silica ( Si02)n: It is a silica
polymer commonly used as abrasive agent in large quantities in
toothpaste gels.
2) Foaming or Wetting Agents or Surfactants: They serve the purpose of
cleansing by reducing the surface tension at the interface of the adhered
material and teeth enamel. They facilitate the abrasive action by wetting the
teeth surface. They easily diffuse into the narrow spaces, and enhance the
cleansing action.
An ideal surfactant should have the following properties :

i ) It should be compatible with other ingredients.
ii ) It should have a good surface active property.
iii ) It should be non -toxic and non-irritant to the oral mucosa.
iv) It should impart no taste to the formulation.
Some common examples of surfactants are:
i ) Sodium Lauryl Sulphate ( ROSOj»Na ): It is used in 0.5-2%
concentrations to provide the required foaming action.
ii) Sodium Lauryl Sarcosinate: It is the most preferred surfactant for oral
products.
3) Humectants: These agents prevent rapid drying of the product by preventing
excessive moisture loss. They also impart plasticity to the product. They are
used in 20-40% concentration in the formulation.
Some common examples of humectants are:

i ) Sorbitol 70: It is used in 70% w/v concentration of the sorbitol solution.
ii) Glycerine: It is used in 5- 10% concentration.
iii) Propylene Glycol: It is rarely in use as it has been replaced with sorbitol.
4 ) Ceiling or Binding Agents: These agents, e.g., Carboxy Methyl Cellulose
( CMC ), Sodium CMC, hydroxyethyl cellulose, cellulose ethers, etc., hold the
solid and the liquid components together to form a smooth paste and to retain
this property during storage. They prevent bleeding from the paste and also
add up to the body and viscosity of the product.
5) Sweetening Agents: These agents, e.g., saccharin sodium, chloroform,
aspartame, cyclamates and potassium acesulfame, improve the sweetening
properties and mask the bitter taste of other ingredients like surfactants,
binders, etc. They promote the acceptance of the product on oral
administration.
6 ) Flavouring Agents: These agents are a mixture of edible volatile oils having
spearmint and peppermint oil as major components. Some other components
like thymol, anethole, eucalyptol , aniseed oil, oil of winter green, etc. may
also be added . Flavouring agents are used in 0.5-1.5% concentration and
constitute the most costly part of the formulation.
7) Colouring Agents: These agents are used in less than 0.01% concentration
as permitted by the EEC Cosmetics Directive. They can be used in
combination with a portion of a white creamy base. They influence the
consumer preferences and increase the purchase intent.
.
8) Whitening Agents: These agents, e g., titanium dioxide (Ti02) should be
added to provide additional whiteness and brilliance to the product.
9) Preservatives: These agents maintain the properties of the product during
their storage and improve the shelf -life. A mixture of methyl paraben ( 5% )
and propyl paraben (0.02% ) is most effectively and commonly used. Sodium
benzoate is not used due to its incompatibility with other therapeutic agents
of the product.
10 ) Therapeutic Agents: These agents provide additional beneficial effects

apart from normal cleansing properties.
Examples:
i ) Anticaries Agents: Fluoride derivatives like NaF, Na 2FP03, etc.
ii ) Antiplaque Agents: Chlorhexidine, Triclosan , etc.
iii ) Antitartar Agents that prevent the Colouring of Teeth: Zn salts,
Pyrophosphate ions, Tetrasodium pyrophosphate, and Disodium
dihydrophosphate.
iv) Sensitive Dentine Agents: Strontium chloride, Strontium acetate,
Formaldehyde, etc.
v ) Optical Brightness: Substituted coumarins in long chain alkyl amines.
vi ) Bleaching Agents: Hydrogen peroxide and Sodium peroxide.
vii ) pH Regulators: Zirconium silicate.
9.1.2. Types of Toothpastes

The toothpaste can be classified in four categories that are as follows:
1 ) Fluoride Toothpaste 2) Tartar Control Toothpaste
3) Toothpaste for Sensitive Teeth 4) Whitening Toothpaste
9.I.2.I . Fluoride Toothpaste

The most important ingredient to look for when choosing toothpaste is fluoride.
Fluoride helps to protect teeth against decay, cavities and harmful foods and
beverages. Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral. Bacteria in your mouth feed
on sugars and starches that remain on your teeth after eating. Fluoride helps
protect the teeth from the acid that is released during this process by two ways.
Firstly, fluoride makes the tooth enamel stronger and less likely to suffer acid
damage and secondly, it can reverse the early stages of acid damage by
remineralizing areas that have started to decay.
Fluoride
In the prevention of caries, there are three main theories considering the positive
action of fluoride.
Fluoride Mode of Action
Action of Fluoride on Enamel
1) Enamel consists primarily of a calcium - phosphate-based crystalline mineral
called hydroxyapatite ( HAP).
2) Fluoride is incorporated into the solid crystal lattice to form
fluorohydroxyapatite ( FAP), which is harder than the naturally occurring
HAP and are more resistant to decay.
Positive Action of Fluoride in the Prevention of Caries
1 ) The most important anti -caries effect is due to calcium fluoride (CaF2)
formation in plaque and on the enamel surface during and after rinsing or
brushing with fluoride.
2 ) CaF2 act as a fluoride reservoir.
3) The fluoride and calcium are released into the plaque fluid when the pH of
the oral cavity drops.
4) Along with the acid, the fluoride diffuses from plaque into the enamel pores
and forms fluoroapatite ( FAP).
5) FAP fused along with the enamel surface is more resistant to a successive
acid attack.
9.1 .2.2. Tartar Control Toothpaste

There are many tartar control toothpastes on the market , most of which contain
fluoride. Every individual has a layer of bacteria on their teeth called plaque. If
plaque isn 't removed promptly with proper oral hygiene, it hardens into tartar.
This hard-to-remove deposit can build up on the teeth and under the gums,
ultimately leading to gum disease .
There are a variety of ingredients used in toothpaste to help prevent the buildup
of tartar on the teeth. Chemical compounds, including pyrophosphates and zinc
citrate, are often added and have been proven effective. Additionally, some tartar
control toothpastes contain an antibiotic called triclosan , which kills some of the
bacteria in the mouth. Certain toothpastes containing multiple anti -plaque agents
have been demonstrated to be even more effective at tartar control than varieties
with only one plaque fighter.
9. I .2.3. Toothpaste for Sensitive Teeth

Toothpaste are available for sensitive teeth, as some individuals have teeth that
are easily irritated for example, by hot or cold temperatures. These toothpastes
usually contain potassium nitrate or strontium chloride. These chemical
compounds, which can take up to 4 weeks to offer relief , help tooth sensitivity by
blocking pathways through the teeth that attach to nerves inside the teeth .
Ingredients
1 ) Potassium Nitrate: Desensitising ingredient prevents transmission of painful
stimuli to brain.
2) Sodium Phosphate: Effective cleansing agent , helping clean food and
bacteria off the surface of teeth.
3) Xanathan Gum: Product stabilizer and binder.
4 ) Hydrated Silica: Abrasive.
5 ) Sodium Lauryl Sulphate: Surfactant.
6 ) Glycerin: Viscosity-increasing agent.
7 ) Colouring agent.
8) Sweetening agent .
9) Flavour agents.
9.1 .2.4. Whitening Toothpaste

Whitening toothpastes do not typically contain bleaches. Instead, they contain
abrasive particles or chemicals that effectively polish the teeth or bind to stains
and help pull them off the tooth surface. Although an individual might be
concerned that the abrasiveness of whitening toothpaste could damage the teeth,
studies suggest that whitening toothpastes are not harder on tooth enamel in
comparison of other types of toothpaste.
9.1.3. Formulations
Formula 1
Calcium Carbonate 56.0 gm
Sodium lauryl Sulphate 1.0 gm
Glycerine 22.0 gm
Gum Tragacanth 1.5 gm
Water 19.4 gm
Saccharine 0.1 gm
Flavour q.s.
Preservative q.s.
Formula 2
Calcium Carbonate 44.5 gm
Magnesium Carbonate 1.0 gm
Magnesium Hydroxide 3.0 gm
Glycerine 31.0 gm
Oil of Peppermint 1.0 gm
Saccharine 0.1 gm
Water 18.4 gm
Preservative q -s -
Formula 3
Dicalcium Phosphate 60.0 gm
Sorbitol 70 16.0 gm
Saccharine Sodium 0.1 gm
Water 21.9 gm
Preservative q.s.
Flavour q.s.
Formula 4
Tricalcium Phosphate 50.0 gm
Glycerine 8.0 gm
Propylene Glycol 14.5 gm
Sodium Alginate 0.5 gm
Saccharine 0.05 gm
Mineral Oil 1.0 gm
Water 24.0 gm
Preservative q.s.
Flavour q.s.
Formula 5
Calcium pyrophosphate 39.0%
Stannous fluoride 0.4
Glycerine 10.0
Sorbitol 20.0
Stannous pyrophosphate 1.0
Water 25.0
Binder, flavour, and foaming agent 4.6
9.1.4. Preparation
Toothpastes can be prepared by any of the following two methods:
1) Dry Gum Method: The steps involved are:
i ) Apart from the surfactants, the remaining solid components, like abrasive
agent, binding agent, etc., are mixed together in a dry mixer ( an agitation
mixer with slow rotating blades ).
ii) The liquid components, like humectants and water are added to the dry
mixture obtained.
iii ) All these ingredients are mixed till a smooth paste is obtained .
iv) Finally, the surfactants and flavouring agents are added to the
homogenous paste under vacuum.
2 ) Wet Gum Method: The steps involved are:
i ) The liquid components are mixed together to form a liquid phase.
ii ) The binding agent is added to the liquid phase obtained with uniform
stirring to form a mucilage.
iii) Thereafter, the solid ingredients except the surfactants are uniformly mixed
with the mucilage in an agitation mixer to form a homogenous paste.
iv) Finally, the surfactants, flavouring agents, and colouring agents are
added to the homogenous paste under vacuum.
Based on the principle involved in the above two methods, the following
techniques have been proposed for manufacturing toothpastes:
1 ) Cold Compression Technique: The steps involved in the preparation of
toothpastes by this technique are:
i ) The humectant, like sorbitol (70% w/v) or glycerine is taken in the mixer
bowl.
ii ) The binding agent is sprinkled over the humectant under agitation for
uniform dispersion .
iii ) The liquid components, like water, sweetener, and preservatives are
mixed separately to form a separate liquid phase.
iv) If required then the therapeutic ingredients are added to the liquid phase
obtained.
v) Thereafter, the liquid phase is added to the humectant -binder mixture in
the mixer bowl and mixed for 5 minutes to remove air from the thick
gelatinous liquid phase.
vi ) Vacuum supply is stopped and the abrasive agents are added with
constant mixing to dissolve them completely.
vii ) Vacuum is reapplied and mixing is continued for half an hour.
viii ) Surfactants and the flavouring agents are dispersed separately in 5%
humectant.
ix ) The obtained mixture is added to the vacuum at the end and mixed for
another 5 minutes to obtain an air free smooth paste.
2) Multiple Liquid Phase Technique: This technique is used for formulations

using combination of CMC and magnesium aluminium silicate. It is also
suitable for preparing clear-gel dentifrices. The steps involved in the
preparation of toothpastes by this technique are:
i ) Hot water is taken in a mixer bowl and magnesium aluminium silicate is
added to it.
ii) Humectant, flavouring agent, binding agent, and preservative are mixed
separately to form a liquid phase.
iii This liquid phase is added to the mixer and the final volume is made up
)
with the humectant.
iv ) Vacuum is applied into the bowl to remove air from the liquid mixture.
v ) Thereafter, the vacuum supply is removed and the abrasive agents are added.
vi ) Vacuum is again introduced and the ingredients are mixed for 30 minutes.
vii ) Finally, the surfactants are added with constant mixing for 5 minutes.
3) Hot Liquid Phase Technique: The steps involved in the preparation of
toothpastes by this technique are:
i) The abrasive agent , binding agent, and preservative are mixed separately
in a dry mixer to obtain a dry powder.
ii) The humectant, sweetener, and water are mixed separately to obtain a
liquid phase.
iii ) This liquid phase is heated and slowly added to dry powder with constant
mixing.
iv ) The obtained mass is mixed under vacuum for 30 minutes.
v ) Finally, flavouring agent and surfactant solution is added under vacuum
and mixed for 5 minutes to obtain a clear and homogeneous paste.
9.1.5. Evaluation
To check the purity, consistency and efficiency of the product, quality control
studies and evaluation tests are necessary. Following are the specific evaluation
tests for dentifrices:
1 ) Tests for Abrasive Character: The cleansing action of dentifrices mainly
depends on their abrasive property . The test has been done for checking the
abrasive property on the extracted teeth because the abrasion should not lead
to any damage to the enamel. By mechanical method the teeth are brushed
using paste or powder and the effect of dentifrices on the teeth is studied
before and after brushing.
2 ) Determination of Particle Size: The cleansing nature and abrasive property
of the dentifrice dependent on the particle size therefore this determination is
necessary. By using microscopical techniques or by involving the method of
sieving, the particle size can be determined.
3) Test for Cleansing Property: This test is done in order to determine the
cleaning ability of the dentifrice. The in-vitro method for this test is that the
tooth cleansers are brushed onto a polyester film and the change in
reflectance character of the lacquer coating before and after use is measured.
The in-vivo method involves brushing of the teeth continuously for 2 weeks
with dentifrices and determining the condition of the teeth before and after
brushing and comparing using photographs.
4 ) Determination of Consistency of The Product: To determine

the consistency of the product for the maintenance of its flow property till its
expiry date, this test is performed. On the 'theological properties like particle
size, viscosity, etc., product consistency depends.
5 ) Determination of pH of the Product: In this test procedure a 10% solution
of the paste in water is prepared and using a pH meter, the pH of the
dispersion is evaluated. To maintain the consistency of the product the pH
should range from 6.8 to 7.4 in order.
6 ) Determination of Foaming Character: This test is applicable only to
foaming tooth powders and pastes. In this test, specific amount of the product
is mixed with a known amount of water. Then in order to produce foam, the
solution is shaken sometimes. The produced foam is then collected and
examination on its nature, wash ability and stability are performed.
7 ) Determination of the Volatile Matter and the Moisture Content: To
determine the amount of volatile matter and moisture content in the product
is determined by this test. In this method , a specified amount of the product
is taken and is kept for drying till a constant weight is obtained . The weight
of the product is measured before and after drying. Then the percentage of
moisture content and volatile matter is calculated by the loss in weight.
8 ) Determination of the Test for the Special Ingredient: The use of
therapeutic ingredients may lead to certain incompatibilities. Therefore to
determine the effect of the specific ingredients like antiseptics, enzymes etc.,
specific tests are performed.
9) Limit Test for Heavy Metals: To check the presence of any heavy metals like
arsenic and lead that might lead to toxicity, certain tests are performed. Limit
tests for heavy metals are performed to avoid occurrence of these metals.
9.2 . TOOTH POWDER

A typical tooth powder is a mixture of dental abrasive, flavouring agent ,
sweetening agent, and foaming agent. These are packed in containers that have
an orifice on top for sprinkling. User can either sprinkle it on the toothbrush or in
hand from where it is applied on the teeth using a toothbrush . The primary
objective is the homogenous distribution of all the ingredients without
contamination by foreign substances.
The major disadvantage of using toothpowder is that a calculated amount is

difficult to obtain, in case of use for purpose. However, toothpaste has much
more benefits in comparison to the tooth powder.
Uses
1 ) To promote oral hygiene.
2 ) It acts as an abrasive that helps in removal of dental plaque and left over food
from the teeth, assists in suppressing halitosis. It also helps to prevent tooth
and gum disease life gingivitis.
9.2. 1 . Types
1 ) Whitening Tooth Powder
i) Its main purpose is to freshen up breath, help in healing of gums and in
decreasing the amount of inflammation in the mouth.
ii ) They are also used to polish and whiten teeth.
2) Natural Tooth Powder
Common ingredients in natural tooth powders are sea salt ( that acts as an
abrasive) natural chalk, and some essential oils like peppermint, eucalyptus,
and wintergreen.
3 ) Herbal Tooth Powder
i ) They are helpful in treating sore or bleeding gums. Herbal tooth powder
can have a range of ingredients; some of the common ingredients are
baking soda; powdered chalk and white clay.
ii) They are present from centuries and are believed to be an essential part
of any teeth-cleaning regimen.
4 ) Homemade Tooth Powder
i) They can also be made at home.
ii) They are very beneficial because they are less costly and the ingredient is
known to the individual who is making it . Therefore the individual is
aware of what he is putting in his mouth or to their family mouths.
Homemade Tooth Powder Ingredients
i ) 4 tablespoons bentonite clay
ii ) 2 teaspoons baking soda
iii ) \Yi teaspoons finely ground unrefined sea salt
iv ) Vi teaspoons clove powder
v ) 1 teaspoon ground cinnamon
vi ) Wi teaspoons ground peppermint leaves and spearmint leaves.
9.2.2. Formulation
1 ) The main ingredients of toothpowders are solid particles of very fine size and
the end product is also a dry powder.
2 ) The main components like abrasives, surface active agents are solid powders
should be in the form of fine particles.
3) And if required, to check their particle size they should be passed through a sieve.
4 ) Then in laboratory, they are mixed in pestle mortar and in industry they are
mixed in blenders.
5) Then the flavouring oils are added in the end either by spraying on the powder
mixture or by the method of dilution or geometric progression, first blending
with one of the components and then mixing this blend to the rest of the mixture.
Table 9.2: A Typical Toothpowder Formula
Ingredients Quantity
Hard soap ( in fine powder ) 50gm
Precipitated calcium carbonate 935gm
Saccharin sodium 2gm
Peppermint oil 4ml
Cinnamon oil 2ml
Methvl salicvlate Xml
9.2.3. Preparation
1 ) At first mix the flavouring, colouring, sweetening and other ingredients that are to be
added in small quantities into a portion of the chalk ( precipitated calcium carbonate ).
2) Or other abrasives are mixed by rubbing in the liquids using hand and then through a
sieve or preferably through a small premixer equipped with a brush sieve.
3) Then this mixture should be screened and blended in a larger mixer into which the
rest of the powdered ingredients have been added .
4 ) The agitator is then run until uniformity is attained in the mass is uniform and sent
for storage.
5) Using dry filling equipment the tube filling is performed .
6) In some cases, manufacturers prefer to produce a more uniform powder by passing
the finished mixed powder through an attrition type mill on their way to the storage
tank which supplies the powder filling machines.
9.2.4. Evaluation
1 ) Particle Size: This can be determined by microscopic study of the particles
or by other means.
2 ) Abrasiveness
i) Using tooth brush the teeth are mechanically brushed with paste or powders.
ii) By observation , mechanical ( measurement with micrometre gauge
sensitive to 0.001 inch ) or other means ( radioactive tracer techniques ),
the effect is examined.
3) pH of the Aqueous Solution: Using pH meter, the pH of the dispersion of
10 % of the product in water is determined.
4 ) Consistency: It is important that the product , paste, should maintain the
consistency to enable the product press out from the container study of
viscosity is essential for this.
5) Rheology of Powder: It is also important for proper flow of the powder from
the container.
6 ) Volatile Matters and Moisture
i ) A specific amount of product is taken in a dish and drying is performed
till constant weight is attained.
ii) Loss of weight will indicate amount of moisture present in product.
9.3 . MOUTHWASHES
Mouthwashes are concentrated, clear aqueous solution having a pleasant taste
that is used to clean and deodorise the mouth or buckle cavity.
1 ) Mouthwash contains antibacterial agents, alcohol , glycerin, sweetening
agent , flavouring agent and colouring agents.
2 ) They are also used in oral mucous disease to treat mouth infections and to
maintain oral hygiene.
3) They are used after diluting with warm water.
4 ) They have more cosmetic value.
Mouthwashes or mouth rinse are the hydro-alcoholic solutions used for oral
hygiene to deodorise and clean the buccal cavity. Usually, these products consist
of alcohol, antibacterial agents, sweetening agent , glycerine, colouring agents
and flavouring agents. The food particles entrapped deep inside the throat and the
mucous in the mouth can be removed with the help of some strong flavoured and
alcoholic mouthwashes by inducing cough in a person.
Characteristics
1 ) It should be quick in action and potent enough to show its intended action at
specific dilution .
2 ) Flavour must be strong enough to mask foul smell of mouth.
3) It should have an acceptable taste, in most cases sweet taste is preferred.
4 ) Low cost of production .
5 ) No irritation should be caused to oral cavity or mucous membrane.
6 ) It must be non-toxic.
9.3. 1 . Types
Mouthwashes can be broadly classified as follows:
1 ) Cosmetic Mouthwashes: These are consisting of water, flavour, colour and
generally alcohol. The surface active agents of these may be included in
these products to help in solubilising the essential oils ( flavours ) and to assist
in the penetration and cleansing of the mouth and teeth.
2) Antiseptic Mouthwashes: The main purpose of these mouthwashes is to
remove or destroy the bacteria normally found in the oral cavity in large
numbers. These mouthwashes have a direct astringent effect on the oral
mucosa and also act as a flocculating and precipitating proteinaceous
material so that it can be removed by flushing.
3) Mouthwash Concentrates: These are concentrated products having label
i .e., “diluted before use”.
4 ) Buffered Mouthwashes: They mainly control the pH, within narrow ranges,
in the oral cavity. For example, alkaline buffered mouthwashes can be
helpful in reducing stringy saliva or reducing mucinous deposits by
dispersion of protein.
5) Deodouring Mouthwashes: They mainly use to deodourise the oral cavity,
by the antibacterial or other mechanisms.
6) Therapeutic Mouthwashes: They are specifically formulated for the
purpose of relieving infection, preventing dental caries, or mitigating some
other pathological conditions of the mouth, teeth , or throat.
In addition to the above classification, mouthwashes can also be classified on the
basis of the type of product form i .e., as follows:
1 ) Liquid Mouthwashes: These mouthwashes are ready to be used without any
diluti on.
2 ) Concentrated Mouthwashes: These mouthwashes are required to be diluted
before use along with water because they are prepared and issued in a
concentrated from.
3) Tablet Preparations: These are required to be dissolved or dispersed in
water before use.
Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Oral Care Products ( Chapter 9 ) Ill
4) Granular or Powder Preparations: These are required to be dissolved or

dispersed in water before use.
5) Aerosol Mouthwashes or Mouth Fresheners: These are recommended for
freshen the breath after eating, drinking or smoking and generally containing
only flavouring agents, although they may also contain antibacterial agents.
Aerosol mouth fresheners are genrally presented in a 1/2 oz. ( 14 g ) pack, having
a metered valve and contains sufficient product for 200-300 applications.
9.3. 2. Ingredients
1) Antiseptic Substances: These are the active constituents of most of the
mouthwashes. The choice of specific antiseptic is made according to the need and
matching with other ingredients. Phenol and its derivatives, hexachlorophene,
quaternary ammonium compounds, thymol, salicylic acid, formalin, boric acid,
tannic acid, hydroxy benzoates, etc are commonly used substance.
The phenol and its derivatives and their concentration used in mouthwashes
are phenol (0.1 - 1 % ), beta-naphthol (0.3-0.5% ), thymol (0.1 % ), chlorothymol
(0.05-0.1 % ), hexachlorophene (0.02-0.2% ), hexylresorcinol (0.05-0.1 % ),
amyl -,hexyl-, heptyl- and octyl-phenols ( 0.05,0.3% ).
2 ) Astringents: They are being used in mouthwashes from a long time.
Astringents are incorporated in mouthwashes for following actions:
i ) To shrink and protect inflamed mucous surfaces.
ii ) To precipitate proteins of saliva.
iii ) To diminish accumulated mucous secretions by precipitation.
Zinc chloride, zinc acetate, aluminium sulphate ( alum ), in 0.05-0.2% are the
substances used for astringent action. Zinc phenosulphate is used in 0.1-0.3%
concentration. Tannic acid and its derivatives, acetic acid, citric acid, lactic
acid are also used in mouthwashes in 0.05-0.5% . 2% alcoholic solution or
aqueous solutions containing glycerine and borax , or tannic acid are also used.
3) Deodorising Agents: Causes of bad breathe are not only the bacterial growth
on food particles in the mouth , but several other factors, that are responsible
to the cause of bad breath. Quaternary ammonium compounds, chlorophyllin
have been found to exert deodorising effect in oral cavity.
4) Drug Extracts: Several extracts have found use in mouthwashes that act as
astringents, stimulants or flavouring agents. Tincture of myrrh, an oleogum -
resin obtained from the stem of commiphora molmol or other species,
tincture of cinchona, benzoic tincture, tincture of quillaia, etc are some
extracts used in mouthwashes.
5) Flavours: Various flavouring agents that are commonly used in
mouthwashes. Peppermint oil , menthol , thymol , aniseed oil, clove oil ,
eucalyptus oil, cinnamon oil, anethole, fennel, methyl salicylate.
6 ) Surfactants: Occasionally surfactants are incorporated in mouthwashes
to have wetting, or detergent , or solubilising effects. Sometimes
solubilising agents are used to keep all the ingredients intact in case of
more water content in solution and sometimes solubilising agents may be
required . Tweens or other compatible surfactants can be used. Particularly

to keep flavours in aqueous media surfactants help in solubilisation of
flavours.
7 ) Sweeteners: Sugars are not used as sweetener in mouthwashes, in fact
Saccharine, or other synthetic sweetener extracts can be used for this
purpose.
8) Colours: Mouthwashes are often coloured with vegetable dyes. The useful
dyes are saffron, carmine, phloxine, erythrosine which do not have effect
other ingredients and their action.
9 ) Vehicle: This is a very important ingredient as all the constituents have to be
kept in solution in the vehicle. Alcohol alone or in combination with water is
the widely used solvent.
10) Glycerine is also incorporated in mouthwashes. Use of glycerine has an
added advantage as it is also a sweetening agent with a flavour. It has also a
demulcent and conditioning effect on mucous membrane. Sometimes a small
quantity of hydrocolloids is incorporated to increase the viscosity.

Formulae for two simple mouthwashes are given below:
Formula 1
Boric acid 1.5
Thymol 0.1
Eucalyptol 0.5
Methyl salicylate 0.1
Oil of thyme 0.03
Menthol 0.1
Alcohol 30.0
Water 67.67
100.0
Procedure
1) Boric acid is dissolved in 60% of water and other ingredients in 60% of alcohol.
2 ) Aqueous solution is added to alcoholic solution, 2% of purified talc is added
and allowed to stand with occasional stirring for 48 hours.
3) The solution is then filtered and the rest of alcohol and water is added to
make up the volume.
Formula 2
Benzoic acid 1.0
Boric acid 2.0
Alcohol 8.5
Eucalyptol 0.05
Oil of thyme 0.1
Oil of wintergreen 0.3
Water 88.0
Caramel colouring 0.05
100.0
Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Oral Care Products ( Chapter 9) 113
Procedure
1 ) Boric acid is dissolved in water by boiling, diluted with the remaining water
and allowed to cool.
2) Benzoic acid is dissolved in sufficient quantity of alcohol and oils in the
remaining alcohol .
3) These solutions are added to the aqueous solution, mixed rapidly and caramel
colouring is added.
4 ) The solution is chilled and filtered .
Formula 3; Zinc Sulphate Zinc Chloride Mouthwash B. P.C.
Zinc sulphate 20ml
Zinc chloride 10ml
Diluted HCL 10ml
Compound tartrazine solution lml
Chloroform solution (double strength ) 500ml
Water up to 1000ml
Prepare mouthwash, send 30ml
Procedure
Dilute with 20 times its volume with warm water before use.
Formula 4
Benzoic acid 1.00
Cinnamon oil 2.00
Phenol 1.50
Chloroform 1.50
Alcohol 37.50
Oil of peppermint 0.50
Glycerin 56.00
Procedure
1 ) Dissolve the benzoic acid in the chloroform, add the glycerin and mix.
2) Dissolve the cinnamon , peppermint and phenol in alcohol and mix two
solutions together.
3) Mix for two hours, chill and filter.
Formula 5
Resorcinol 5.00
Zinc Chloride 0.03
Menthol 0.50
Thymol 0.20
Eucalyptol 0.03
Camphor 0.03
Peppermint oil 0.05
Alcohol 25.00
Glycerin 10.00
Water 59.16
Procedure
1 ) Dissolve resorcinol and zinc chloride in water, and the thymol , eucalyptol ,
wintergreen, menthol and camphor in the alcohol.
2 Mix the two solutions together and add glycerin. Mix for one hour, chill and filter.
)
9.3. 4. Evaluation
As mouthwashes are used for like antiseptic, deodorant , etc., in the oral
preparation , therefore it is necessary to perform suitable tests to determine their
effectiveness. For identity, content , clarity, following tests should be performed
apart from common tests:
1 ) Antiseptic Property: Though the antiseptics commonly used are well known
and popular , but their activity in pure state is of limited value for the
expected antiseptic activity in the formulations. The additional ingredients
present in the formulation can modify the antiseptic property. So it is
necessary to carry out separate test for their activity in formulation, both in
vitro and in vivo.
i ) In Vitro Antiseptic Activity: This test can be performed against suitable
oral microorganisms in a appropriate liquid media or agar media. By this
the control determining their effectiveness against the growth of the
organisms can be evaluated .
ii ) In Vivo Antiseptic Activity: This test can be performed by collecting
representative bacterial samples, before and after the use of mouthwash,
and culturing and counting colonies on agar plate. By rinsing the mouth
with saline solution or swabbing with cotton the representative samples
can be collected and then inoculated on agar plate. After incubation for a
required period of time, the number of colonies can be seen of organisms
that are present in the mouth. By this process, optimum time required to
keep the mouthwash in mouth can also be calculated.
2) Deodorising Effect: By using chemical analysis, surface tension effects and
local deodorising effect can be evaluated in mouth. Gas chromatograph, fair-
wells osmoscope, etc are the instruments described to be used to measure
level of odour. Also human olfactory system can be used to evaluate odour
intensity and deodorant action.
3) Stability Study: Stability testing of the products and their components are also
necessary to be performed. Activity of the antiseptics can be decreased over
the time. It is important to test stability of the astringents, flavours, colours.
This can be done by normal stability study or accelerated stability study.
4) Other Special Tests: Clinical trials may need to be carried out for
mouthwashes as they sometime contain therapeutic agents. Tests that are
commonly performed on the basis of requirement are effect on dental caries,
effect on oral soft tissue problems, cleaning and astringent effects, etc.
9.4. SUMMARY
1 ) Toothpastes are used for removing stains from the teeth and to impart freshness to
the mouth and breath .
2 ) The toothpaste can be classified in following four categories: fluoride toothpaste ,
tartar control toothpaste , toothpaste for sensitive teeth, whitening toothpaste
3 ) The most important ingredient to look for when choosing toothpaste is fluoride, as it
helps to protect teeth against decay , cavities and harmful foods and beverages.
4 ) Toothpastes can be prepared by following methods: dry gum method , wet gum
method , cold compression technique, multiple liquid phase technique, and hot liquid
phase technique.
5 ) A typical tooth powder is a mixture of dental abrasive, flavouring agent, sweetening
agent, and foaming agent.
6 ) The major disadvantage of using toothpowder is that a calculated amount is difficult
to obtain, in case of use for purpose.
7 ) Mouthwashes are concentrated, clear aqueous solution having a pleasant taste that is
used to clean and deodorise the mouth or buckle cavity.
9.5 . EXERCISE
1) Enlist the use of toothpaste.
2) What do you mean by fluoride toothpaste?
3) Name any two evaluation test for toothpaste.
4) Define tooth powder.
5) Enlist any four types of mouthwash.
6) Enlist any one formulation of toothpaste.

1) What are the advantages and disadvantages of toothpaste?
2 ) Explain any one method of preparing toothpaste.
3) Enlist the ingredients used in the formulation of tooth powder and write its preparation.
4 ) Define mouthwash. Enlist some of its characteristics.

1 ) Explain in detail about types of tooth pastes.
2 ) Briefly explain about mouthwash.
CHAPTER
10
Sun Protection
10.1. SUN PROTECTION

Sunlight that are reaching the earth surface contains different types of rays i.e.,
visible rays, ultra-violet rays, and infra-red rays. The UV Rays having wave-
length below 320 mp are responsible for most of the therapeutic as well as toxic
effects that are attributing to sun -light . Therefore protection from these rays is an
issue of concern and sunscreens having SPF are used for these purpose.
The UV Spectrum is classified into three parts:
1 ) Low Energy ( UVA ): They cause skin aging and wrinkles and are used in
tanning beds. They also colours skin and give false sense of protection from
the sun. UVA rays pass effortlessly through the ozone layer.
UVA ( Longwave Radiation )
i ) Range 320-400 nm.
ii ) Erythrogenic activity is weak, however penetrates dermis.
iii ) Responsible for development of slow natural tan.
iv) Most drug-induced photosensitivity reactions occur.
v) UVA may augment the effects of UVB.
2 ) High Energy ( UVB): They cause sunburns, cataracts, immune system
damage, skin cancer. They may alter melanoma that might be associated with
severe UVB sunburns occurring before the age of 20. Most UVB rays are
absorbed by the ozone layer.
UVB ( Middlewave Radiation )
i ) Range 290-320 nm.
ii ) Erythrogenic activity is the highest.
iii ) Produces new pigment formation , sunburn , Vitamin D synthesis.
iv ) Responsible for inducing skin cancer.
3) Very High Energy ( UVC): These rays are the most dangerous. Fortunately,
these rays are blocked by the ozone layer and do not reach the earth surface.
UVC (Shortwave or Germicidal Radiation )
i ) Range l 00-290nm.
ii ) Does not reach the surface of the earth.
iii ) Is emitted from artificial ultraviolet sources.
Table 10.1: Sun Radiation Summary
Radiation Characteristic Effects on Human Skin Visible to Human
Type Wavelength ( A. ) Eye?
UVC - 200-290 nm
( Short - wave UV )
DNA Damage No
UVB - 290- 320 nm Sunburn No

Sun Protection ( Chapter 10 ) 117
( Mid -range UV ) DNA Damage

Skin Cancer
UVA - 320-400 nm Tanning
Skin Aging
No
( Long- wave UV )
DNA Damage
Skin Cancer
Vis -400-800 nm None Currently Known Yes
IR -800- 120 000 nm
, Heat Sensation ( high X No
IR )
10.2. SUNSCREENS
Sunscreen is also known as sunblock or suntan lotion. It is a lotion , spray, gel or
other topical product that absorbs or reflects some of the sun’s ultraviolet ( UV )
radiation on the skin exposed to sunlight and thus helps protect against sunburn.
Skin lightening products have sunscreen to protect lightened skin because light
skin is more susceptible to sun damage than darker skin.
Ideal Properties of a Sunscreen
1) Absorb light specially over the range of 280m|i-320mji.
2 ) Stable to heat , light and perspiration .
3) Non -toxic and non-irritant and non-sensitising.
4 ) Not be rapidly absorbed.
5) Neutral.
6) Readily soluble in suitable vehicles.
7 ) Resistance to water.
8 ) Preferably odourless.
9 ) Capable of retaining sunscreening property for several hours.
10) Non-stain.
Principle of Effectiveness of Sunscreens
1 ) A protective layer can be formed to the skin that prevents the UV -rays to
reach the skin either by absorbing or by reflecting them.
i ) Zinc oxide and titanium dioxide both have such tendency .
ii ) Preparations reflecting UV-rays are very effective and used widely.
2 ) To incorporate substances in preparations to filter the sun -rays by absorbing
medium range UV -rays ( 280mp-320mp) but allowing rays of higher
wavelengths to pass. All modern sun-tan preparations are based on this
principle and contain such substances.
3) Biologically effective substances can be used effectively to prevent symptoms
of inflammation without reduction of tanning. Sunlight liberates histamine in
the tissues-anti histaminic substances avoid inflammation. HC’s and FC’s are
useful in treating sun-bum but not recommended in sun-tan preparation.
4) Substances that cause or accelerate tanning of the skin can be applied.
i ) Dioxyacetone causes tanning by forming a brown complex with the
keratin of the corneal layer.
ii ) 8-methoxypsoralene 10-20 mg when administered 2 hours before
exposure to the sun, accelerates tanning and avoids sunburn.
10.2. 1 . Classification
Sun Screening Agents
I
r i
Topical Systemic
I I
I 1) p-carotene
Organic Inorganic
2) Antimalarials
1 3 ) Ascorbic acid
UVA Filters: UVB Filters: Broad Spectrum 1 ) Zinc oxide 4) a-tocopherols
1 ) Benzophenones: 1 ) PABA derivatives: Filters : 2 ) Titanium 5 ) Retinol
i ) Oxybenzonc Padimate O 1 ) Ecamsulc dioxide 6) Selenium
ii ) Sulisobcnzone 2) Cinnamates: ( Mexoryl SX ) 3 ) Others: 7 ) Green tea polyphenols
iii ) Dioxybenzone i ) Octinoxate 2) Silatriazole i ) Iron oxide gj PABA
2 ) Avobenzone ii ) Cinoxate ( Mexoryl XL) ii ) Red 9) Antihistamines
( Parsol 1789 ) 3 ) Salicylates : 3 ) Bemotrizinol veterinary 10 ) Aspirin
3) Meradimate i ) Octisalate ( Tinosorb S ) pertrolatum 11 ) Indomethacin
4 ) Bisdisulizole ii ) Homosalate 4 ) Bisoctrizole iii ) Kaolin 12 ) Corticosteroids
disodium iii Trolamine
) ( Tinosorb M ) i v ) Calamine
5 ) Diethylaminohydro salicylate v ) Ichlhammol
xy-benzoyl 4 Octocrylene
) vi ) Talc
hexylbenzoate 5 ) Ensulizole
6) Ecamsule 6 ) Ethylhexyl triazone
7 Methyl anthranilate
)
Figure 10.1: Classification of Sunscreens
10.2. 2. Ingredients
Sunscreens contain some of the following ingredients:
1 ) Organic chemical compounds that absorb ultraviolet light.
2 ) Inorganic particulates that reflect, scatter, and absorb UV light like titanium
dioxide, zinc oxide, or a combination of both.
3) Organic particulates that mostly absorb light like organic chemical
compounds, but contain multiple chromophores, may reflect and scatter a
fraction of light like inorganic particulates, and behave differently in
formulations than organic chemical compounds.

These preparations can be aqueous or oily solutions, creams or emulsion , lotion
and gel type having different formulations.
Solution types, aqueous or oily, can be prepared simply by mixing and dissolving
the sunscreen and other ingredients in the vehicle, i.e., water or oil. Perfume
should be added at last.
Cream preparations are emulsion type and are prepared by taking ingredients of
oil phase and aqueous phase separately and heating to liquefy or dissolve all
ingredients and then mixing them together with continuous stirring till the cream
is produced. Perfume should be added after cooling the cream to near room
temperature and milling further.
Lotions can be solutions or emulsion type and can be prepared accordingly. Gels
are highly viscous aqueous preparations. Thickening agent is dispersed in water
separately . Other ingredients are mixed together and dissolved in water. Then the
dispersed thickening agent solution is mixed with others ingredients along with
stirring to prepare gel .
Some useful formulas are as follows:

Oil Type
Formula 1
Homomenthyl salicylate 8.0gm
Mineral oil 92.0gm
Perfume qs.
Formula 2
Homomenthyl salicylate 8.0gm
Mineral oil 80.0gm
Isopropyl myristate 12.0gm
Perfume qs.
Isopropyl myristate can be replaced by isopropyl palmitate . Preparation is simple

by using solution technique. Mix the perfume, colour, preservative with
isopropyl myristate . Then mix the sunscreen agent with oil and later mix both the
preparation together.
Cream Type
Formula 3
A) Homomenthyl salicylate 8.0gm
Non-ionic emulsifier ( tween ) 7.5gm
Mineral oil 2.0gm
Spermaceti 5.0gm
B) Glycerine 5.00gm
Water 72.50gm
Perfume q.s.
Methyl parahydroxy benzoate q.s.
Propyl parahydroxy benzoate qs.
Formula 4
A) Antivirus 8.0gm
Stearic acid 17gm
Abracol PGS (emulsifying agent ) 3.5gm
B) Triethanolamine 0.8gm
Water 80.0gm
Perfume q.s.
Preservative q.s.
Colour q.s.
Mix together the ingredients of ‘ A and heat at about 70°C. In a separate vessel
'
dissolve the preservatives in the glycerine along with little heating . Add the
remaining ingredients of B and heat it to about 70°C . Add mixture of B to ‘A’
'
'
slowly with continuous stirring . Stir until cool , adding the perfume at about 30°C.
Lotion Type
Formula 5
Antiviray lO.Ogm
Toilet spirit 88.0gm
Perfume q.s.
Colour ( alcohol -soluble ) qs.
Dissolve antiviray in isopropyl myristate . Dissolve perfume and colour in spirit .

Mix both .
Formula 6
A) Filtrosol A 1000 5.0gm
Mineral oil lO . Ogm
Stearic acid 2.0gm
Paraffin wax l .Ogm
Beeswax 2.0gm
Petroleum jelly 5.0gm
Silicone fluid 8.0gm
Polyethylene glycol monostearate 5.0gm
B) Triethanoamine 2.0gm
Water 60.0gm
Perfume q.s.
Preservative qs.
Ingredients of ‘ A ’ are heated at a temperature of 70°C . Heat ingredients of B ’ to
same temperature and add slowly to the mixture of ‘ A’ . Keep stirring till it cools.
Add perfume when the temperature comes down to about 35°C.
Aqueous Solution Type
Formula 7
Filtrosol B 7.0gm
Methyl cellulose 0.5gm
Glycerin 2.0gm
Ethyl alcohol lO.Ogm
Water 80.5gm
Perfume qs
Dissolve filtrosol ‘ B ’ in ethyl alcohol and methyl cellulose in water and glycerin
mixture . Mix the two parts . Methyl cellulose is added to increase the viscosity .
Formula 8
Filtrosol B 5.0gm
Distilled extract of witch hazel lO.Ogm
Propylene glycol lO.Ogm
Water 75.0gm
Perfume q.s.
Water soluble dye q.s.
Methyl parahydroxy benzoate q.s.
Dissolve the preservative in propylene glycol and add the remaining ingredients
and mix them well .
Gel Type
Formula 9
Carboxy vinyl polymer 2.0gm
Propylene glycol 9.0gm
Triethanolamine 1.5gm
Filtrosol B 5.0gm
Water 82.5gm
Perfume q.s.
Methyl parahydroxy benzoate q s.
Sun Protection (Chapter 10) 121
Dissolve the sunscreen agent ( filtrosol B ) in a small portion of water. Dissolve

carboxy vinyl polymer in the triethanolamine and gradually add the required
amount of water. Dissolve the preservative in the propylene glycol and add it to
already prepared mixture. Then add the solution of sunscreen agent. And when
the gel is prepared then add the perfume.
Formulation of Sunscreen with SPF 25

For example, W/O Sunscreen Lotion ( SPF 25)
Formula 10 % WAV
Phase A
Dimethicone 1.50
Whealgerm oil 3.00
Octyl palmitate 4.50
Isohexadecane 6.00
Cetyl dimethicone copolyol 2.00
Cyclomethicone [ and ] aluminium/magnesium hydroxide stearate 10.00
Candclilla wax 1.00
Phase B
Sodium chloride 0.50
Water, pure 51.30
Phase C
Titanium dioxide [and ] Cl 2- 15 alkyl benzoate 20.00
Preparation
Phase A and B are heated separately at 75°C temperature. Phase C is heated to
>60°C. With intensive heating phase C is added and allowed cool to the
temperature 45°C. With same stirring speed phase D is added and cooling is
continued up to the temperature 25-3°C and system is homogenised.
Heat phases A to B separately to 75°C.
10.2.4. Evaluation
1 ) Spectrophotometric Evaluation: This is basically to evaluate the UV
radiation absorption ability of the sun-screen compounds using a UV
Spectrophotometer. Specific concentration of the substance is taken of the
preparation , molar extinction coefficient or absorbency can be determined
and compared with standard substance.
2 ) Erythemal Damage: It is important to estimate the erythemally effective
radiation or E-vitons/sq.cm. that is transmitted by a sun-tan preparation.
The erythemal energy is the product of the solar energy transmitted through
the film of sun -tan preparation and the effectiveness factor at that wave -
length.
-
3) Sun Screen Index: This is evaluation of the relative screening activity of the
sun -screen compounds. This is measurement of Extinction Co-efficient at
308mp and comparison with other. 308mp is the peak wavelength for
effective sun -bum.
-
4 ) In Vivo Skin Testing:
i) This is a direct test on animal skin, particularly rabbit , the site normally
used is either back-side as this sites have maximum sensitivity.
ii ) Preparations are applied on a specific site and exposed to radiation along

with a control unprotected site, for a specified period of time.
iii ) The effects are observed at the end of the period.
iv ) Several factors or variables like radiation source, size of the test field, etc
are to be taken care of during the test as they may influence the results.
10.2.5. SPF
SPF or Sun Protection Factor is a measure of how well a sunscreen will protect
skin from UV-B rays which is a kind of radiation that causes sunburn, damages
skin , and can contribute to skin cancer.
Sun protection factor (SPF), defined as the number of times longer that can be
spent in the sun in achieving the same degree of tanning or burning as that
achieved without the product.
Clinically, the degree of efficacy of a sunscreen product, as defined by its sun
protection factor, is defined by the following relationship.
MED * with Sunscreen Product
Sun Protection Factor =
MED * without Sunscreen Product
* The MED or Minimum Erythemal Dose is defined as the amount of UV -B
radiation necessary to cause first visible reddening of the skin.
These are a basic skin cream, milk or oil formulation containing a chemical
sunscreen ingredient. The greasier the product , the more effective is the sun
screening effect . Moisturising ingredients are the substances that help in
preventing the skin from drying out .
10.2.5.1 . Classification
On the basis of value of SPF, suncreen can be classified into following type:
Table 10.2: Categories of sunscreens based on the value of the SPF
1) Protection level SPF value
2) Maximum >50
3) High 30-50 ( 1/50 of the UV -B rays get through to your skin -
blocking about 98% )
4) Medium 15-30 ( 1/30 of the UV -B rays get through to your skin -
5) Low 2-15 ( 1/15 of the UV - B rays get through to your skin -
On the basis of type of skin, SPF can be classified as follows:

Table 10.3; Types of Skin and SPF
Type Description SPF Character
I) Always burns easily and never tans. More than 8 Sensitive
ID Always burns and tans minimally. 67 - Sensitive
III ) Burns moderately and tans gradually . 4-5 Normal
IV ) Burns minimally and always tans well 2-3 Normal
V) Barely burns and tans profusely 2 Insensitive
VI ) Never hums and becomes deeply pigmented None Insensitive
10.2.5.2. Badger’s SPF Sunscreen Testing

All sunscreens must undergo FDA approved SPF testing in order to make a UVB
claim . There are three main types of SPF testing; SPF Static , SPF Water
Resistant 40 Minutes, and SPF Water Resistant 80 Minutes . All sunscreen
manufacturers should follow to same FDA approved tests, ensuring that the SPF
claims are consistent across all sunscreens, chemical and mineral . All SPF testing
is conducted in vivo i .e. , within human subjects .
10.3. SUMMARY
1 ) Sunlight that are reaching the earth surface contains different types of rays i.e.,
visible rays, ultra - violet rays, and infra-red rays.
2 ) Sunscreen is also known as sunblock or suntan lotion.
3) Skin lightening products have sunscreen to protect lightened skin because light skin
is more susceptible to sun damage than darker skin.
4 ) Solution types, aqueous or oily, can be prepared simply by mixing and dissolving the
sunscreen and other ingredients in the vehicle, i.e., water or oil. Perfume should be
added at last.
5) Cream preparations are emulsion type and are prepared by taking ingredients of oil
phase and aqueous phase separately
6 ) Lotions can be solutions or emulsion type and can be prepared accordingly. Gels are
highly viscous aqueous preparations
7 ) SPF or Sun Protection Factor is a measure of how well a sunscreen will protect
skin from UV - B rays which is a kind of radiation that causes sunburn, damages skin,
and can contribute to skin cancer.
8) All sunscreens must undergo FDA approved SPF testing in order to make a UVB claim.
10.4. EXERCISE
1) Name the parts of UV spectrum.
2) Mention the range of UVC shortwave.
3) Write the full form of MED.
4) Mention any two use of sunscreen ?
5) Sunscreen protects the skin from which rays?
6) Define SPF and write its formula.
7) List any four ideal properties of a sunscreen.

1) Write a short note on Sun Protection.
2) Classify sunscreen.
3) Define the relationship between sunscreen product and sun protection factor.
4) Write one cream and one oil type formulation for sunscreen.
10.4. 3. Long Answer Type Questions

1 ) Explain about preparation , formulation and evaluation of the sunscreen.
2) Write a detail note on SPF.
CHAPTER Role of Herbs in

11 Cosmetics
.
11.1 HERBAL COSMETICS
11.1 . 1 . Introduction
Herbal cosmetics can be defined as the products, which possess desirable
physiological activity like healing, enhancement of appearance, and conditioning
properties due to the presence of herbal ingredients present in it.
Herbal cosmetics mainly include herbs either in crude form or in the form of
extract. The basics of cosmetics used in skin care are taken from ancient texts of
Rigveda, Yajurveda , and various systems of medicines like Ayurveda, Unani and
Homeopathic. In the present time, safe and elegant cosmetic products are
developed by merging the knowledge and experience of herbs and cosmetic
technology, which is widely accepted among the masses. In true means it can be
said to be a blend of nature with modern technology.
11.1 . 2. Advantages
Herbs are important for their disease prevention and health promotion properties
having following advantages:
1) Natural Products: Herbal cosmetics are natural and free from all the
harmful synthetic chemicals which generally may turn out to be lethal to the
skin.
2) Safe to Use: Natural cosmetics are protected to utilise. They are
hypoallergenic and are tested and proven by dermatologists to safe. Since
they are made of natural ingredients, people do not have to worry about
getting skin rashes or experience skin itchiness.
3) Compatible with All Skin Types: No matter that an individual is dark or
fair; they will find out natural cosmetics like foundation, eye shadow, and
lipstick according to their skin tone.
4) Affordable: These products are not expensive than synthetic ones. They are
offered at economical prices and are sold for a cheap price during sales.
5) No Side Effects: The synthetic beauty products can irritate the skin, and
cause pimples. They can also block the pores and make the skin dry or oily.
But using natural cosmetics, one need not worry about these and they do not
show any side effects.
6 ) Cosmeceutical: It is the fastest growing segment of the beauty industry.
They are cosmetic-pharmaceutical products intended to improve the health
and beauty of the skin by providing a specific result , ranging from acne-
control and anti -wrinkle effects, to sun protection.
Role of Herbs in Cosmetics (Chapter 11 ) 125
11.1 .3. Disadvantages

1 ) Herbal drugs have slow effects in comparison to allopathic dosage form and
it also requires long-term therapy.
2 ) It is difficult to hide their taste and odour.
3) Most of these drugs are not easily available.
4 ) Their manufacturing processes are time-consuming and complicated.
5) No pharmacopoeia defines any specific procedure or ingredients to be used
in any of herbal cosmetics.
11.1 .4. Applications

Herbs play following important role in the field of cosmetic:
1 ) Herbal Skin Care Products: Lavender body powder and body soap, silk
soaps and care creams.
2) Herbal Hair Care Cosmetics: Herbal hair care cosmetics have a several
ingredient , e.g., Shikakai (.Acacia concinna ), Henna ( Lawsonia inermis ),
Guar Gum ( Cyamposis tetragonolobus ) Amla ( Emblica officinalis), Brahmi
( Bacopa monnieri).
3) Herbal Lip Care Cosmetics: Herbal Lip plumper. Herbal Lipsticks, Herbal
Lip Balm and Herbal Lip Gloss.
4 ) Herbal Eye Care Cosmetics: Eye Shadow, Eye Gloss, Eye Make Up,
Liquid Eye Liners.
5) Herbal Creams, Lotions, Gel, Creams: Rich Face and Hand Cream, Aloe
Moisturizing Hand.
6) Herbal Oils: Herbal oils are effective for baldness, falling of hair, thinning
of hair, in treating irritation and itching of scalp.
7 ) Herbal Perfumes and Fragrances: Light citrus fragrance, fresh character of
citrus notes ( bergamot, orange, lemon , petitgrain, mandarin, etc. ) is often
combined with more feminine scents ( flowers, fruits and chypre ).
11.1.5. Role of Cosmetics in Skin Care

Table 11.1: Herbs Used for Skin Care
Botanical /Common Uses
Name/ Family /Distribution
1) Adhatoda vasica Nees : ( Vasaca ); Fresh leaves juice/extract is used for skin
Acanlhaceae; Throughout India . affection and control of scabies.
2) Ai la nthus excelsa Roxb : ( Maharukh ). Leaves extract checks skin eruption and
Simaroubaceae ; Throughout India . useful in skin creams and lotions.
3) Allium sativum Linn : ( Garlic ), Garlic oil is a source of sulphur and useful
Alliaceae; Throughout India . to control sores, pimples and acne. It may
be used in skin lotions and creams .
4) Aloe vera Linn : ( Ghikanwar ) Liliaceae. Leaves juice, its pulp or extracted material
Indian continent . is applied on skin for smoothness, healing ,
controlling skin burn, sun bum and injury .
Used in moisturisers, lotions, creams, hair
tonic , shaving creams , etc .
5) Andropogon muricatus Retz : ( Khas ), Powdered root paste with red sandal wood
Poaceae; Throughout India . is used to cure irritated skin and allergies.
6) Azadirachta indica A. Juss : ( Neem ), Bark, seed, fruits and leaves contain
Meliaceae; Indian warmer parts. diterpenes and highly oxidised tetraner -
triterpenoids including azadirachtin:
antiseptic agent ; useful in curing wounds,
skin diseases, leprosy, ulcers, etc.
7) Buchanania lanzan Spreng : Kernel powder is useful in skin ointments
(Chironnji ) , Anacardiaceae; Throughout to cure itch , blemishes, rashes and spots.
India ( up to 1000m ).
8) Bu tea frondosa Koenig ex Roxb : Leaves extract is useful in pimples and
( Dhak ),Fabaceae; Throughout India ( up seed extract for fungal infection and
to 1200m ), bruises.
9) Caricapapaya Linn : ( Papaya ), Milky juice of unripe fruit is a good
Caricaceae; Throughout India. ingredient for facial and face cream; fruit
pulp make skin soft and remove blemishes.
10) Cassia tora Linn : ( Panwar ), Leaves and seed extract are useful for skin
Caesalpiniaceae; Throughout India. infection, ringworm, eruption, etc.
11 ) Citrus limon ( Linn. ) Burm.f : ( Nimbu ), Potential source of vitamin C; oil is used in
Rutaceae; Throughout India. various preparation to reduce skin itching and
skin nourishment, pulp left after extraction of
juice is useful as a facial ingredients.
12 ) Cocos nucifera Linn : ( Nariyal ), Coconut oil is useful for skin itching and
Arecaccae ; Hot damp region of India rashes.
13) Cucumis sativus Linn : ( Khira ), Water extract of fruits and seeds protect
Cucurbitaceae; Throughout India skin from sunburn.
14 ) Curcuma longa Linn : ( Haldi ), Rhizome powder possesses anti -
Zingiberaceae; Throughout India inflammatory and anti oxidant properties;
used extensively in facial , face creams and
ointments.
15 ) Cuscuta reflexa Roxb : ( Akash bel ), Plant extract is useful to control dermatitis,
Convolvulaceae, Throughout India itching and ringworm.
16) Cydonia oblonga Mill : ( Bile ); Rosaceae; Seed extract is used for beautification and
North -West Himalayas protection of skin .
17 ) Eclipta alba ( Linn. ) Hassk : ( Bhringraj ), Paste of herb is useful to control skin
Asteraceae; Throughout India diseases and eczema.
18) Euphorbia thymifolia Linn: (Choti Plant extract is useful to control ringworm
Dhudhi ), Euphorhiaceae; Throughout India and skin infections.
19 ) Jasminum grandiflorum Linn . Essential oil extracted from flowers is used
(Chameli ), Oleaceae; Throughout India in skin creams and lotions to control skin
diseases. Essential oil extracted from plant
is used in creams for the protection from
sunburn.
20 ) Juniperus communis Linn : ( Aaraar ), Whole plant extract is useful in skin
Cupressaceae; Himalaya region ( 1700- creams to control skin rejuvenation.
4200m )
21 ) Lavandula veraDC : Syn .L officinalis Essential oil is used in skin anti -acne
Chaix ( Lavender ), Lamiaceae; Jammu cream.
and Kashmir
22 ) Leucas aspera Spreng : ( Hul Khusa ), Juice of leaves is applied to control
Lamiaceae; Throughout India scabies, skin psoriasis, chronic skin , skin
eruption and eczema.
Role of Herbs in Cosmetics (Chapter 11) 127
-
23) Mallotus philippensis Muell. Arg :
( Kamala ), Euphorbiaceae; Throughout
Flower powder is useful to control scabies,
ringworm , leprous eruption, etc.
India
24 ) Mangifera indica Linn : ( Aam ), Plant extract possesses antioxidant
Anacardiaceae; Throughout India properties.
25 ) Matricaria cliamomilla Linn : ( Babuna ), Leaves extract is applied in anti - acne
Asteraceae: Himalayan hills cream.
26 ) Mimosa pudica IJnn : ( Lajwanti ), Herb extract applied in skin creams and
Mimosaceae; Throughout India lotions to control itching.
27 ) Momordica charantia Linn : ( Karela ), Plant extract possesses antioxidant
Cucurbitaceae; Throughout India properties.
28) Ocimum sanctum Linn : And other Leaves extract is useful to control skin
Ocimum spp. (Tulsi ), Lamiaceae, infection and rejuvenation.
Throughout India
29 ) Phyllanthus emblica Linn : Syn. Fruit extract possesses anti -oxidant
Emblica officinalis Gaertn., ( Amla ), properties.
Euphorbiaceae; Tropical and subtropical
regions of India
30) Pistia stratiotes Linn : ( Water lettuce ), Leaves extract is applied to control chronic
Araceae ; Throughout India skin disorders.
31 ) Prunus amygdalus Batsch : ( Badam ). Kernel extract is used in sun creams and
Rosaceae; Himalayan regions ( 2300 other formulations to make the skin fair
meters) and beautification creams.
32 ) Psoralea corylifolia Linn : ( Babchi ), Seeds extract possesses potential to control
Fabaceae; Throughout India skin diseases.
33) Rosa damascene Mill : ( Lai gulab ), Essential oil extracted from flowers is used
Rosaceae; Throughout India in skin creams, lotions and ointment for
beautification , smoothness and protection
from sunburns.
34 ) Santalum album Linn : (Chandan ), Paste of hardwood is used in face pack ;
Santalaceae; Dry regions of India essential oil used in preparation of creams,
ointments and lotions for skin
beautification and protection from
sunburn ; possesses anti - oxidant properties.
35) Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke : ( Kuth ), Roots extract is used in ointments for
Asteraceae; Himalayan hills chronic skin diseases.
36) Sesamum indicurn Linn : (Til ), Seed extract is useful for skin protection
Pedaliaceae ; Throughout India and rejuvenation .
37 ) Swertia chirayita ( Roxb. Ex Flem ) . Bark powder extract controls skin
Karst : (Cheretta ), Gentianaceae; affections; possesses antioxidant
Himalayas properties.
38 ) Withania somnifera Dunal : Whole plant extract is used in skin
( Aswagandha ), Solanaceae; Drier part of cleansing formulations and possesses
Himalayas antioxidant properties.
39 ) Zea mays Linn : ( Makka ), Poaceae; Stigma extract is used in creams and
Throughout India lotions for skin rejuvenation.
11.1.5.1. Aloe
1 ) Aloe vera is a herbal plant species belonging to family Liliaceae .
2) It is an ingredient in many cosmetics because it heals, moisturises, and softens
skin. Simply cut one of the aloe vera leaves to extract the soothing gel .
3) Aloe vera contains amino acids like leucine, isoleucine, saponin glycosides
that provide cleansing action, vitamins A, C, E, B, choline, B 12 and folic
acid and provide antioxidant activity.
The leaves have outer green peel and the inner colorless gel . It also has bitter
yellow liquid (exudate ) from the outer peel along with the inner clear gel . Both
parts have different components and activities so it’s very important to
distinguish between them and choose the appropriate part of the aloe vera plant
depending on the properties intended to be add to the cosmetic.
Aloe vera gel has great moisturising properties because it is rich in
polysaccharides, which also give it a gel -like appearance. The polysaccharides
are highly hygroscopic ( water-loving ) and bind to moisture. On the other hand,
its structure forms a protective film for the skin, which helps in its healing
properties. Sometimes the gel also serve as analgesic and anti -inflammatory
properties that would be particularly beneficial on skin wounds, bums and
promotion of radiation damage repair. Aloe vera gel also comprises vitamins,
amino acids, minerals and enzymes, which provide its skin -soothing effect.
The leaf exudate, which originates in aloe vera’s green peel, has been studied for
both toxic and medicinal properties. The exudate’s composition varies in
different species. However, it invariably contains several components that cause
skin irritation and erythema (redness): phenolic compounds, particularly
chromone, anthraquinone or anthrone derivatives are often the cause. For this
reason, we recommend that you use only aloe vera gel in your formulations, and
avoid the leaf exudate.
Another component of interest in aloe vera leaf exudate is aloin, which has been
isolated and studied for its skin-lightening properties with great results.
Appealing ingredient to work with as a natural skincare formulator is as follows:
Table 11.2: Useful Properties of Aloe Vera as a Skincare Ingredient
Advantages: 1 ) Easy to find
2) Low price
3 ) Effective
4 ) Skin - friendly
Key Properties: 1 ) Moisturising
2) Skin Soothing
3 ) Analgesic and anti - inflammatory
4) Damage repair
Components: 1 ) Lipophilic and hydro- soluble vitamins
2) Minerals
3 ) Enzymes
4) Simple and complex polysaccharides
5 ) Phenolic compounds
6 ) Organic acids
Ingredients: 1 ) Aloe vera powder
2) Aloe vera gel
3 ) Aloe vera oil - infused
4) Aloe vera glycerite
Benefits of Aloe
1 ) Soothe Sunburn: Aloe vera gel has cooling properties and is anti -
inflammatory. Hence, it is one of the most natural remedies for sunburn or
burnt skin. Applying this gel helps with a protective layer for the skin, and it
also helps to retain moisture. It is rich in antioxidants and minerals that boost
the healing process.
2 ) Moisturise the Skin: Unlike regular, market -bought moisturizers, Aloe Vera
gel does not leave a greasy film on the face and the skin. In fact , it unclogs
the pores and softens the skin. It can be used as an aftershave -treatment. This
is because the Aloe Vera gel helps to keep the skin hydrated and heals burns
by razor and smaller nicks & cuts. It also helps treat dry skin.
3) Boosts Healing of Wounds: It is now a known fact that Aloe Vera is highly
beneficial for burns, cuts and other injuries. This is because Aloe Vera boosts
the healing of wounds, i.e., reduces the time of healing. This is true
especially in the case of 1 st degree and 2 nd -degree burn. It also helps to
speed up skin cell reproduction by eight times. Aloe vera is also known to
penetrate the epidermis, i.e., the outer layer of the skin faster than water.
-
4) Fights Skin Aging: Aloe vera gel has vitamin C and E, beta-carotene in
abundance. Therefore, it has anti -aging properties. It also contains
antimicrobial properties and is anti -inflammatory. It also helps to eradicate
skin blemishes and diminish age lines. Additionally, it helps to increase the
production of collagen in the body and skin elasticity.
5 ) Reduces Infection and Acne: Those who suffer from acne will find respite
in Aloe Vera. It helps in gentle cleansing, and its antimicrobial properties
treat pimples without causing any damages to the skin. It is an antiseptic that
allows protection against bacteria. Aloe Vera contains polysaccharides and
gibberellins. These help in the growth of new cells and at the same time
reduce inflammation and redness. It also works as an astringent that reduces
the size of pores, flushing out the excess sebum, microbes, and dirt.
Aloe Products
1 ) Nourishing Creams: These creams serve a dual purpose as they nourish and
protect the skin along with giving a non -greasy appearance , e.g., Nourishing
skin cream ( Himalaya ).
Nourishing creams contain the following ingredients which nourishes the
skin:
i ) Aloe vera ( Nourishes and moisturises the skin ).
ii ) Indian Kino tree, Ashwaganda ( Protect the skin from pollution and dry
weather ).
iii ) Gotu Kola ( May increase the production of collagen ).
Apart from the above mentioned ingredients nourishing creams contain other
ingredients like liquid paraffin, glycerine, BHT, sodium EDTA,
phenoxyethanol , methylparaben , etc., which act as formulation base.
2) Moisturizer Cream: These creams are used for application on dry skin.
Their main function is healing, repairing and maintaining the softness of the
.
skin . They enhance the hydration of skin by reduction in evaporation , e g.,
Aloe moisturizing cream . The formulation of a typical moisturizer cream
consists of aloe vera gel, tocopherol ( Vitamin E), chamomile extract,
beeswax, and coconut oil.
Melt the coconut oil along with the beeswax by heating. Mix the molten
mixture with continuous stirring and cool the mixture slowly. While stirring add
gel of aloe vera drop wise. Stirring is discontinued when the mixture attains a
uniform thickness, and finally chamomile extract and vitamin oil is added .
11.1.5.2. Turmeric
1 ) It is a deep yellow-to-orange power that comes from the underground stems
of the tropical perennial herb Curcuma longa of the family Zingiberaceae .
2) Turmeric contains a wide range of phytochemicals including, demethoxy
curcumin, zingiberene, curcumol , curcumenol. eugenol, curcumin, turmerones,
and turmeronols. Curcumin that gives yellow colour to the turmeric.
3) Uses of turmeric include antiseptic, analgesic, anti -inflammatory, antioxidant,
antimalarial, insect-repellent, and other activities associated to turmeric.
Benefits
1 ) Therapeutic Effects: It has anti-inflammatory, anti - microbial , and
antioxidant effects that benefits the skin in many ways.
2 ) Helps Skin Ailments: It has been reported to help with eczema, psoriasis,
acne, and wound healing.
3) Lightens Pigmentation: It contains the antioxidant curcumin that also act as
anti -inflammatory and can lighten pigmentation .
4 ) Healing: It helps heal and prevent dry skin.
-
5) Anti Aging: It slows the skin aging process, and is used to diminish
wrinkles, keep skin supple, and improve skin’s elasticity .
Skin Care and Colouring
1 ) The skin is the main portion of the body and provides a shielding barrier against
harmful chemicals, microbes, and ultraviolet radiation. Natural plant products
like turmeric have been formulated to heal and prevent dry skin, treat skin
conditions such as eczema, psoriasis and acne, and retard the aging process.
2) Traditionally women rub turmeric on their cheeks to produce a natural
golden glow, extract of turmeric has been added to creams for use as a
colouring agent. A compound called curcumin is the yellow pigment in
turmeric.
3) Washing in turmeric improves skin complexion and also reduces hair growth
on body. Nowadays there are lots of herbal products in the market in which
main herb used is turmeric as natural ingredient.
4 Natural cleansers like milk with turmeric powder are effective natural
)
cosmetics as it brings a healthy glow to the skin and makes them beautiful . It
also helps to restore or maintain youth by controlling wrinkle and crease
formation on the surface of the skin.
5) Effectual healing properties of turmeric have made it accepted after
ingredient in cosmetics and drugs, as the leaf oil of turmeric and extract can
also be used as bio-pesticides and sunscreens.
6 ) In addition to colour and flavour into many oriental cuisines, turmeric

powder is valuable for its aromatic , stimulatory and carminative properties as
well as for curing many ailments both minor such as sore throat and coryza
as well as major afflictions . It is eminent for accelerated healing of both
septic and non-septic wounds .
7 ) Turmeric is also very effective tonic and a blood purifier. It is also skin -
friendly and constitutes an important ingredient of many creams and lotions .
11.1 .6. Role of Cosmetics in Hair Care

Table 11.3: Herbs Used for Hair Care
Botanical/Common Uses
Name/ Family /Distrihution
1) Acacia concinna DC : ( Shikakai ), Pods extract is used as hair cleanser
Mimosaceae; Tropical forest of India and for control of dandruff.
2) Arnica Montana Linn : ( Arnica ), Flowers extract is used in hair oil as a
Asteraceae; Cultivated sparingly in tonic material . It stimulates the hair
India follicles.
3) Betula pendula : ( Birch ), Betulaceae ; Extract of leaves is used as anti-
North west India dandruff .
4) Brassica spp : ( Mustard ), Seed oil is used as hair oil and useful
Brassicaceae; Throughout India for hair nourishment.
5) Calendula officinalis Linn: Flowers extract is used in hair creams
( Marigold ), Asteraceae; Cultivated in for smoothening effect.
India
6) Carthamus tinctorius Linn : Alcoholic extract is used in hair tonics.
( Safflower ) , Asteraceae; Indian plains
7) Centella asiatica ( Linn. ) Urban : Whole plant extract is used for the
( Mandukapami ), Apiaceae; growth and maintenance of hairs.
Throughout India
8) Cocos nucifera Linn : ( Nariyal ), Kernel oil is a well -established hair oil,
Arecaceae ; Coastal parts of India which is used as such or as a basic raw
material for preparing hair oils and
tonics.
9 ) Eclipta alba ( Linn. ) Hassk : Whole plant extract is useful for hair’s
( Bhangra ) , Asteraceae; Himalayas nourishment and dyeing.
regions
10) Ficus racemosa Linn : ( Bargad ), Aerial root powder is mixed with
Moraceae; Throughout India coconut oil for massage to check falling
hairs.
11) Juglans regia Linn : ( Akroot ), Leaves and hull of fruits is used for
Juglandaceae; Himalayas ( temperate hair dyeing.
region )
12) Ixiwsonia inermis Linn : ( Henna ), Leaves paste is used for hair dyeing
Lythraceae; Throughout India and nourishment.
13) Nardostachys jatamansi DC : Extract of rhizome is used in hair tonics
( Jatamansi ), Valerianaceae; Alpine for their growth.
Himalayas
14) Phyllanthus emblica Linn : ( Amla ), Fruit extract is used in oils for
Euphorbiaceae; Throughout India promotion of hair growth.
15) Salvia officinalis Linn: ( Sage ), Aqueous extract is used as hair

Lamiaceae; Cultivated in gardens conditioner.
16 ) Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn : ( Ritha ), Extract of fruit coat works as natural
Sapindaceae; Cultivated in India shampoo: used in herbal shampoo as
hair cleanser.
..
17 ) Saussurea lappa C B Clarke: ( Kuth ), Roots extract is used in hair dyeing.
Asteraceae; Himalayas
18) Sesamum indieum Linn: (Til ), Seed oil is one of the major sources of
Pedaliaceae; Warmer regions of India hair oils, which is used as such or a
base for preparing specific hair oils.
19) Terminalia bellirica Roxb: ( Behera ), Seed extract and oil is good for hair
Combretaceae: Throughout India dyeing preparation .
20 ) Terminalia cliebula Retz : ( Harra ), Seed extract is used in hair care
Combretaceae; Throughout India formulations.
21 ) Thymus serpyllum Willd : Whole herb extract is useful for
( ( Banajwain ) , Lamiaceae; Himalayas preparing hair tonics.
-
22 ) TrigoneUa foenum graecum Linn :
( Fenugreek ), Fabaceae; Throughout
Seed extract is used as hair cleanser.
India
11.1 .6.1 . Henna

1 ) Henna comes from the plant Lawsonia inermis family Lythraceae, which
contain a dye molecule called Lawsone, which when processed produces
henna power.
2 ) Besides lawsone other constituents present are gallic acid, glucose, mannitol ,
fats, resin ( 2% ), mucilage and traces of an alkaloid.
3) Leaves yield henna tannic acid and an olive oil green resin, soluble in ether
and alcohol. Lawsone isolated from the leaves of L.inermis has been
significant in antifungal antibiotic effect.
Benefits
1 ) Promotes Hair Growth: It is loaded with powerful phytochemicals
including tannins and phenolics. These help to stimulate follicle growth,
arrest frequent episodes of hair fall and maintain a healthy mane. Lathering
an even layer of shampoo infused with henna extracts and washing hair twice
or thrice a week immensely improves hair growth and thickness.
2 ) Regulates Oil Secretions: The scalp naturally secretes oil in the sebaceous
glands and in some instances of harsh external environmental or other
internal health issues, excess oiliness presents on the head , causing constant
itching and loss of hair. Using a henna-based conditioner on the scalp after
thoroughly washing the hair helps to balance oil production on the scalp, thus
enriching hair texture.
3) Combats Dandruff : It is a brilliant natural solution for treating dandruff and
other microbial disorders occurring on the scalp. Simply massage hair and
scalp with henna powder paste mixed with a few drops of lemongrass oil
once or twice a week. This simple home remedy instantly removes dandruff ,
eliminating irritation and flaking of the scalp.
4 ) Repairs Hair Damage: It comprises a wealth of hair-fortifying elements,

including proteins, antioxidants and vitamin E, which vastly augment hair
health. Using henna-based shampoos and conditioners to cleanse the hair and
scalp regularly, helps to rectify split ends, dryness and promote the growth of
long, thick tresses.
5 ) Prevents Premature Greying: It is an organic herbal ingredient that
contains a reddish -brown colouring compound and is hence a wonderful
dyeing agent for covering up greying and ageing hair. Applying a paste of
henna powder with green tea extracts imparts a natural dark colour to hair,
besides enhancing the growth of long, strong and healthy hair.
Herbal Hair Colour
The prime purpose of hair colours or hair colorants is for camouflaging grey hair
or just for the sake of style statement.
The leaves are boiled in water and then the mixture is allowed to stand for a few
hours. It is strained to remove the leaves and alcohol and perfume are added.
Addition of pyrogallol and metallic salts may be used to produce a range of
colours with henna. But this may prove toxic if applied on broken skin.
Formula 1
Henna leaves ( coarsely ground ) IQ .OOgm
Alcohol 44.00gm
Water 45.75gm
Perfume 0.25gm
11.1.6.2. Amla
1 ) Amla is the name given to the fruit of a small leafy tree ( Emblica officinalis ) ,
belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae which grows throughout India and
yields and edible fruit.
2 ) It is highly praised both for its high vitamin C content and for the precious
oil , which is extracted from its seeds and pulp and used as a treatment for
hair and scalp problems. It is used in eye syndromes, hair loss, and children
ailments, etc.
Benefits
1 ) Hair Growth: The phyto-nutrients, vitamins and minerals present
in amla help in increasing the scalp circulation and stimulate healthy
growth. Vitamin C of amla produces collagen protein. This helps in
stimulating hair growth, both length and volume wise. Collagens replace the
dead cells of hair follicles with new hair cells.
2 ) Serves as a Natural Hair Conditioner: Amla can nourish , strengthen and
condition of the hair thereby making it shiny and adding volume to the
hair. One amla contains up to 81.2% of moisture content in it. Moreover, if
someone has oily hair, then using amla powder will soak in all the excess oil
present on the scalp, along with conditioning it.
3) Treats Dandruff : Dandruff is usually the result of dryness. This vitamin
C rich juice cures the dryness and prevents the accumulation of
dandruff. Amla’s Vitamin C, its anti -inflammatory along with anti-bacterial
properties can stop dandruff and also the itching caused by it, on the scalp.
4 ) Scalp Cleanser: Amla juice is great for cleansing the scalp. It nourishes the
scalp and makes the hair shiny. The antioxidants present in amla, shields our
hair from various hair damages, caused due to it by dust , pollution, smoke,
and hair styling tools, etc.
5 ) Improves Pigmentation: Most of the hair colouring packs contain amla in
them as it helps in fighting pigmentation. It also helps in discoloration
making the hair long and luscious. Moreover, it is important to keep the hair
and scalp clean to avoid pigmentation. Amla and its anti -microbial
properties, will not just banish hair odour but it will also remove the germs
sticking on the hair.
6 ) Reduces Greying of Hair: According to Ayurveda , premature greying
usually occurs due to excess pitta in the body. Some of the signs of
excess pitta include skin rashes, burning sensations, peptic ulcers, excessive
body heat , and heartburn. Amla, a natural coolant , is an excellent remedy for
fixing the pitta condition, which reduces greying.
7 ) Strengthens Hair: Amla juice serves as a beneficial tonic for both skin and
hair. It strengthens the hair follicles thereby facilitating hair growth and
strengthening of the hair. It also strengthens the roots, maintains colour and
improves lustre. Eating fresh gooseberry or applying its paste on the roots of
the hair improves hair growth and colour.
8) Antioxidant: It has the power to eliminate toxins in the body and serves as a
great antioxidant. Due to its antioxidant potential, it is often used as a
nutritional supplement in chyavanprash and other Ayurvedic medicines.
9 ) Natural shine: Amla powder can be added to the home - made hair masks to
add a natural shiny to your hair. Make sure to apply it regularly to have better
results. The surplus of vitamin C in amla can help halt premature greying. If
you want to enhance the natural colour of your hair, all you have to do is mix
avia powder with henna powder.
10) Thickens Hair: With its nutrients and other beneficial properties,
drinking amla juice regularly or simply applying it can make your hair
thicker and bouncier. Amla has vitamin C, which is assisted by various
minerals, nutrients, amino acids, and antioxidants, etc. That helps Amla in
fighting against all the hair weakening factors and thickens hair.
11 ) Prevents Frizzy Hair: It prevents dryness and helps in restoring moisture. It
also removes the dead cells. The essential fatty acids present in amla
strengthen hair follicles and add lustre to the hair. Unmanageable frizzy hair
can be treated with regular use of amla.
12) Enhances Hair Colour: It is commonly used with henna in order to enhance
the hair colour making it look natural. Amla in various forms like in oil, juice,
pickle and even in candy form to give back the hair, its natural colour.
Amla for Hair Fall Treatment

One of the best treatment to prevent hair fall is to massage the hair with amla oil.
It is considered as a superfood for hair, as amla is rich in vitamins, minerals,
amino acids, and phytonutrients that increase the circulation of blood
significantly throughout the scalp.
Role of Herbs in Cosmetics ( Chapter 11 ) 135
By providing enough oxygen and nourishment to the hair follicles, amla oil
makes the hair fibers strong and puts an end to the issue of hair fall.
Amla for Dandruff Treatment

Using the vitamin C-rich amla powder for hair cures the dryness and prevents the
accumulation of dandruff . Its anti -inflammatory and anti -bacterial properties are
very effective in stopping dandruff formation. By clearing the build-up of
impurities from the scalp and restoring optimum pH levels of the scalp, amla
even helps in reducing the itchiness resulting from dandruff .
Make a paste of amla powder in water and grind about 8 - 10 tulsi leaves into this
paste. With the help of hands, apply this paste on the scalp and leave it for about
30 minutes. Rinse with cold water and mild natural cleanser.
Amla for Treating Premature Greying
One of the biggest causes of premature greying of hair is the lack of proper
nutrition . Including Amla is everyday diet not only helps in supplying the body
with the necessary nutrients but also helps in their absorption.
Regular use of Amla in the diet as well as in daily hair care routine prevents
greying and helps in maintaining natural hair color and luster. Eating amla for
hair health is one of the best additions that you can make to your diet.
Regular oiling also helps in retaining the natural hair color. Mix equal amount of
amla and almond hair oil and apply the mixture generously from root to tip.
Massage the oil in a circular motion on the scalp. Another oil treatment for
preventing premature greying is Brigand Hair Oil. It combines the benefits of
amla for hair along with other powerful ingredients like Bhringraj and Indigo.
Amla for Hair Growth
Amla contains oodles of essential fatty acids that penetrate into the follicles,
making the hair softer, shinier and voluminous. It also stimulates hair growth
owing to its high iron and carotene content. Amla paste can be combined with
other herbs to promote hair growth. Together, Amla, Reetha, and Shikakai
complement each other and help in maintaining healthy and lustrous hair. Using
amla juice for hair, works as an effective hair strengthening treatment.
Amla Oil as a Hair Tonic
Amla can be used in combination with coconut oil or almond oil as a hair tonic.
To use it with coconut oil , simply boil some dried pieces of amla in coconut oil
till the liquid turns brown. Use this tonic on the scalp and hair. To use Amla with
almond oil , combine amla juice with almond oil and warm the mixture together.
Apply this mixture as a hair tonic on scalp and hair.
11.1 .7. Role of Cosmetics in Oral Care

Various plants have immense potential in management of dental health. The
commonly used Ayurvedic medications for oral and dental health can be
classified based on their properties as:
1) Plants with Antimicrobial Property: Aloe, betal pepper ( Piper betel ), black
pepper ( Piper nigrum ) , clove ( Syzygium aromaticum ) , coriander .
(Coriandrum sativum ), eucalyptus ( Eucalyptus globules ) , garlic ( Allium

sativum ), turmeric (Curcuma longa ) , green tea (Camellia sinensis ), Onion
( Allium cepa ), papaya (Carica papaya ) , potato ( Solatium tuberosum ) are few
Indian Plants species which contain antimicrobial activities.
2 ) Plants with Antioxidant Property: Spinach, pepper, black tea, broccoli,
green tea, carrot, potato tomato, blackberry, grape, olive, pineapple,
strawberry, orange to name a few known to have potent antioxidant activity.
3) Plants with Analgesic Property: Plants with claimed analgesic activity are
as follows - Capsicum (Capsicum annuum ) , Chile ( Capsicum annuum ) ,
clove ( Eugenia caryophyllus ), ginger ( Zingiber officinale ), marijuana
( Cannabis sativa ) , menthol (.Mentha piperata ) , peppermint ( Mentha
piperita ) , poppy ( Papaver somniferum ) , tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum ).
4 ) Plants with Anti- Inflammatory Property: Aloe ( Aloe vera ) , garlic ( Allium
sativum ) , ginger ( Zingiber officinale ) , onions ( Allium cepa ), neem
( Azadirachtia indica ), periwingle ( lesser ) ( Vinca minor ) and turmeric
( Curcuma longa ).
Table 11.4: Herbs for Tooth Preparations
Botanical Name Common Name Part Used Uses
Acacia arabica Babul Bark Teeth disorders
Azadirachta indica Neem Lead Toothache , Antibacterial ,
Dental carries
Barleria prionitis Vajradanti Entire herb Strengthens teeth . Tooth ache
Syzygium aromaticum Clove Bud Toothache, Antiseptic
Gtycyrrhiza glabra Yastimadhu Roots Natural sweetner and flavour
Salvadora persica Pilu Twigs Anti - microbial
11.1.7.1. Neem
The Neem tree ( Azadirachta indica ) has been known as the wonder tree for
centuries in the Indian subcontinent. Each part of the Neem tree has some
medicinal property and the broad range of biologic activities and pharmacologic
actions of Neem tree are very well established.
Although literature search reveals that Neem tree has multiple potential uses in
dentistry , its application is limited in routine dental practice. The current
manuscript highlights various usage of Neem tree related to oral health and
suggests including Neem derivatives in conventional dental practices.
Neem in Dental Care

People in both India and Africa have used neem twigs as tooth brushes for
centuries. Neem twigs contain antiseptic ingredients necessary for dental
hygiene. Neem powder is also used to brush teeth and massage gums. In
Germany many researchers have shown that neem extracts prevent tooth decay
and periodontal disease. Infections, tooth decay , bleeding and sore gums have all
been treated successfully with daily use of neem mouth rinse or neem leaf extract
added to the water.
Role of Herbs in Cosmetics ( Chapter 11 ) 137
Antibacterial Efficiency of Neem Extract on Micro Organisms Causing

Dental Caries
The microbial flora of the mouth is highly complex, containing a wide variety of
bacterial species. The most common oral disease, dental caries is related to dental
plaque and seem to occur when the normal balance between the microorganisms
and the host is disturbed.
Extracts from Neem sticks or bark have been shown to inhibit the growth
of Streptococcus mutans and significant reductions in bacterial adhesion in vitro ,
suggesting that it can reduce the ability of some streptococci to colonize tooth
surfaces. Neem extract produced the maximum zone of inhibition
on Streptococcus mutans at 50% concentration.
Neem Extract as a Potent Root Canal Irrigant
Candida albicans and Enterococcus faecalis are the most predominant
microorganisms recovered from root canals of teeth. Thorough debridement of an
infected root canal and complete elimination of microorganisms are objectives of an
effective endodontic therapy. Several in vitro studies have shown that Neem leaf
extract is a viable medicament against C. albicans, E. faecalis and even in their mixed
state. However, preclinical and clinical trials arc needed to evaluate biocompatibility
and safety before Neem can conclusively be recommended as an intracanal irrigating
solution, but in vitro observation of Neem effectiveness appears promising.
Efficiency of Neem Extract in the Treatment of Chronic Gingivitis and
Periodontal Diseases
Various studies have demonstrated that Azadirachta indica based mouth rinses are
highly efficacious and may be used as an alternative therapy in the treatment of
periodontal diseases. Periodontal disease is characterized by inflammation and/or
destruction of supporting tissue of the teeth. The most effective method of
prevention and maintenance of periodontal disease is mechanical as well as
chemical plaque control. The possible mechanism of anti -inflammatory action of
neem is by inhibiting prostaglandin E and 5 HT and thus reducing the inflammation.
The antibacterial action can be explained by “Azadiachtin” that is known to
destroy bacterial cell wall and thus inevitably inhibit the growth of bacteria, also
the breakdown of cell wall disturb osmotic pressure and leads to cell death .
Anti - Carcinogen Properties of Neem Extracts
Isolated components of Neem tree have shown impressive efficacy against cancer
cells and in boosting the body ’s immune response against carcinogenesis.
Various mechanisms have been suggested in this context such as boosting the
lymphocytic and cell mediated immunity, including the natural killer cells, which
are able to destroy viruses, bacteria and cancer cells. Neem extracts can also
protect against chemically induced carcinogenesis and liver damage by
increasing the antioxidant levels of body.
Various Therapeutic Usage of Neem Extract
Various other important therapeutic effects have been associated to Neem extract
like treating diabetes mellitus, improving liver functions, neuroprotective effects,
stress and ulcer reduction , treatment of sexually transmitted diseases, skin
diseases and malaria. The best information is that Neem may be helpful in
prevention and cure of acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( AIDS ). It may be

possibly treated by ingesting whole Neem leaves or Neem tree extracts. As oral
health is deeply related to overall systemic health of the individuals, management
of various systemic diseases will automatically improve the oral health.
11.1.7.2. Clove
Another very common agent used to relief pain of dental caries is application of
clove oil ; the obtunding activity has been attributed to the presence of eugenol in
clove oil. Eugenol extracts from clove have often been used in dentistry in
conjunction with root canal therapy, temporary fillings, and general gum pain ,
since eugenol and other components of clove ( including betacaryophyllene )
combine to make clove a mild anaesthetic as well as an anti - bacterial agent.
11.1 .8. Evaluation of Herbal Cosmetics

Cosmetic products are associated as well as correlated with hygiene, personal
care and well-being. For example, products like sunscreen lotions which contain
UV filters, toothpastes having anti decaying properties, anti-dandruff shampoos,
antiperspirants and baby care products, along with the formulations used for
creativity and enhancing appearance. Finished products are evaluated for their
safety, by using the toxicity related knowledge of ingredients, whereas the
additional information related must also be available, such as:
1) In case, the vehicle employed while formulation, differs from the solvents
that is employed during toxicity testing, and to ensure if there are chances of
enhancement in dermal penetration or irritation.
2) In case, there is a probability that combining the ingredients present in the
finished product will lead to creation of potent toxic substance.
3) In case there is major variation seen in between the in -house experiments and
in vitro tests done on finished product by major cosmetic companies.
4 ) In case, the in vitro tests are sufficient for safety evaluation, according to the
previous knowledge of data related to toxicity of the ingredients, but
practically no such test has been successful during the validation studies.
The finished product should be standardised in terms of:

1) Shelf life
2) Colour
3) Toxicity studies
4 ) Biological assay
5 ) Skin irritation test
6) Sensitisation test
7) Patch test
11.2. SUMMARY
The details given in the chapter can be summarized as follows:
l ) Herbal cosmetics can be defined as the products, which possess desirable
physiological activity like healing, enhancement of appearance, and conditioning
properties due to the presence of herbal ingredients present in it.
Role of Herbs in Cosmetics (Chapter 11) 139
2) Herbal cosmetics are natural and free from all the harmful synthetic chemicals
which generally may turn out to be lethal to the skin.
3) Aloe vera is an ingredient in many cosmetics because it heals, moisturises, and
softens skin. Simply cut one of the aloe vera leaves to extract the soothing gel .
4 ) Uses of turmeric include antiseptic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant,
antimalarial, insect -repellent, and other activities associated to turmeric.
5) Henna comes from the plant Lawsonia inermis family Lythraceae, which contain a
dye molecule called Lawsone, which when processed produces henna power.
6) Amla is highly praised both for its high vitamin C content and for the precious oil,
which is extracted from its seeds and pulp and used as a treatment for hair and scalp
problems. It is used in eye syndromes, hair loss, and children ailments, etc.
7) Amla can nourish, strengthen and condition of the hair thereby making it shiny and
adding volume to the hair.
8) Each part of the neem tree has some medicinal property and the broad range of
biologic activities and pharmacologic actions of Neem tree are very well established.
9 ) Neem twigs contain antiseptic ingredients necessary for dental hygiene.
10 ) Eugenol extracts from clove have often been used in dentistry in conjunction with
root canal therapy, temporary fillings, and general gum pain, since eugenol .
11.3. EXERCISE
11.3.1. Very Short Answer Type Questions
1 ) Define herbal cosmetics.
2) Name any four components of aloe vera.
3) Write the morphological characteristics of turmeric.
4 ) Name any two herbs used for hair Care.
5 ) Mention the most common use of henna.
6) Amla belongs to which family ?
7) Enlist four uses of neem in dental care.
8) Name the component present in clove oil.

1 ) Write the applications of herbal cosmetics.
2 ) Write a short note on aloe vera.
3) Mention the benefits of turmeric.
4 ) Describe the uses of cosmetic in oral care.
5) Write a short note on clove.
6 ) Write the advantages and disadvantages of herbal Cosmetics.

1 ) Describe the benefits of aloe vera and mention some of its products.
2 ) Give the benefits of amla.
3) Write in detail about neem and its benefits.
CHAPTER
12
Analytical Cosmetics
12.1. BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (BIS)

Bureau of Indian Standards ( BIS) is the National Standard Body of India. BIS is
responsible for the harmonious development of the activities of standardization ,
marking and quality certification of goods and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto.
BIS through its core activities of standardization and conformity assessment, has
been benefiting the national economy by providing safe, reliable and quality
goods; minimizing health hazards to consumers; protecting the environment ,
promoting exports and imports substitute; controlling over proliferation of
varieties etc. The standards and certification scheme of BIS apart from
benefitting the consumers and industry also support various public policies
especially in areas of product safety, consumer protection, food safety,
environment protection, building and construction , etc.
In recent years, BIS has worked towards specifically addressing various national
priorities and other government initiatives like Swacch Bharat Abhiyan, Digital
India, Make in India and ease of doing business through its activities of
standardization and certification . In standards development , BIS continues to
address issues of technology changes and advancements, climate change,
environment and energy conservation, conditions of health and safety and
facilitation of trade. In the area of conformity assessment BIS is working towards
making the processes simpler and faster.
Statutory Framework
The Bureau of Indian Standards Act , 2016, has been implemented since 12
October 2017. The highlights of the new BIS Act are:
1 ) Positions BIS as the National Standards Body.
2) Allows multiple conformity assessment schemes in line with global
practices.
3 ) Enables the Government to authorize any agency apart from BIS to certify
and enforce conformity to a standard.
4 ) Enables the Government to include products under mandatory certification
on grounds of health, safety, environment, national security and prevention
of deceptive practices.
5) Enables the Government to bring Hallmarking of precious metal articles
under mandatory certification.
6) Provides consumer protection measures like recall of non -conforming
standard marked products, compensation to the consumer and more stringent
penal provisions.
Analytical Cosmetics ( Chapter 12 ) 141
12.1 . 1 . Objectives of BIS

1 ) Harmonious development of the activities of standardization, marking and
quality certification of goods
2) To provide thrust to standardization and quality control for growth and
development of industry on one hand and to meet the needs of consumers on
the other.
12.1 .2. Activities

The activities of BIS can be broadly grouped under the following heads:
1 ) Standards formulation 2 ) International activities
3) Product Certification 4) Hallmarking
5) Laboratory services
6 ) Training services - National Institute of Training for Standardisation
7 ) Consumer Affairs and Publicity
12.1 .3. Standards Formulation

BIS formulates Indian Standards in line with the national priorities for various
sectors that have been grouped under 14 Departments like Chemicals, Food and
Agriculture, Civil, Electro-technical , Electronics & Information Technology,
Mechanical Engineering, Management & Systems, Metallurgical Engineering,
Petroleum Coal & Related Products, Medical Equipment and Hospital Planning,
Textile, Transport Engineering, Production & General Engineering and Water
Resources. Corresponding to these Departments fourteen Division Councils exist.
Each Division Council has a number of Sectional committees working under it.
The standards cover important segments of economy and help the industry in
upgrading the quality of their goods and services.
12.1 . 4. International Activities

1 ) International Organisation for Standardisation ( ISO): ISO is an
independent, non-governmental membership organization and the world ’s
largest developer of voluntary International Standards. BIS is a founder
member of ISO and is actively involved in development of International
Standards by acting as Participating ( P ) member or Observer (O) member on
various Technical Committees, Sub-Committees, Working Groups, etc.
2 ) International Electro- technical Commission ( IEC ): IEC was founded in
1906 and is the world’s leading organization for the preparation and
publication of International Standards for all electrical , electronic and related
technologies. India is represented in IEC through BIS.
3) Regional and Bilateral Cooperation: BIS is actively involved in the
Regional and Bi-lateral Co-operation Programmes pertaining to
standardization , testing, certification , training etc. So far, BIS has signed
several MoUs with national standards bodies of various countries. BIS also
plays an active role in formulation and implementation of regional standards
and on conformity assessment scheme for the SAARC countries under the
South Asian Regional Standards Organization ( SARSO ).
4 ) World Trade Organisation: Technical Barriers to Trade ( WTO-TBT)
Matters - BIS is the National Enquiry Point for WTO -TBT.
12.1 .5. Product Certification

BIS operates a Product Certification scheme for ensuring compliance to Indian
Standards. Presence of BIS standard mark ( popularly known as ISI mark ) on a
product indicates conformity to the relevant Indian Standard. Before granting
license to any manufacturer. BIS ascertains the availability of required
infrastructure and capability of the manufacturer to produce and test the product
conforming to the relevant Indian Standard on a continuous basis. The BIS
certification scheme is voluntary in nature. However for a number of products,
compliance to Indian Standards made mandatory by the Central Government
under various statutes in public interest.
Foreign Manufactures Certification Scheme ( FMCS)
BIS has been operating a separate scheme for foreign manufacturers in order to
certify goods manufactured outside India. Under this scheme, foreign manufacturers
can seek certification from BIS for marking their product(s) with BIS Standard
Mark after ensuring conformity of the products to relevant Indian Standard( s ).
Registration Scheme for Self Declaration of conformity
Registration Scheme operated by BIS is a simplified process of conformity
assessment. In this this scheme a manufacturer himself makes a declaration that
his product conforms to the Indian Standard.
12.1 .6 . Consumer Affairs and Publicity

BIS endeavours to create awareness and promote quality amongst all its
consumers through various awareness programmes:
1 ) Consumer Awareness Programms: For promoting the concept of
standardization, certification and quality consciousness among consumers,
awareness programmes are organized on a regular basis through various
Regional offices and Branch offices of BIS, sometimes in association with
Consumer Organizations.
2) Industry Awareness Programms: To propagate the concept of
standardization, product certification, management systems certification and
other BIS activities amongst Industries, Industry Awareness Programmes are
conducted by BIS.
3) Educational Utilisation of Standards Programms: BIS organizes
Educational Utilisation of Standards Programms ( EUS) for students and
faculties of schools, colleges etc., to inculcate the young minds with the
concepts and benefits of standardization.
4 ) World Standards Day: BIS celebrates the World Standards Day on 14th
Oct to pay tribute to the collaborative efforts of thousands of experts
worldwide, which develop voluntary technical agreements that are published
as International or National Standards.
5) Public Grievances: Consumer complaints relating to BIS certified products
are reviewed and monitored regularly for redressal.
6) Public Relations: The publicity activity of BIS is aimed at creating
awareness for various BIS activities among its target audience including the
Industry and common Consumer, significantly relating to Standardization ,
Certification of goods & services and Hallmarking of Gold Jewellery.
Analytical Cosmetics ( Chapter 12) 143
12.2. BIS SPECIFICATION AND

ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR SHAMPOO
This standard prescribes the requirements and methods of sampling and test for
shampoo based on surfactants.
References
The following standards contain provisions which through reference in this text ,
constitute provisions of this standard. At the time of publication, the editions
indicated were valid. All standards are subject to revision, and parties to
agreements based on this standard are encouraged to investigate the possibility of
applying the most recent editions of the standards indicated below:
IS No. Title
321 : 1964 Absolute alcohol ( revised )
1070 : 1992 Reagent grade water ( third revision )
3958 : 1984 Methods of sampling cosmetics ( first revision )
40 ll : 1997 Methods of test for safety evaluation of cosmetics ( second
revision )
4707 Classification of cosmetic raw materials and adjuncts:
( Part l ) : 2001 Dyes , colours and pigments ( second revision )
( Part 2) : 2001 List of raw materials generally not recognised as safe for use in
cosmetics ( second revision )
Requirements
1 ) Description: The shampoo shall be in the form of a liquid , emulsion or
paste. It may be coloured and perfumed.
2 ) Physical Characteristics: The clear/ transparent liquid shampoo, when
examined visually, shall be free from any sediment. If in the form of an
emulsion, it shall be homogeneous and there shall be no visible signs of the
emulsion having broken. Shampoo in the form of a paste shall be free from
any agglomerated particles.
3) Ingredients: Unless specified otherwise, all the raw materials used in the
manufacture of shampoo shall conform to the requirements prescribed in the
relevant Indian Standards where such standards exist.
i ) Dyes: The dyes used , if any, shall comply with the provisions of IS 4707
( Part l ), subject to the provision of Schedule Q of the Drugs and
Cosmetics Act , issued by the Government of India.
ii ) Other Ingredients: Other ingredients used, if any, shall comply with the
provisions of IS 4707.
iii ) A list of ingredients conventionally used in formulation of shampoos is
given, for guidance, in Annex A.
4 ) The Shampoo shall comply with the requirements given in Table 12.1
Table 12.1: Requirements for Shampoo, Surfactant Based

Characteristic Requirement Method of Test,
Ref to Annex
( 1) ( 2) ( 3) (4)
i) Non - volatile alcohol soluble matter, per cent 10 B
by mass, Min
. pH 4.0 to 9.0 C
iii ) .
Foam height for two per cent solution Min 150mm D
5) Additional Requirements for ECO Mark ( Optional )
i ) General Requirements
a ) The product shall conform to the requirements for quality .
b) All the ingredients that go into formulation of cosmetics shall comply
with the provisions of IS 2001 ( Part 1 ) and IS 2001 ( Part 2 ). The product
shall also meet specific requirements as given in the standard.
c) The product package shall display a list of key ingredients in
descending order of quantity present.
d ) The product shall not be manufactured from any carcinogenic
ingredients.
e ) The manufacturer shall produce to BIS environmental consent
clearance from the concerned State Pollution Control Board as per the
provisions of the Water ( Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess
Act, 1977 and the Air ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act, 1981
alongwith the authorisation, if required under the Environment
( Protection ) Act , 1986 and the Rules made there under , while applying
for ECO Mark, Additionally, provisions of the Drugs and Cosmetics
Act, 1940 and the Rules thereunder shall also be complied with.
ii ) Specific Requirements
a ) Product shall be dermatologically safe when tested as per IS 4011.
b ) Biodegradable agents wherever used in cosmetic formulations shall
be as per their limit finalised for synthetic detergents for ECO mark
by the technical committee.
c ) Heavy metals calculated as lead ( Pb ) and arsenic (As 203) shall not
exceed 20 and 2 ppm, respectively when tested by the respective
method prescribed in relevant Indian Standards.
d ) The material for product packaging shall meet the parameters
evolved under the scheme of labelling environment friendly
packaging/ packaging materials.
Packing and Marking
1 ) Shampoo shall be packed in glass or plastic containers or any other suitable
containers.
2) The containers shall be legibly marked with the following information:
i ) Name of the material,
ii ) Manufacturer’s name and/or his recognised trade- mark, if any ;
iii ) Net content in volume for liquids and emulsions and in mass for pastes;
iv) Month and year of manufacturing/ packing;
v ) Batch or Lot number, in code or otherwise.
vi) ‘ Best use before . . . ( month and year to be declared by the manufacturer );
1
Notes: This requirement is exempted:

a ) In case of pack sizes of 10g/25ml or less, and
b ) If the shelf life of the product is more than 24 months.
vii ) List of key ingredients; and
Note: This is exempted in case of pack sizes of 30g/60ml or less.
viii ) Any other information required by statutory authorities.
BIS Certification Marking: The containers may also be marked with the
Standard Mark:
i ) The use of the Standard Mark is governed by the provisions of the
Bureau of Indian Standards Act, 1986 and the Rules and Regulations
made thereunder. The details of conditions under which the license for
the use of Standard Mark may be granted to manufacturers or producers
may be obtained from the Bureau of Indian Standards.
ii ) If the product is covered under ECO Mark ( optional ), it shall be suitably
marked with ECO Mark logo besides Standard Mark. The label may
clearly specify that ECO Mark is applicable to the contents or the
package or both, as case may be. If the product package is not separately
covered under ECO Mark Scheme, it shall be clearly mentioned on the
product that ECO Mark label is applicable to contents only.
Sampling
1 ) Representative samples of the material shall be drawn as prescribed in IS
3958.
2 ) Tests for all the requirements shall be carried out on a composite sample.
3) The shampoo shall be taken to have conformed to this standard if the
composite sample passes all the tests.
Quality of Reagents
Unless specified otherwise, pure chemicals and distilled water shall be employed
in tests.
Note: Pure chemicals’ shall mean chemicals that do not contain impurities
which affect the results of analysis.
12.3 BIS . SPECIFICATION AND

ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR SKIN CREAM
This standard prescribes the requirements and the methods of sampling and test
for skin creams.
References
The following standards are necessary adjuncts to this standard. The standards
contain provisions, which , through reference in this text, constitute provisions of
this standard. At the time of publication , the editions indicated were valid. All
standards are subject to revision, and parties to agreements based on this standard
are encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the most recent editions
of the standards indicated below:
IS No. Title
265 : 1993 Hydrochloric acid ( fourth revision )
1070 : 1992 Water reagent grade ( third revision)
2088 : 1983 Methods for determination of arsenic ( second revision )
4011 : 1997 Methods of test for safety evaluation of cosmetics ( second revision )
4707 Classification of cosmetic raw materials and adjuncts:
( Part 1 ) : 2001 Dyes , colours and pigments ( second revision )
Part 2) : 2001 List of raw materials generally not recognised as safe for use in
cosmetics ( second revision )
14648 : 1999 Methods of test for microbiological examinations of cosmetics.
Requirements
1 ) Description: The skin cream shall be in the form of a thick emulsion or
unctuous mass with a pleasant odour. It shall be white or pigmented or of
uniform colour.
2) Ingredients: Unless specified otherwise, all the raw materials used in the
manufacture of skin creams shall conform to the requirements prescribed in
the relevant Indian Standards where such standards exist.
i) The dyes, colours ( pigments, lakes, etc.) if used in the manufacture of skin
creams shall comply with IS 2001 ( Part 1 ) subject to the provision of
schedule Q of Drugs and Cosmetic Act, issued by the Government of India.
ii) Other ingredients shall comply with the provisions of IS 2001 ( Part 2 ).
3) The material shall also comply with the requirements given in Table 12.2
when tested as prescribed in column 4 of the Table 12.2.
Additional Requirements for ECO Mark (Optional )

1 ) Requirements for quality, safety and performance prescribed under (a) to ( d ).
i ) All the ingredients that go into formulation of cosmetics shall comply
with the provisions of IS 2001 ( Part 1 ) and IS 2001 ( Part 2 ). The product
shall also meet specific requirements as given in the standard.
ii ) The product package shall display a list of key ingredients in descending
order of quantity present.
iii ) The product shall not be manufactured from any carcinogenic
ingredients.
iv ) The manufacturer shall produce to BIS environmental consent clearance
from the concerned State Pollution Control Board as per the provisions
of the Water ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Cess Act 1977 and
the Air ( Prevention and Control Pollution ) Act, 1981 alongwith the
authorisation , if required under the Environment ( Protection ) Act , 1986
and the Rules made there under, while applying for ECO Mark.
Additionally, provisions of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act , 1940 and the
Rules thereunder shall also be complied with.
Analytical Cosmetics (Chapter 12) 147
2) Specific Requirements
i) Product shall be dermatologically safe when tested as per IS 4011 .
ii) Heavy metals calculated as lead ( Pb) and arsenic (as As203) shall not
exceed 20 and 2 ppm, respectively when tested by the respective method
prescribed in Indian Standards.
Table 12.2: Requirements for Skin Creams

Characteristics Requirement Method of Test ,
Ref to
Annex IS No.
(1) ( 2) ( 3) (4) ( 5)
1) Thermal stability To pass the test A
2 B
2) pH ’ 4.0 to 9.0
3) Total Fatty substance content , per cent 5.0 C
by mass. Min
4) Total residue , per cent by mass, Min 10 D
5) Heavy metals2’ (as Pb ), parts per 20 E
million, Max
6) Arsenic2’ (as As203) , parts per million, 2 F
Max
7) Microbial content/limit
a ) Total viable count cfu/g Not more than 1000 14648
b ) Gram Negative pathogens Less than 10 14648
1) For creams based on beeswax and borax , the pH shall be between 5.0- 10.0
2) If all the raw materials requiring test for heavy metals and arsenic have been so tested and
comply with the requirements , then the manufacturer may not test the finished cosmetic for
heavy metals and arsenic .
Packing and Marking

1 ) Packing: The material shall be packed in suitable well-closed containers.
2 ) Marking: The containers shall be legibly marked with the following
information:
i ) Name of the material;
ii) Manufacturer’s name and/or his recognised trade-mark, if any;
iii ) Net mass of the material ;
iv) Month and year of manufacturing/ packing ;
v) Batch or lot number, in code or otherwise;
vi ) Expiry date or “ Best use before . . . ” ( month and year to be declared by the
manufacturer );
Note: This requirement is exempted:
a ) In case of pack sizes of 10g/25ml or less, and
b ) If the shelf life of the product is more than 24 months.
vii ) List of key ingredients; and
Note: This is exempted in case of pack sizes of 30g/60ml or less.
viii ) Any other information required by statutory authorities.
The containers may also be marked with the Standard Mark .
The use of the Standard Mark is governed by the provisions of the Bureau of
Indian Standards Act , 1986 and the Rules and Regulations made thereunder.
The details of conditions under which the licence for the use of the Standard
Mark may be granted to manufacturers or producers may be obtained from
the Bureau of Indian Standards.
If the product is covered under ECO Mark ( optional ), it shall be suitably

marked with ECO Mark logo besides Standard Mark . The label may clearly
specify that ECO Mark is applicable to the contents or the package or both,
as case may be. If the product package is not separately covered under ECO
mark Scheme, it shall be clearly mentioned on the product that ECO mark
Label is applicable to contents only.
Sampling
1) Representative samples of the material shall be drawn as prescribed in IS
3958.
2 ) Tests for all the characteristics shall be carried out on the composite sample
as per methods referred under column 4 and 5 of table 12.2.
3) The material shall be taken to have conformed to the standard if the
composite sample passes all the tests.
Quality of Reagents
in tests.
Note: Pure chemicals’ shall mean chemicals that do not contain impurities
12.4. BIS SPECIFICATION AND

ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR TOOTHPASTE
This standard prescribes the requirements and the methods of sampling and test
for toothpaste.
References
The Indian Standards referred in this standard have been listed below. Other
standards which are necessary adjuncts to this standard are given in Annex J . All
standards are subject to revision, and parties to agreements based on this standard
are encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the most recent editions
of the standard:
IS No. Title
264 : 1976 Nitric acid ( second revision )
265 : 1993 Hydrochloric acid ( fourth revision )
460 ( Part l ): 1985 Test sieves: Part l Wire cloth test sieves ( third revision )
2088 : 1983 Methods for determination of arsenic ( second revision )

4707 Classification of cosmetic raw materials and adjuncts
( Part 1 ) : 2CK ) 1 Dyes colours and pigments ( second revision )
( Part 2) : 2001 List of raw materials generally not recognised as safe for
use in cosmetics ( second revision )
14648 : 1999 Methods of test for microbiological examinations of
cosmetics.
Definitions
1 ) Dentifrice: A dentifrice is any substance or combination of substances
specially prepared for the public for cleaning the accessible surfaces of teeth.
2) Toothpaste: Toothpaste is defined as a dentifrice in the form of a smooth ,
semisolid, homogeneous mass containing acceptable ingredients such as
abrasives/polishing agents, surface active agents, humectants, binding agent,
and other appropriate substances for oral health maintenance. The product
can be opaque, transparent, or combination thereof , coloured or white,
packed in a suitable container from which it can be extruded in the form of a
continuous mass.
Types: The toothpaste shall be of either Type 1 or Type 2:
1 ) Type 1: Non-fluoridated.
2 ) Type 2: Fluoridated.
Requirements
1 ) Composition: A toothpaste shall not contain mono or disaccharides, e.g.,
sucrose or other readily fermentable carbohydrates. All the raw materials
used shall conform to respective Indian Standards wherever they exist. A list
of ingredients conventionally used in the manufacture of toothpaste is given
in Annex A for information only.
The dyes and pigments used in manufacture of toothpaste shall comply with
the provisions of IS 2001 ( Part 1 ).
Ingredients other than dyes and pigments used in formulation of toothpaste
shall comply with the provisions IS 2001 ( Part 2 ).
2 ) Dispensing: The paste shall extrude from the collapsible tube or any other
suitable container in which it is packed, at 27 ± 2°C in the form of
continuous mass with the application of normal force, without the application
of excessive force which would cause injury to the tube or the container. It
shall be possible to extrude bulk of the contents from the container or the
tube starting from the crimped end of the tube by rolling the tube gradually.
3) Stability: The toothpaste shall not show any physical sign of deterioration
during normal conditions of storage and use. When subjected to a
temperature of 45 ± 2°C for a period of 28 days the toothpaste shall meet the
requirements of the standard. When cooled to a temperature of 5°C for 1
hour, after taking out and pressing tube, the paste shall be found extrudable
from the tube and meet the requirement of this standard.
4) Packaging Material Inertness: The collapsible tubes or any other suitable

container used for packaging of toothpaste shall not corrode, deteriorate or cause
contamination of the toothpaste during normal condition of storage and use.
When subjected to a temperature of 45 ± 2°C for 10 days, the paste shall then be
examined visually by extruding part of the contents. The internal surface of the
tube shall be examined after slitting it open and removing the remaining
contents. There should be no sign of corrosion, chemical attack or other damage.
5) Acceptance Test: The toothpaste shall also comply with the requirements
given in table 12.3 when tested according to the methods given in Annex B
to Annex G, as per reference made in col 5 of table 12.3.
6) Shelf Life: Shelf life shall be declared by the manufacturer for all types of
toothpaste. Manufacturing date ( month and year) should be mentioned on
tube and carton. The expiry date or Best use before ' shall be mentioned on
the tube and carton. During the shelf life the product will meet the
requirement of the standard.
-
7 ) Additional Requirements of ECO Mark ( Optional )
i ) General Requirements
a ) The product shall conform to the requirements for quality, safety and
performance prescribed under.
b ) All the ingredients that go into formulation of cosmetics shall comply
with the provisions of IS 2001 ( Part 1 ) and IS 2001 ( Part 2). The
product shall also meet specific requirements as given in the standard.
c) The product package shall display a list of key ingredients in
descending order of quantity present .
d ) The product shall not be manufactured from any carcinogenic
ingredients.
e) The manufacturer shall produce to BIS environmental consent
clearance from the concerned State Pollution Control Board as per the
provisions of the Water ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Cess
Act, 1977 and the Air ( Prevention and Control Pollution ) Act, 1981
along with the authorisation, if required under the Environment
( Protection ) Act , 1986 and the Rules made thereunder, while applying
for ECO-Mark. Additionally, provisions of the Drugs and Cosmetics
Act , 1940 and the Rules thereunder shall also be complied with.
ii ) Specific Requirements: Heavy metals calculated as lead ( Pb ) and
arsenic ( As203) shall not exceed 20 and 2ppm, respectively when tested
by the respective method prescribed in Indian Standards.
Table 12.3: Requirements for Toothpaste
SI. Characteristics Requirement For Method of
No. Test, Ref to
Non - Fluoridated Fluoridated Annex
(1) (2) (3) (4 ) ( 5)
i) Fineness:
a ) Particles retained on 150 10 1.0 B
micron IS Sieve, per cent
by mass. Max .
Analytical Cosmetics ( Chapter 12 )
151
b) Particles retained on 75 2.5 2.5
micron IS Sieve , per cent
by mass. Max .
ii ) pH of aqueous suspension 5.5 to 10.5 5.5 to 10.5 C
Heavy metals (as lead ) , parts 20 20 D
per million . Max .
iv ) Arsenic (as As20 ), parts per 2 2 E
million. Max . ^
v ) Foaming power, ml . Min ' 50 50 F
vi ) Available Fluoride ion , parts 50 1000 G
per million . Max .
vii ) Microbial counts :
a ) Total viable counts per 1000 1000 IS 14648
grant . Max .
b ) Gram negative pathogens Absent Absent IS 14648
per gram , Max .
Note: If all the raw materials used in the toothpaste formulation have been tested for
heavy metals and arsenic and comply with the requirement , then manufacturer may not
test the finished cosmetic for heavy metals and arsenic .
Applicable to foaming toothpaste only .
Abrasivity (Type Test )

The toothpaste shall not exceed the limits of dentin abrasivity that of 2.5 times
when tested as per the procedure.
It may be noted that type test is recommended to be done on the formulation only
once to pass the above criterion . This test need not be done for each and every
batch. However, the type test is a must again if the abrasive system is changed in
the formulation. It is not required for the new formulation as long as abrasive
components are not changed.
Packing and Marking

1 ) Packing: Toothpaste shall be packed in collapsible tubes or in any other
suitable containers like sachets, pumps or other suitable dispensing systems.
When packed in containers, the containers shall be properly sealed and have
a leak-proof cap or closure. The containers, if necessary, may further be
packed in cartons or any other suitable packaging material.
The material for product packaging shall meet the parameters evolved under
the scheme of labelling environment friendly packaging/ packaging materials.
2 ) Marking: The tubes and the cartons shall be legibly marked with the
following information:
i ) Name and type of toothpaste;
ii ) Name and address of the manufacturer ;
iii ) Net mass or volume of the material in the tube;
iv ) Batch number, in code or otherwise ;
v ) Month and year of manufacture;
vi ) Fluoride ion content in ppm for Type 2 toothpaste;
vii ) Expiry date or " Best use before . . . ’ ( month and year to be declared by the
manufacturer );
viii ) Foaming/ non -foaming ; and
ix ) List of key ingredients.
BIS Certification Marking: The containers may also be marked with the
Standard Mark.
i ) The use of the Standard Mark is governed by the provisions of the
Bureau of Indian Standards Act , 1986 and the Rules and Regulations
made thereunder. The details of conditions under which the licence for
the use of the Standard Mark may be granted to manufacturers or
producers may be obtained from the Bureau of Indian Standards.
ii ) If the product is covered under ECO-Mark ( optional ), it shall be
suitably marked with ECO- Mark logo besides Standard Mark . The
label may clearly specify that ECO-Mark is applicable to the contents
or the package or both , as the case may be. If the product package is
not separately covered under ECO-Mark scheme, it shall be clearly
mentioned on the product that ECO-Mark label is applicable to
contents only .
Sampling
1) Representative test samples of the material shall be drawn as prescribed in IS
3958.
2) Number of tests and criteria for conformity the tests for abrasivity, stability
and container’s inertness shall be type tests and shall be performed for
product approval whereas tests for dispensing, fineness, pH, heavy metals,
arsenic, foaming power , fluoride content and microbial counts shall be
carried out on each batch for acceptance of the product.
The type tests shall be repeated in the event of change in the basic
formulation or whenever there is a change in the type of container being
used. However, the acceptance tests shall be performed on each and every
batch.
3) A batch may be defined as consisting of any quantity of toothpaste
manufactured in a single mix at one time.
4 ) The lot shall be declared as conforming to requirements of the specification,
if all the test results on each individual sample meet the requirements
prescribed in (ii ) to ( vi ).
Quality of Reagent
in tests.
Note: Pure chemicals’ shall mean chemicals that do not contain impurities,
Analytical Cosmetics (Chapter 12) 153
12.5. SUMMARY
The details given in the chapter can be summarized as follows:
1 ) Bureau of Indian Standards ( BIS ) is the National Standard Body of India. BIS is
responsible for the harmonious development of the activities of standardization ,
marking and quality certification of goods and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto.
2) BIS has worked towards specifically addressing various national priorities and other
government initiatives like Swacch Bharat Abhiyan, Digital India , Make in India and
ease of doing business through its activities of standardization and certification.
3) BIS formulates Indian Standards in line with the national priorities for various
sectors that have been grouped under 14 Departments.
4 ) BIS operates a Product Certification scheme for ensuring compliance to Indian
Standards.
5 ) BIS endeavours to create awareness and promote quality amongst all its consumers
through various awareness programmes.
6 ) The shampoo shall be in the form of a liquid , emulsion or paste. It may be coloured
and perfumed .
7) The skin cream shall be in the form of a thick emulsion or unctuous mass with a
pleasant odour. It shall be white or pigmented or of uniform colour.
8 ) A dentifrice is any substance or combination of substances specially prepared for
the public for cleaning the accessible surfaces of teeth .
12.6.EXERCISE
1) Give the full form of BIS.
2) Name any two national initiatives taken by BIS.
3) Mention any two activities of BIS.
4) Stale the objectives of BIS.
5) What are the international activities of BIS?
6) Enlist any two statutory frameworks of BIS.

1 ) Write a short note on BIS.
2 ) What is product certification , explain briefly?
3) Provide information about standards formulation.
4) Describe the international activities and consumer affairs & publicity of BIS.

1 ) Write in detail about BIS specification and analytical method for shampoo.
2 ) Write in detail about BIS specification and analytical method for skin cream.
3) Write in detail about BIS specification and analytical method for toothpaste
CHAPTER Principles of Cosmetic

13 Evaluation
.
13.1 SEBUMETER
Instrument used for determining the sebum level of the skin surface as well as on
scalp and hair.
Table 13.1; Types of Sebumeters
Instrument Sampling Device Features
Sebutape Adhesive, acrylic Measures sebum content of
Adhesive Patches microporous polymeric film. individual sebum -rich follicle, safe.
Sebufix Sebum collector foil without Quick , no occlusion effects since no
any glue . glue is used and thus avoids false
positive results due to sweating.
Live images of sebum flow can be
stored with software provided .
Skin Analyser Special tape in a sebu meter Corneometer plus sebumeter plus
cassette and Corneometer skin pH meter.
probe .
Skin Diagnostic Special tape in a sebumeter Corneometer plus sebumeter quick,
SD 27 cassette and corneometer portable ( battery operated ).
probe .
13.1. 1 . Principle
The measurement is based on grease spot photometry . The measurement cassette
of the Sebumeter contains a special tape that becomes transparent when it comes
into contact with sebum on the surface of the skin. In order to make a
measurement the cassette is inserted into an aperture on the device where the
transparency of the tape is measured. The transparency is measured by sending
light through the tape, using a light source in the aperture. The light is reflected
by a mirror behind the tape and a photocell measures the transparency. The
cassette is placed on the skin for a defined length of time and then returned to the
aperture. The change in the amount of light transmission represents the sebum
content of the tape, which is displayed in units from 0-350.
The measurement head of the cassette exposes a 64mm 2 section of tape with a
fresh piece of tape being used for each measurement . After each measurement the
tape can be advanced to expose a new piece of tape using the trigger on the side of
the cassette, where there is also a guide as to how much tape remains. One cassette
can be used for approximately 400 measurements before needing to be replaced.
13.1 .2. Mechanism of Sebum Measurement by Sebumeter

The measurement is based on the principle of greasespot photometry ( figure
13.1). The measuring head of the cassette with its special tape is placed on the
skin. It is then inserted into a slot of the device, where the transparency is
Principles of Cosmetic Evaluation ( Chapter 13 ) 155
measured by a light source passing through the tape. A photocell measures the
transparency. A microprocessor calculates the result, which is shown on the
display in mg sebum/cm 2 of the skin.
Sebumeter Probe ( Cassette)

The sebumeter-cassette contains a matte synthetic tape, 0.1 mm thick. The
2
measuring head of the cassette exposes a 64mm section of the tape, which is
transported forward by a trigger at the side of the cassette for the next
measurement. The measuring time of
30 seconds is controlled by a clock • Mirror
set in the device. Sebum is then • Projected ray
determined as explained in the • Reflected ray
measurement principle above. The
instrument has an accuracy of ± 5% . Photodiode
The reading of sebum may be
[ J
• Light source
displayed as a number or as type of
skin, i.e., Dry ; Dry/ Normal; Normal ; Figure 13.1: Optical Diagram of Sebumeter
Normal /Oily; Oily.
13.1 .3. Applications

1 ) To classify skin type as dry, normal and oily in an objective manner.
2 ) To prescribe pharmaceuticals/cosmetics suitable to the patients skin type to
increase efficacy and minimise side effects.
3) Pre-placement examination for correct analysis of skin type in the field of
occupational medicine, e.g., person of dry skin type may not suitable to work
in chemical industry involving use of acid and alkalis.
4) To make early diagnosis of senile asteotosis.
5) To measure skin -cleaning effects of soaps.
6) To do preliminary screening and follow up of patients with hyper -androgenic
states.
7) To study the endocrine control of sebaceous follicle in women for assessing
hormonal ageing.
8) To study the correlation between bad hair days’ ( days during which most
women find their hair difficult to manage ), sebum secretion , and menstrual
cycle.
9 ) To study sebo-suppressive effects of certain anti -acne medications like
retinoic acid in treatment of acne vulgaris.
10) To study the sebaceous gland activity in diabetics, in whom, the activity of
the glands is decreased.
13.1 .4. Advantages

1) Quick, reproducible and accurate measurement of sebum
2) Spring in measurement head provides constant pressure on skin
3) Easy handling due to low weight
4) Does not require frequent, complicated and time consuming recalibration
5) Check calibration to ensure accuracy of measurements

6 ) One cartridge lasts for approximately 400 measurements
7 ) Volume of studies provides a wealth of information for use in study design,
analysis and comparison .
13.1 .5. Disadvantage

The only disadvantage is the cost of the instrument as well as the consumable,
viz . , the cassette. Thus with increasing emphasis on skin enhancement , sebumeter
is likely to become a common implement in dermatologist ’s office
13.2. CORNEOMETER
The Corneometer indicates the hydration level of the superficial layers of the skin
( stratum corneum ) via measurement of skin dielectric properties. As the skin is a
dielectric medium, variations in hydration show up through changes in capacity.
In order to document the skin’s moisture content, a measuring capacitor is
pressed against the skin using constant pressure and the readings evaluated. The
recordings are always carried out within a constant time frame following the use
of the respective product.
13.2. 1 . Principle
The corneometer measurement is based on capacitance measurement of a
dielectric medium in this case skin . It uses fringing field capacitance sensors to
measure the dielectric constant of the skin. The dielectric constant of skin will
change with water content. This allows for any changes in skin hydration to be
measured by the precision measuring capacitor. These changes in water content
of the stratum corneum are converted into arbitrary units of hydration .
On the probe head there is a fine piece of glass to ensure that only the capacitance
changes due to water content are identified. Even small changes in water can be
detected. The measurement time is short at only 1 second minimising occlusion
effects. The depth of the measurement is 10-20pm, the stratum corneum, ensuring
that deeper skin layers do not influence the measurement.
Figure 13.2: Conductor Track of the Corneometer

I Probe
Bundle conductor
Electromagnetic field
Glass dividers
Skin surface
Figure 13.3: Frontal View of Electrode
Assessment of Skin Hydration

Epidermal hydration was assessed for both groups by measuring the electrical
capacitance with the help of the Corneometer CM 825. The principle of the
method is based on the difference between the dielectric constant of water (81 )
and other substances by measuring the capacitance of a dielectric medium. Any
change in the dielectric constant subsequent to the variation in skin surface
hydration leads to an impaired calculated capacitance of a capacitor.
The corneometer contains two electrodes with different electrical charges that
form an electromagnetic field that determines the dielectricity of the stratum
comeum. The depth of measurement is low ( the first 10-20 pm of the stratum
comeum ) due to the construction of the measuring head ( figure 13.3 ) .
13.2.2. Applications
The hydration measurement is the basic measurement for all bio- medical and
cosmetic applications.
1 ) Ideal instrument for formulation, claim support and efficacy and safety
testing of all cosmetics & skin care products ( personal care, irritation
research, soaps and cleansers, occlusive product development ), raw
materials, pharmaceuticals, household products, detergents, food and food
supplements, etc.
2) Typical claims substantiated with the corneometer are hydrating/
moisturising, against dry skin, for sensitive skin, protecting, restoring/
repairing, supports healing, soothing, normalising, vitalising, etc.
3) Used as standard in dermatological basis research in humans and animals.
4) Occupational health assessment to underline the importance of skin
protection measures.
13.2.3. Advantages
1) The probe allows very quick measurement within seconds that is important to
avoid occlusion.
2) Continuous measurements over a longer period can optionally be performed
(dynamic occlusion ).
3) Substances on the skin ( e.g. salts or residues of topical applied products )
have only minimal influence due to capacitance measurement.
4) The measurement depth is very small ( 10-20 pm of the stratum comeum ) to
exclude the influence of deeper skin layers ( e.g. from the blood vessels ).
5) The probe is small and lightweight for easy handling and measurement on all
body sites ( e.g. lips etc.).
6) The spring in the probe head ensures constant pressure on the skin enabling
exact , reproducible measurements.
7 ) The accuracy of the corneometer probe and the penetration depth of the
scatter field can be checked easily at any time.
8 ) The probe head can quickly be cleaned after each measurement.
9) Worldwide established as “comeometry” with a broad range of studies. The
corneometer had been used to determine the state of the skin of the
astronauts on board of the International Space Station ( ISS).
10) The corneometer is explicitly recommended in the latest guideline for skin
water measurements by the experts of EEMCO (European group on Efficacy
Measurement and evaluation of Cosmetics and Other products).
13.3.MEASUREMENT OF TEWL
Measurement of the trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL ) that is expressed in
grams per squaremeter and per hour is used for studying the water barrier
function of the human skin . The more perfect the skin protective coat, the higher
the water content and the lower the TEWL ( figure 13.4).
Exogenic Factors
( Germs.
Bacteria )
1 Stratum
/
corneum A
Stratum
Low TEWL Corneum
Exogenic Factors
( Germs. Bacteria ) High TEWL
(a) ( b)
Figure 13.4: Schematic Illustration of the Barrier Function
of the Stratum Corneum. a ) Healthy Skin, b ) Disturbed Skin
The outer part of the skin is the stratum corneum which forms a barrier against
diffusion of water and is also an effective barrier for microbes and chemical
substances. The stratum corneum contains much water and is flexible in the
healthy state, but it becomes hard and brittle when dehydrated. Disorders such as
atopic dermatitis arise when this barrier function does not work properly.
TEWL measurements allow discovering disturbances in the skin protective function
in an early stage, even before they are visible. Normal skin allows water loss only in
small amounts. In the case of atopic skin the water loss is much higher. The
determination of the TEWL is an important support to investigate the skin irritation
that occurs by various physical and chemical influences. Typical fields of application
are allergic tests, occupational medicine, observation of the new -born, supervision
the healing process of skin damages and bums or testing the effectiveness and
biocompatibility of cosmetic products. Different methods for TEWL measurement
from local skin sites are closed chamber methods and open chamber methods.
13.3. 1 . Principle
There are two different TEWL instruments based on the closed chamber method.
The microsensor is placed in a housing which forms a closed measuring chamber
after touching the skin. The water vapour emitted from the skin fills the small
measuring chamber and causes an increasing relative humidity inside the
chamber. The growing rate of the humidity is a measure for the TEWL value of
the skin . Some recovery time is necessary after each measurement . The sensor
chip must have enough time to try up and to reach its initial condition before
starting a new measurement.
The first instrument ( figure 13.5) is based on a ceramic chip carrying an inter-
digital electrode structure which is covered by a hygroscopic anorganic salt film.
Principles of Cosmeric Evaluation ( Chapter 13 ) 159
The main sensing effect used in this

instrument is the conductance Contact Wire
change of the hygroscopic film

Sensor
represented by the real part of the Housing Chip
admittance. The measuring
frequency is 500 kHz. The
admittance Y is measured by using
a Precision LCR Meter.
Furthermore, it is necessary to
measure the relative humidity RH of
the ambient air. After a time interval Water Vapour Active Sensor Surface
tm (30s) starting at the moment of Figure 13.5: Schematic Cross-Section of the Measuring
touching the skin the change of Head of the Instrument ( Conductivity Method )
admittance ( Ys at the starting time,
Ym after the measuring interval tm) is recorded. The TEWL value is calculated from
t„„ ( Ym-Ys) and RH by using an experimentally determined function.
The second instrument ( figure 13.6) is based on a silicon chip, which is mounted
on a Peltier couple. The sensing effect of this instrument is the change of the dew
point temperature bv the emission of water from the skin.
| F l e x PCB
HO Peltier Module
Molecules Semiconductor Structure
Measurement chamber
/ .
Human skin
Figure 13.6: Schematic Cross Section of the Measuring

Head of the Instrument ( Dew Point Method )
At the moment of touching the skin the actual dew point recording process is
started. Depending on the humidity value the hygrometer takes about 5 readings
( detections ) per second. After the time interval tm (5 s ) the dew point temperature
Ts is recorded. A value of TEWL is calculated with an experimentally determined
function based on Ts and tm.
The algorithm optimises Peltier couple current and energy injected into the heater
to achieve fast detections and to follow humidity changes in the surrounding
environment . The hygrometer can measure air humidity in the range from 0 to
30°C of dew point temperatures with resolution O. fC and accuracy 0.4°C ( with
detections of every 0.2-0.3s).
13.3.2. Technology
In the case of instrument A , a ceramic chip with the dimensions of 5mm x 5 mm
x 0.6mm is used. The chip is mounted in a distance of about 1.4mm away from
the skin surface. The lead -in wires are guided through funnel -shaped holes to the
rear substrate surface ( figure 13.5). They are bonded to the contact pads of the
chip by using an isotropically conductive adhesive. The width of the electrodes is
about 55pm, the gap between inter-digital electrodes is approximately 15 pm. The
electrodes are made of a double layer of molybdenum ( 0.2 pm ) and gold (8pm ).
The molybdenum film is deposited by RF-sputtering. The gold film should be
deposited in such a way that it completely and safely covers the underlying
molybdenum electrode including side walls. Therefore, the gold film is produced
by electroplating. It has an important protective function against chemical
degradation . The active moisture sensing area is 1.75 mm x 3.15 mm and is
covered with a hygroscopic anorganic salt film.
13.3.3. Applications
1 ) Ideal for product development, claim support, efficacy testing, and
multicentric studies.
2) It can be used for objective clinical assessment in dermatology and
occupational medicine.
3) It can be used for monitoring newborns and detecting skin damage.
4 ) It can be used for in-vitro testing of permeability.
5) Helps in assessing TEWL and SSWL in a range of research applications.
6) It is suitable for sweat studies.
13.3. 4. Advantages
1) It is reproducible and accurate TEWL measurement .
2) It measures three skin sites simultaneously.
3) It measures larger skin surface.
4) It measures TEWL continuously without influencing the skin surface.
5) Helps in stable measurement that is achieved quickly with no waiting time
between measurements.
6 ) Its small probe head size minimises influence of air turbulence inside probe.
7 ) It has low weight that does not influence the skin structure.
8) It does not require frequent, complicated and time consuming recalibration .
9) The calibration data can be stored in the probe.
10 ) Its simple check calibration helps to ensure accuracy of measurements.
11 ) Helpful in measurement of Skin Surface Water Loss (SSWL ).
12 ) It has a range of accessories that are available for different applications.
13.4. SKIN COLOUR

Human skin comes in a wide variety of colours, ranging from shades of dark
brown to almost white. Although an individual’s skin colour is influenced by
numerous factors, the most significant is its content of a pigment called melanin.
Melanin is also the pigment responsible for determining hair and eye colour.
Levels of melanin are primarily determined by genetics. The level of inherited

skin pigmentation is referred to as constitutive pigmentation. The factors
inherited at birth, cannot be changed, and are referred to as intrinsic factors.
Extrinsic factors, things outside the body, also influence skin colour and provide
acquired pigmentation. Exposure to ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation from the sun is the
most important extrinsic factor. The sun emits UVA and UVB rays and the
different types of UV rays have different effects on skin pigmentation. Exposure
to UVA rays produces immediate pigmentation by influencing melanin which
has already been produced. Pigmentation which occurs several days after sun
exposure is a result of new melanin being produced in response to UVB
exposure. Other extrinsic factors which influence skin pigmentation and colour
include DNA damage ( often induced by UVB exposure ) and age, as the way the
body produces melanin changes as a person ages.
13.4. 1 . Skin Type

There are five basic types of skin and here is the best indicator to recognize them:
1 ) Normal Skin: This type of skin is neither too oily nor dry. It is generally less
reactive to external aggressors and pretty easy to maintain.
2) Dry Skin: This type of skin is often flaky, always has some sort of peeling and
can even have a powdery look. It lacks hydration and feels tight on your face.
Dry skin also leads to sensitivity to products. For instance, foaming face
washes or exfoliating serums causing irritability on dry skin is quite common .
3) Oily Skin: It is characterised by its greasiness throughout the face. This
happens because of the overactivity of sebaceous glands, leading to excessive
sebum ( oil ) production on the skin.
4 ) Combination Skin: A combination of skin is identified as having an oily T-
zone and dry cheeks. The oiliness and the dryness are a response to weather
conditions with summers causing extreme oiliness and winters causing dryness.
5) Sensitive Skin: It is characterised by its reactions to products, foods and
environmental factors in a manner that is more persistent with constant
triggers.
The Fitzpatrick system of classifying skin type is most commonly used in the
assessment of skin cancer risk. The Fitzpatrick skin types are:
Type I: Extremely fair skin, always burns, never tans.
Type II: Fair skin, always burns , sometimes tans.
Type III: Medium skin, sometimes burns, always tans.
Type IV: Olive skin, rarely burns, always tans.
Type V: Moderately pigmented brown skin, never bums always tans.
Type VI: Markedly pigmented black skin, never bums, always tans.
13.4.2. Colorimeter
As the name suggests, it is used to evaluate skin colour, melanin, and erythema.
Principle
The skin colorimeter works on the principle of absorption / reflection. This probe
has two illumination LEDs and an active colour detection chip which work in
close tandem for accurate skin colour measurement.
When the procedure is started, the LEDs will emit light at their maximum
capacity to illuminate the measurement area . As the light rays hit the skin , some
parts of it get absorbed by the skin while the rest of it reflects back from the
surface. The reflected rays are detected by the chip in the probe and are
processed to display the following parameters:
1 ) Melanin: Pigmentation index of skin. Higher the value , more the
pigmentation in the skin.
2 ) Erythema: Redness index of the skin used to estimate haemoglobin levels in
skin. Higher the value, redder the skin is.
Advantages
1) It is reproducible and accurate measurement of colour.
2) Helps in quick measurement time .
3) It is easy to handle.
4) It has constant pressure for minimized effect on skin surface.
5) It does not require frequent, complicated and time consuming recalibration
6) The calibration data is stored in the probe
7 ) It checks the calibration to ensure accuracy of measurements
8) It is specifically designed for measurements on skin with its unique reflective
and absorption behavior.
Applications
1 ) It is ideally suited for product development , claim support and efficacy
testing
2 ) It can be used for objective colour assessment for testing sun screen products,
self -tanners, skin lightening products, decorative cosmetics and carotene
food supplements
3) It can be used for investigating age spots, sun damage, and treatment of skin
disease
4 ) It is Suitable for medical surveys
5) It helps in assessing skin colour in a range of research applications
13.4. 3. Mexameter
The mexameter is a device that measures simultaneously two major components
of skin pigmentation: melanin and hemoglobin.
Principle
The mexameter is a spectrometer measurement technique, based on light
reflection and absorption. The probe emits three wavelengths of light, chosen to
correspond to the different absorption rates of melanin and haemoglobin. This
light emitted by the probe is reflected by the skin and the receiver in the probe
measures this reflected light. It is only the diffuse and scattered light that is
measured. The results are expressed as index value for each parameter ( melanic
index and erythematic index ) in arbitrary units on a scale from 0 to 999. The
probe allows the measurement to be made quickly (1 second ). The probe head is
spring loaded so that a constant pressure is provided.
Advantages
1 ) Continuous measurements over a longer period can optionally be performed .
2) The highly sensitive measurement gives values on a broad scale (0-999) for
melanin and erythema so that even smallest changes in colour become traceable.
3) The probe is small and lightweight for easy handling and measurement on all
body sites.
4 ) A spring in the probe head ensures constant pressure on the skin enabling
exact, reproducible measurements.
5) The probe head can easily be cleaned after each measurement .
6 ) It gives reproducible and accurate measurement of melanin and erythema .
7 ) It is very quick thus helps in measurement of time.
8 ) The spring provides constant pressure that does not influence the skin.
9 ) It has low weight which provides easy handling.
10) It does not require frequent , complicated and time consuming recalibration
11 ) The calibration data stored in the probe.
12) It helps in checking the calibration to ensure accuracy of measurements .
Applications
1 ) It is ideally suited for product development, claim support and efficacy testing.
2 ) It can be used for objective clinical assessment, allergy and patch testing.
3) It can be used for monitoring therapies.
4 ) Helps in measurement of melanoma and scar tissue.
5) It is suitable for medical surveys.
6) It helps in assessing melanin and erythema in a range of research
applications.
13.5. HAIR TENSILE STRENGTH

Tensile strength of hair is defined as maximum stress ( force per unit area ) that a
hair can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. Elasticity is
defined as the tendency of solid materials to return to their original shape after
being deformed . Hair fibre has an elastic property. The elasticity increases with
an affinity of hair keratin for water. When dry , the hair thread may stretch 20-
30% of its length and in contact with water; this may reach up to 50% .
13.5. 1 . Principle
Tensile tests are used to determine how materials will behave under tension load.
In a simple tensile test , a sample is typically pulled to its breaking point to
determine the ultimate tensile strength of the material. The amount of force ( F)
applied to the sample and the elongation ( AL ) of the sample is measured
throughout the test. Material properties are often expressed in terms
of stress ( force per unit area, o ) and strain ( % change in length, E).
To obtain stress, the force measurements are divided by the sample’s cross
sectional area ( o = F/A ). Strain measurements are obtained by dividing the
change in length by the initial length of the sample ( E = AL/L). These values are
then presented on an XY plot called a stress-strain curve. Testing and measuring
procedures vary based on the material being tested and its intended application.
There are following three ways to perform tensile test:

1 ) CRE: Rate of increase of specimen length is uniform with time ( the load
measuring mechanism moves a negligible distance ).
2 ) CRL: Rate of increase of the load is uniform with time and rate of extension
is dependent on the load -elongation characteristics of the specimen.
3) CRT: Pulling one clamp at a uniform rate and the load is applied through the
other clamp. That moves appreciably to actuate a load measuring mechanism
so that the rate of increase of either load or elongation is usually not constant.
13.5.2. Procedure
Human hair is an elastic substance that is subject to strain (deformation ) when
stress is applied. The usual procedure for evaluating the strength and elasticity
properties of human hair is via tensile strain/stress tests.
1 ) A fibre of known length and diameter is stretched at a fixed rate and a fixed
relative humidity and temperature on an automated instrument.
2) The procedure for testing the strength and elasticity involves setting the
temperature in the testing room to approximately 21 degrees Celsius (70
degrees Fahrenheit ) and the humidity between 40-63% .
3) Theoretically, the higher the humidity the stronger the hair will appear,
which can guarantee results that do not represent reality.
4) A length of hair will be mounted on clamps that will be zeroed and using the
software it is ensured that there is no tension or slack on the hair.
5) A motor is attached to the tensile strain stand which will move the clamps
apart at a very low speed.
6 ) While activating the motor, the software will be activated simultaneously that
will transfer the information , analyse the numbers and plot it onto a graph.
7) After few minutes the strand of hair will break apart and the software will
mark this exact point on the graph.
8) The diameter of the strand should be measured prior to the test and entered in
the software to generate corresponding strength and elasticity figures.
9) In addition , the software will analyse the quality of bonds coming from 3
different regions of the hair.
13.5.3. Properties
1 ) Resistance to Stretching: In general, the weight needed to produce a natural
hair thread rupture is 50-100g. An average head has about 120,000 threads of
hair and would support about 12 tonnes. The resistance to breakage is a
function of the diameter of the thread , of the cortex condition , and it is
negatively affected by chemical treatments.
When a certain load is applied on a hair and its elongation is measured we
obtain the graphic representation of its several characteristics regions:
-
i ) Hookean 's Region or Pre Recovering: During the stretching between 0
and 2% the elongation is proportional to the load applied .
ii ) Recovering Region: Between 25-30% of stretching, the elongation
considerably increases without a relationship with the load applied.
-
iii ) After Recovering Region: From 30% stretching load and fibre
extension are proportional again .
2) Hair Elasticity: Hair fibre has an elastic characteristic, and it may undergo
moderate stretching either wet or dry. Stretching is a hair attribute under the
action of a distal force (length ) and the thread returns to the original status,
when this force stops acting. When dry, the hair thread may stretch 20-30% of
its length; and, in contact with water, this may reach up to 50% . In contact with
ammonia it becomes more elastic. Chemical and physical treatments, sun
exposition and use of electric dryers and heated plates affect this propriety.
3) Hydrophilic Power: Hair absorbs water under both liquid and steam form.
Keratin may absorb up to 40% of its own weight in water. Hydration is
favoured by temperature increase, by changing pH and by all the polar
solvents which break hydrogen bonds. Hydration changes the fibre elasticity.
Keratin has special affinity for water. This absorption depends on the air
relative humidity rate and greatly interferes on all the proprieties of the hair
like stretching ability, diameter and internal viscosity of the fibres.
4) Surface Properties of Hair: The hair existing in the normal scalp
represents a huge surface, if we consider a mean value of 20cm long for a
thread with an 80 pm diameter. Surface conditions are different as a
function of the individual , hair type and length of each thread.
5) Hair Surface Porosity: When the hair is porous, chemical treatments as
dyeing and straightening occur more rapidly. Some situations influence on
porosity:
i ) Alkaline pH over 8 increases permeability.
ii ) High temperature accelerates water penetration.
iii ) Chemical processes as permanent waving, discolouration, straightening
and dyeing affects the porosity.
iv ) Air relative humidity.
6 ) Absorption: Hair surface retains the thread natural oils ( sebum ) composed
by tensoactive ingredients and some dyers. Absorption of fatty substances is
due to a physical process of surface tension. The sebum absorption over the
hair occurs by contact with the scalp and transference from a thread to each
other. Chemical treatments enhance the surface anionic nature of the hair
thread , which becomes electronegative, causing its physical -chemical affinity
with cationic components, as tensoactive and dyeing ingredients.
7 ) Friction: It is the force resisting the movement when a body slides over
another one. The cuticle surface has high friction coefficient due to its scale
shape and it depends on the cuticle geometry and on the physical -chemical
status of the hair. The continuous attrition of a thread over another one
damages the cuticle.
Following factors can influence friction:
i ) Relative Humidity: Friction is higher in wet than in dry hair.
ii ) Discoloration of the Hair: Discolouration increases the friction among
threads.
iii ) Permanent Waving and Straightening: Due to the chemical

composition and high pH of ingredients the friction is increased.
iv) Grade of Humidity of the Hair: Thread electric loads tend to flow
easier on wet than on dry hair, due to the lower electric resistance. As a
consequence, the hair tends to become more ‘electric’ ( fly away ) in a dry
environment than in a humid one.
v ) Shampooing: The more is the detergent power the higher is the friction.
The addition of conditioning substances promotes a lower friction
coefficient.
8) Static Load: When a comb slides over the hair, surface electric load is
generated by both friction and high electric resistance of the hair, which
makes handling difficult. The static load dispersion is a function of fibres
conductivity or electric resistance. Quaternary ammonium salts of long chain
increase conductivity on the thread surface and reduce the friction.
9) Isoelectric Point: Hair surface presents both positive and negative electric
loads while the cuticle has an electrically neuter point (equal to the amount of
positive and negative loads ) under a pH 3.8 ( isoelectric point ). When the hair
is left in contact with products whose pH value is over 3.8 it becomes more
negative, since the NH3+ group loses its load. However, in pH values less
than 3.8 the hair becomes more positive, carboxyl groups are protoned and
neutralised, and a predominance of the NH3+ group occurs.
10 ) Shine: It is one of the most important and desired cosmetic attributes of the hair.
From the physical point of view, it is related with the way by which the hair
reflects and diffuses the incident light beam. Since this is a surface propriety,
cuticle is the main factor responsible for it. Cuticle damage ( opening and
breakage of scales ) and scalp secretions built up over threads reduce the shine.
13.6.HAIR COMBING PROPERTIES

Combability may be defined as the subjective perception of the easy or difficult
way for combing the hair. It is directly related with the forces which are opposite
to the action of combing the hair. This is an important attribute in the evaluation
of the hair conditioning. For the consumer, a better combability reflects a better
hair conditioning. Other factors related with combability involve malleability and
mechanical damages, which may occur when the hair is normally combed , and
gets worsened while detangling it.
Sliding friction energy is only one component of the total combing work.
1 ) Generation of elastic energy always occurs during combing. It is also caused
by friction but different from sliding friction.
2 ) Depending on combing conditions the contribution from elastic energy to the
total work can sometimes be higher than that of sliding friction energy .
3) Releases of elastic energy during combing if not controlled can lead to severe
hair damage like cuticle sheath fracture during stick-slip phenomena.
4) Releases of elastic energy are abrupt and arise when ps is greater than jid due
to poor lubricating film conditions.
13.6. 1 . Applications
Combing energy measurements have always been used for:
1 ) Assessing levels of friction between comb/hair and between fibres, either, in
wet or in dry , with or without conditioning.
2) Making a classification of work types, i.e., form the plateau regions or from
the detangling peak.
3) Assessing indirectly regions of damage on hair surface.
13.6.2. Evaluation of Hair

The evaluation of hair products efficacy may involve the use of devices which
generally have high sensitivity. These tests are specific and only provide information
on one attribute for assay. Normally, equipment is used to obtain the image, which is
assessed in a subjective way. Analyses performed on pre -defined regions of hair
locks in order to standardise the method and to have more reliable results.
Some of the most used methods for evaluating hair products are listed below:
1 ) Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM ): It is used for analysing hair threads.
This technique allows observations of thick and not transparent samples under
an electron beam. It also allows determining the shape of a material, the size
of its component particles, and its layout. SEM is used for big magnification
of a given sample, generally to evaluate hair surface morphological
conditions. The sample is coated with a carbon/gold film in order to lead
electric current ; then, under high vacuum, and electron beam is directed over
it and the scattering is assessed by a detector, thus the image is generated.
2) Atomic Force Microscopy ( AFM ): This equipment allows observing sample
images through the microscope, in environment , conditions or even when we
have a solution. The image is captured by a probe which has physical contact
with the sample, and follows a parallel plan to the surface while acquires each
point of the topographic component. The probe deflection is then measured by
a computer program ( software ) which generates the image.
3) Mechanical Assays: The hair, when considered as a physical body, is a very
resistant fibre. The rupture load of a healthy hair thread ranges from 50 to
lOOg. The relative value is directly proportional to the thread length. To
perform this assay a dynamometer is used that is used for evaluating hair
rupture tension, elasticity, combability and detangling. The device exerts a
tension on the hair thread and measures the needed force versus elongation.
The hair lock is tied with a support , and then two combs pass through it as
well as the needed force for this action.
4) Piezoelectric Sensors: This analysis is very close to the sensorial perception.
The piezoelectric principle is based on the deformation of a crystal by a
mechanical action. When this occurs, a load displacement is induced , thus
creating a voltage signal. In hair, it is possible applying this technique to the
tactile perceptions of hair properties like conditioning, cleanliness and
surface roughness. During the evaluation, the sensor is placed on a
mechanical arm which touches the hair lock and afterward it is released. This
is repeated several times. Results are expressed as voltage arbitrary values.
13.7. SUMMARY
1 ) Sehumeter is the instrument used for determining the sebum level of the skin
surface as well as on scalp and hair.
2) The sebumeter measurement is based on grease spot photometry.
3) The corneometer indicates the hydration level of the superficial layers of the skin
( stratum corneum ) via measurement of skin dielectric properties.
4) The comeometer measurement is based on capacitance measurement of a dielectric
medium in this case skin.
-
5 ) Measurement of the trans epidermal water loss ( TEWL) is used for studying the
water barrier function of the human skin .
6) The more perfect the skin protective coat, the higher the water content and the lower
the TEWL.
7 ) There are two different TEWL instruments based on the closed chamber method i.e.,
a ceramic chip and a silicon chip.
8) There are five basic types of skin i .e., normal skin, dry skin, oily skin , combination
skin and sensitive skin.
9) Colorimeter is used to evaluate skin colour, melanin, and erythema.
10) The mexameter is a device that measures simultaneously two major components of
skin pigmentation: melanin and haemoglobin.
11 ) Tensile strength of hair is defined as maximum stress ( force per unit area ) that a
hair can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking.
12) A better combability reflects a better hair conditioning.
13.8. EXERCISE
1) Define the term sebumeter and comeometer.
2) Draw the labelled optical diagram of sebumeter.
3) Write down the four advantages of comeometer.
4) What is the full form of TEWL and why it is used ?
5) What do you mean by colorimeter and mexameter.
6) Name the instruments used for measuring TEWL.
7) Enlist different types of skin.

1) Enlist the applications of sebumeter?
2) Write down the advantages and disadvantages of sebumeter.
3) Write a short note on comeometer.
4) Differentiate between colorimeter and mexameter?
5) Mention the principles of hair tensile strength ?

1 ) Write a detailed note on hair tensile strength.
2) Briefly explain the methods for evaluating hair products.
Cleansing Techniques ( Chapter 14) 169
CHAPTER
14
Cleansing Techniques
14.1. SOAPS AND SYNDET BARS

Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids. When triglycerides
in fat/oil react with aqueous NaOH or KOH , they are converted into soap and
glycerol. This is called alkaline hydrolysis of esters. Since this reaction leads to
the formation of soap, it is called the saponification process.
R
3NaOH /H 2Q
l-lcat
Glycerol
Soap
Triglyceride
Action of Soap
When used for cleaning, soap allows otherwise insoluble particles to become
soluble in water and then be rinsed away. For example, oil/fat is insoluble in
water, but when a couple of drops of dish soap are added to the mixture the
oil/ fat apparently disappears. The insoluble oil/fat molecules become associated
inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic
( water-loving ) groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic ( fat -loving )
pocket , which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making it soluble.
Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water. Synthetic
detergents operate by similar mechanisms to soap.
Svndet bars
The word “syndet” is derived from “synthetic” combined with “detergent”.
Technically it refers to the binding that occurs between different detergents, also
called surfactants or tensioactive agents. Syndet soap surfactants are derived
from oils, fats, or petroleum products that are processed in a wide range of
chemical processes other than traditional saponification.
14.1. 1. Types of Soaps

1 ) Glycerine Soap: Glycerine is a component of oil or fat . Any handmade soap
contains glycerin, a byproduct of the chemical reaction of the soap- making
process.
2) Transparent Soap: It is prepared by hot process method. Usually some form of
alcohols is added to make it transparent. Sugar syrup (sugar in distilled water) is
an alternative ingredient to replace alcohol but not as effective as alcohol .
3) Liquid Soap: Its manufacturing process is more complicated than soap bar. It is
usually made with the hot process method. It turns into liquid form due to a
different type of lye ( potassium hydroxide instead of sodium hydroxide ) that is
used in the making process and also due to addition of excess amount of water.
Types of Soaps Differentiate by Usage
1 ) Kitchen Soap: It is a type of soap that is intended to use in the
kitchen mainly to serve the purpose of dish-washing.
2 ) Laundry Soap: It is effective in cleaning solid particles, grease and organic
compound in clothes. Can be quite convenient to wash clothes during travels
because it is easy to carry.
3) Novelty Soap: These soaps come in various shapes and colours like fish,
cake, and mustache. They act more than a cleaning soap. It provides
enjoyment and amusement to the children who are using them.
4) Guest Soap: These are mini soap that are generally smaller than the usual
soap bar and comes with various attractive shapes. They are designed for
guest’s usage.
5) Medicated Soap: It is soap with added antiseptics and disinfectants to kill
bacteria.
6) Beauty Soap: It has a characteristic fragrance and ingredients for different
skin types. They can feature special oil blend or glycerin.
14.1 . 2. Ingredients
Fats and Oils
1 ) Fat mixtures containing saturated or unsaturated and long or short fatty acid
chain are suitable proportion are used. Saturated fatty acids with 12 to 18
carbon atoms are used. For example, Laurie, myristic, palmitic, stearic and
oleic acid.
2 ) To improve the solubility and lathering properties coconut oil is mixed with
tallow.
3) Fish oils, palm oil and coconut oil are also used in preparation of soaps.
Soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have been made from
triglycerides ( oils and fats ). Triglyceride is the chemical name for the triesters of
fatty acids and glycerine. Tallow, is the most available triglyceride from animals.
Its saponified product is called sodium tallowate. Typical vegetable oils that are
used in soap making are palm oil , coconut oil, olive oil , and laurel oil.
Alkalis
1 ) Caustic soda is used as a raw material in the preparation of soap.
2) Caustic potash is used in making soft soaps.
3) Potassium carbonate and soda ash are used to saponify fatty acids.
The type of alkali metal used to determine the kind of soap produced. Sodium
soaps that are prepared from sodium hydroxide are firm, whereas potassium
soaps, derived from potassium hydroxide, are softer or often liquid. Historically,
potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants.
Lithium soaps also tend to be hard that are used exclusively in greases.
Cleansing Techniques (Chapter 14) 171
Other Additives
1 ) Antioxidants: They are used to stabilise the soap against rancidity. For
example, sodium silicate, sodium hyposulphite, sodium thiosulphate.
2 ) Whiteners: Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are used to improve whiteness.
3) Perfumes: The pH of the soap is around 10.0. The selected perfume should
be stable in this pH range.
Syndet Bars Ingredients

1 ) Sodium cocoyl isethionate ( most widely used ).
2) Sulfosuccinates.
3) Alpha olefin sulfonates.
4 ) Alkyl glyceryl ether sulfonate.
5 ) Sodium cocoyl monoglyceride sulphate.
6) Betaines.
Syndet Soap Bases

Syndet bars are made using blends of synthetic surfactants; they are a different
product, formulation and chemistry in comparison of traditional vegetable soap
bases. Syndet soap surfactants are derived from oils, fats, or petroleum products
that are processed in a wide range of chemical processes other than traditional
saponification.
Combo Soap
A soap base that is made using a combination of different types of cleansers,
surfactants, saponified oils designed to increase the cleansing property while
reducing the irritation. These combo soap bars are commonly combinations of
traditional vegetable soap and syndet bar base. By formulating in this way
combination bars are less irritating than traditional vegetable soaps, but less mild
than syndet bars. Vegetable oil can be used as combo bases to increase the
performance.
14.1 .3. Difference between Soap and Syndet

Syndet
1 ) The syndet is the soap which is made by combining the feature of different
soap.
2) The syndet is having good appearance making the viewer to buy in one
attempt.
3) The syndet is best used for shower purpose. The pH of the syndet is balanced
to avoid skin irritation.
4 ) The best example for syndet is dove soap.
Soap
1) The soap is used for cleaning or washing which consist of the mixture of
potassium or sodium salts.
2 The syndate soap was manufactured from soap and detergent and hence the
)
name is kept as syndate.
3) The soap has pH issue when compared to syndate.
14.1 .4. Formulation

No- Cracks Soap Bar Formulation
ACULYN 88 is a rheology modifier that helps to improve the processability of
soap bars, virtually guarantees the absence of cracks and improves water
resistance.
Formula 1
Trade Name % wt CTFA/INCI Name
Puricolour Green U3 0.3 Acetylated Lanolin
Titanium Dioxide 0.5 Titanium Dioxide
Fragrance 0.4 Parfum/ fragrance
Semi-Glycerine Soap Base ( 14% humidity ) 98.0
ACULYN 88 Rheology Modifier 0.8 Acrylates/Steareth-20
Methacrylate Crosspolymer
Conditioning Soap Bar Formulation

POLYOX WSR N-60K is a lubricating polymer that provides excellent slip
during application to this conditioning soap bar, as well as helping to reduce
cracking.
Formula 2
Trade Name %wt CTFA/INCI Name
POLYOX WSR N -60 K Lubricating Polymer 0.10 PEG-45M
Glucam E- 10 1.00 Methyl Gluceth - 10
Modulan 1.00 Acetylated Lanolin
Titanium Dioxide 0.50 Titanium Dioxide
Antioxidant 0.07
Deionised Water 1.00 Deionised Water
BradPride Coco/Tallow Soap Base 80/ 20 95.5
Preservative and Fragrance q - s-
Transparent Soap
Soap can be deposited from alcoholic solution in transparent form.
Formula 3
Tallow fatty acids 26%
Coconut oil 8.0%
Castor oil 5.0%
Ethanol 10.0%
Sodium hydroxide 6.0%
Sugar 15.0%
Glycerine 9.0%
EDTA 0.25%
Water 100.0%
Bathing Bar
Usually they are a combination of soap, detergent and other additives.
Cleansing Techniques ( Chapter 14 ) 173
Formula 4
Soap 40%
Sodium glyceryl monolaurate 45%
SLS 10%
Cetyl alcohol 4%
Titanium dioxide 1%
Perfume q -s-
Colour q-s-
Antioxidant q s-
Herbal Soap
Formula 5
Ingredients Temperatures and Times
598gm coconut oil Oil Temperature - 55 °C ( 130° F)
296gm vegetable shortening Lye/Water Temperature - 55 °C ( 130° F)
30gm beeswax Cure time - 3 Weeks
58gm avocado oil Trace time - 15 Minutes
150gm lye Mould time - 24 Hours
368ml distilled water
14.1.5. Preparation
Soap and syndet bars are prepared by the following process:
1 ) Cold process
2) Semi-boiled process
3) Full -boiled process
4) Kettle process
5) Continuous process
14.1.5.1. Cold Process

Cold process soap is made without any external heat applied to it, while hot
process soap is heated or most often cooked in a crockpot to speed up the soap-
making process.
In this process, mixing of fat and strong alkali is carried out substantially at room
temperature so that little more than emulsification takes place. Saponification is
completed after this mixture is run into frames in several days at warm
temperature. Since there is no opportunity to adjust proportions of fat and alkali
calculation of quantities to be used should be made carefully.
14.1 .5.2. Semi - boiled Process

The semi-boiled process differs from the cold process in the fact that the
saponification mixture is heated to 70-90°C using a steam-heated coil to accelerate
and complete the saponification reaction. Dyes, perfumes, and additives are added
at the end of the process to prevent them from evaporating. The process allows the
quantity of soda undergoing saponification to be adjusted before the crude soap is
drawn off. It also allows manufacturing waste to be recycled , better incorporation
of the additives and a wider choice of raw materials.
Perfumes
Soda lye
Sapo lification
Heating Kettle
Cruddsoap Cooling frames
Figure 14.1 : Semi Boiled Process

14.1 .5.3. Full - Boiled Process
The full boiled process differs from the semi -boiled process in its various
glycerine extraction, washing, and adjustment operations which occur after
saponification. The temperature at which the mixture is kept under vigorous
agitation is generally higher ( 100°C ), allowing a wider range of fatty raw
materials to be used.
Following steps are involved in industrial soap making:
1 ) Saponification: The saponification process involves the mixing of tallow
( animal fat ) and coconut oil with sodium hydroxide and the application of
heat. The process results in formation of soap, which is a salt of long chain
carboxylic acid.
Water Vapour
Brine
Oils and
Soda lye
Recycled
brine
ICATION
Glycerine
extraction
Brine + glycerine
Glycerine
To drying and finishing
Figure 14.2: Full - boiled Process
2) Glycerine Removal: Glycerine is more valuable than soap, and hence most
of it is removed for its uses in more expensive cosmetic products. Soap is
generally not completely soluble in salt water, while glycerine is soluble,

hence the salt is added to the wet soap thereby causing it to separate out into
glycerine and soap in salty water.
3) Soap Purification: In the soap purification stage, any remaining sodium
hydroxide is neutralized with a weak acid, like citric acid and two thirds of
the remaining water is removed to obtain pure soap.
4 ) Finishing: The final stage of industrial soap manufacturing process,
finishing stage involves mixing of additives like colors, preservatives, and
perfume into soap, which is then shaped into bars for sale.
The full boiled process involves the recovery of glycerine as a by -product .

However, it has been estimated that 15 to 20 t/day fatty raw materials need to be
processed for the operation to be economically viable. Furthermore, there are
only few outlets for glycerine in developing countries.
The process is highly flexible and has a proven track record. It allows a wide
range of soaps to be manufactured, from basic household soap to top-grade toilet
soap. However, constraints in terms of volume, investment, and by -product
upgrading and technological and operational expertise limit the appeal of the
process and require a detailed analysis of the economic and commercial viability
of any project based on this type of technology.
14.1 .5.4. Kettle Process

The kettle method of making soap is still used today by small soap manufacturing
companies. This process takes from four to eleven days to complete, and the
quality of each batch is inconsistent due to the variety of oils used.
1 ) Boiling: 1 Fats and alkali are melted in a kettle, which is a steel tank that can
stand three stories high and hold several thousand pounds of material . Steam
coils within the kettle heat the batch and bring it to a boil. After boiling, the
mass thickens as the fat reacts with the alkali , producing soap and glycerine.
Salt
Neat
soap
=
1
m Ni
Fats and alkali are The soap and glycerine in the pitching process,
are treated with salt , the soap is boiled again
melted in a kettle .
causing the soap to rise with water. The mass
The mass thickens
to the top. separates into neat soap
and produces soap
and glycerine.
and nigre.
Figure 14 J> : Kettle Process
2 ) Salting: The soap and glycerine must now be separated. The mixture is
treated with salt , causing the soap to rise to the top and the glycerine to settle
to the bottom. The glycerine is extracted from the bottom of the kettle.
3) Strong Change: To remove the small amounts of fat that have not
saponified, a strong caustic solution is added to the kettle. This step in the
process is called strong change. The mass is brought to a boil again , and the
last of the fat turns to soap. The batch may be given another salt treatment at
this time , or the manufacturer may proceed to the next step.
4) Pitching: The next step is called pitching. The soap in the kettle is boiled
again with added water. The mass eventually separates into two layers. The
top layer is called neat soap, which is about 70% soap and 30% water. The
lower layer, called nigre, contains most of the impurities in the soap such as
dirt and salt, as well as most of the water. The neat soap is taken off the top.
The soap is then cooled. The finishing process is the same as for soap made
by the continuous process.
14.1 .5.5. Continuous Process

Around 1940, engineers and scientists developed a more efficient manufacturing
process, called the continuous process . This procedure is employed by large
soap manufacturing companies all around the world today. Exactly as the name
states, in the continuous process soap is produced continuously, rather than one
batch at a time. Technicians have more control of the production in the
continuous process, and the steps are much quicker than in the kettle method it
takes only about six hours to complete a batch of soap.
1 ) Splitting: The first step of the continuous process splits natural fat into fatty
acids and glycerine. The equipment used is a vertical stainless steel column
with the diameter of a barrel called a hydroliser. It may be as tall as 80 feet
( 24 m). Pumps and meters attached to the column allow precise
measurements and control of the process.
Alkali
[ Motion fat ]
=>
Fatty acid
Glycerin
The soap con be poured into
In the continuous process, Purified fatty acids are molds or allowed to harden
natural fat is split into fatty mixed with alkali to in a large slab.
acids and glycerine form soap
The mdled soap is

pressed into a cylinder Toiletry soap is put through a milling process.
and extruded
Perfumes can be added at this time.
Figure 14.4: Continuous Process
Molten fat is pumped into one end of the column , while at the other end
water at high temperature ( 266°F) and pressure is introduced. This splits the
fat into its two components. The fatty acid and glycerine are pumped out
continuously as more fat and water enter. The fatty acids are then distilled for
purification.
2 ) Mixing: The purified fatty acids are next mixed with a precise amount
of alkali to form soap. Other ingredients such as abrasives and fragrance
are also mixed in. The hot liquid soap may be then whipped to
incorporate air.
3) Cooling and Finishing: The soap may be poured into molds and allowed to
harden into a large slab. It may also be cooled in a special freezer. The slab is
cut into smaller pieces of bar size, which are then stamped and wrapped. The
entire continuous process, from splitting to finishing, can be accomplished in
several hours.
4 ) Milling: Most toiletry soap undergoes additional processing called milling.
The milled bar lathers up better and has a finer consistency than non - milled
soap. The cooled soap is fed through several sets of heavy rollers ( mills),
which crush and knead it. Perfumes can best be incorporated at this time
because their volatile oils do not evaporate in the cold mixture. After the
soap emerges from the mills, it is pressed into a smooth cylinder and
extruded. The extruded soap is cut into bar size, stamped and wrapped.
14.1 .6. Total Fatty Matter of a Soap

The Total Fatty Matter (TFM ) is one of the most important characteristics
describing the quality of soap and it is always specified in commercial
transactions. It is defined as total amount of fatty matter, mostly fatty acids, that
can be separated from a sample after splitting with mineral acid , usually HC1.
This is the method and idea that we used here to determine the total fatty matter
in soaps.
Soaps are graded in terms of total fatty matter. TFM is usually associated with
hardness and lower quality of soaps. The fatty acids most commonly present in
soaps are oleic, stearic and palmitic and pure, dry, sodium oleate has TFM
92.8% , while top quality soap noodles now increasingly used for making soap
tablets in small and medium size factories, are typically traded with a
specification TFM 78% min., moisture 14% max.
TFM is a measure of identifying the amount of fatty matter present in soap.

Bureau of Indian Standards ( BIS ) has categorised bath or toilet soaps as
‘ normal ’, ‘baby , transparent , and antibacterial soaps. The last three are called
specialty soaps targeted to specific users. Toilet soap is a cosmetic by law and it
must fulfil the requirements of the relevant Indian standard. BIS categorised
toilet soaps in to three grades based on the total fatty matter present in them. If
TFM is above 76% , grade I, which are having good quality. TFM above 60% ,
belongs to grade II and TFM above 50% belongs to grade III. According to
International Organisation ISO), good quality soaps must have TFM above 76% .
14.2. EVOLUTION OF CLEANSING SOAPS

Early History
1 ) The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates
back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon .
2 ) A formula for soap consisting of water, alkali , and cassia oil was written on a
Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC.
3) The Ebers papyrus ( Egypt, 1550 BC ) indicates the ancient Egyptians bathed
regularly and combined animal and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to create
a soap-like substance.
4 ) Egyptian documents mention a soap-like substance was used in the
preparation of wool for weaving.
5) In the reign of Nabonidus ( 556-539 BC ), a recipe for soap consisted of uhulu
(ashes ), cypress ( oil ) and sesame ( seed oil ) for washing the stones for the
servant girls.
Ancient Rome
1 ) The word sapo, Latin for soap, first appears in Pliny the Elder’s Historia
Naturalis, which discusses the manufacturing of soap from tallow and ashes.
2 ) But the only use he mentioned for it is as pomade for hair.
3) He mentions rather disapprovingly that the men of the Gauls and Germans
were more likely to use it than their female counterparts.
4 ) Aretaeus of Cappadocia, writing in the first century AD, observes among
“Celts, which are men called Gauls, those alkaline substances that are made
into balls, called soap”.
5) A popular belief claims soap takes its name from a supposed Mount Sapo,
where animal sacrifices were supposed to have taken place.
6) Tallow from these sacrifices would then have mixed with ashes from fires
associated with these sacrifices and with water to produce soap.
7 ) But there is no evidence of a Mount Sapo in the Roman world and no
evidence for the apocryphal story.
8 ) The Latin word sapo simply means “soap”; it was likely borrowed from an
early Germanic language and is cognate with Latin sebum, “tallow”, which
appears in Pliny the Elder's account.
9 ) Roman animal sacrifices usually burned only the bones and inedible entrails
of the sacrificed animals; edible meat and fat from the sacrifices were taken
by the humans rather than the gods.
10) Zosimos of Panopolis, circa 300 AD, describes soap and soap-making.
11 ) Galen describes soap- making using lye and prescribes washing to carry away
impurities from the body and clothes.
12 ) According to Galen, the best soaps were Germanic, and soaps from Gaul
were second best.
13) This is a reference to true soap in antiquity.
Ancient China
1 ) Soap, or more accurately a detergent similar to soap, was manufactured in
ancient China from vegetation and herbs.
2) True soap, made of animal fat, did not appear in China until the modern era.
Soap-like detergents were not as popular as ointments and creams.
Middle East
1 ) A 12th-century Islamic document describes the process of soap production.
2) It mentions the key ingredient, alkali , which later becomes crucial to modem
chemistry, derived from al -qaly or “ashes”.
3) By the 13th century, the manufacture of soap in the Islamic world had
become virtually industrialised, with sources in Nablus, Fes, Damascus, and
Aleppo.
Medieval Europe
1 ) Soap makers in Naples were members of a guild in the late sixth century, and
in the eighth century, soap-making was well known in Italy and Spain.
2 ) The Carolingian capitulary De Villis, dating to around 800, representing the
royal will of Charlemagne, mentions soap as being one of the products the
stewards of royal estates are totally.
3) Soap making is mentioned both as “women’s work” and as the produce of
“good workmen” alongside other necessities such as the produce of
carpenters, blacksmiths, and bakers.
, ,
-
15 h 19 h Centuries ,
1 ) In France, by the second half of the 15 h century, the semi -industrialized
professional manufacture of soap was concentrated in a few centers of
Provence Toulon , Hyeres, and Marseille which supplied the rest of France.
2 ) In Marseilles, by 1525, production was concentrated in at least two factories,
and soap production at Marseille tended to eclipse the other Provencal
centers.
3) English manufacture tended to concentrate in London.
4 ) Finer soaps were later produced in Europe from the 16th century, using
vegetable oils (such as olive oil ) as opposed to animal fats.
5) Many of these soaps are still produced , both industrially and by small -scale
artisans.
6) Castile soap is a popular example of the vegetable-only soaps derived by the
oldest “white soap” of Italy.
7 ) In modern times, the use of soap has become universal in industrialised
nations due to a better understanding of the role of hygiene in reducing the
population size of pathogenic microorganisms.
8) Industrially manufactured bar soaps first became available in the late 18th
century, as advertising campaigns in Europe and the United States promoted
popular awareness of the relationship between cleanliness and health.
9 ) Until the Industrial Revolution, soap making was conducted on a small
scale and the product was rough.
10) Andrew Pears started making a high -quality, transparent soap in 1789 in
London.
11 ) His son -in-law, Thomas J . Barratt, opened a factory in Isleworth in 1862.
12 ) William Gossage produced low -priced, good -quality soap from the 1850s.
13 ) Robert Spear Hudson began manufacturing a soap powder in 1837, initially
by grinding the soap with a mortar and pestle.
Skin Benefits of Soaps

1 ) Moisturises skin and prevents dryness.
2) Works as an excellent cleanser.
3) Help to get rid of pimples and blackheads.
4) Help you tackle many skin diseases like eczema, psoriasis.
5) Helps in evening out skin tone.
Skin Benefits of Syndet Bars

1) Non-soap-based personal washing or syndet bars containing synthetic
detergents or surfactants are milder than soaps; thus, they are widely used by
patients with a variety of skin conditions, including Atopic dermatitis.
2 ) Syndet bar use reduced the severity of eczematous lesions, improved skin
condition , and maintained hydration.
..
3) More compatible cleansers for patients with a variety of skin conditions ( e g ,
acne, rosacea , atopic dermatitis) and are recommended being an integral part
of patients’ fundamental daily skin care regimen .
4 ) Daily cleansing with a mild syndet bar led to significant improvements in the
appearance of skin .
5) Several skin appearance attributes such as texture, clarity, tone, and
brightness improved significantly
6 ) A significant decrease in the appearance of fine lines/ wrinkle.
7 ) Combars: Composed of an alkaline soap to which surface active agents with
a pH of 9-10 have been added . Combars are milder cleansers than true soaps,
but induce more thorough cleansing than synthetic detergents.
Lipid Free Cleansing Lotions

These contain fatty alcohols and are suitable for people with sensitive or dry skin.
They can be wiped off without water. The fatty alcohols in these lotions facilitate
evaporation and so rinsability is high . When used on the face, there is less facial
residue which is an advantage of these lipid free-cleansing lotions. These agents
.. ..
also contain emollients ( e g , fatty alcohols ) and/or humectants (e g , propylene
glycol ) which counter the irritancy or drying potential of the surfactant .
Liquid Body Washes

These offer a different sensation, are more convenient as well as more hygienic
than the wash bar. They employ milder surfactants and incorporate more
emollients, thus can actually improve skin overtime.
Cleansing Techniques ( Chapter 14) 181
14.3. SUMMARY
1 ) Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids. When triglycerides in
fat/oil react with aqueous NaOH or KOH , they are converted into soap and glycerol.
This is called alkaline hydrolysis of esters.
2) Soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have been made from
triglycerides (oils and fats ).
3) The syndet is the soap which is made by combining the feature of different soap.
4) Soap can be deposited from alcoholic solution in transparent form.
5) Cold process soap is made without any external heat applied to it, while hot process
soap is heated or most often cooked in a crockpot to speed up the soap-making
process.
6) The semi- boiled process differs from the cold process in the fact that the
saponification mixture is heated to 70-90°C using a steam - heated coil to accelerate
and complete the saponification reaction.
7) The full boiled process differs from the semi -boiled process in its various glycerine
extraction , washing, and adjustment operations which occur after saponification.
8) The kettle method of making soap is still used today by small soap manufacturing
companies.
9) Total Fatty Matter (TFM ) is one of the most important characteristics describing
the quality of soap and it is always specified in commercial transactions.
10) The word sapo, Latin for soap, first appears in Pliny the Elder’s Historia Naturalis,
which discusses the manufacturing of soap from tallow and ashes.
.
14.4 EXERCISE
1) What is alkaline hydrolysis of esters?
2) Give any two differences between soap and syndet.
3) Define transparent soap and saponification.
4) What is soap purification ?
5) Write the full form of TFM .
6) Give any two skin benefits of soaps.

1) Explain different types of soaps along with their uses.
2) Write a short note on Total Fatty Matter of Soap.
3) Explain cold and semi-boiled process.
4) Give the formulation of transparent soap and herbal soap.

1 ) Briefly discuss on evolution of cleaning soaps.
2 ) Write a detail note on different process for soap preparation .
CHAPTER Cosmetic Problems

15 Associated with Skin
15.1 . OILY SKIN

Oily skin happens when the sebaceous glands in the skin make too much sebum.
Sebum is the waxy, oily substance that protects and hydrates the skin. Sebum is
vital for keeping the skin healthy. However, too much sebum can lead to oily
skin, clogged pores, and acne.
15.1 . 1 . Causes
1) Genetics: Oily skin can be passed on through genes, as having larger
sebaceous glands that produce excess oil is a hereditary attribute that can be
handed down the family tree.
2 ) Environment: Humidity and hot weather tend to stimulate the secretion of
sebum, leading to more oil on the skin. Conversely, in arid or cold climates,
skin can dry out, causing oil glands to go into overdrive to compensate.
3) Over- Washing: If the skin is looking shiny, the last thing an individual want
to do is over wash the face using harsh products. Scrubbing too hard with
washcloths , other abrasive tools or with coarse exfoliators will strip the skin
of moisture, causing glands to overproduce oil , that ’s why gentle cleansing is
so important.
4 ) Medication: Oral contraceptives and hormone replacement medication can
cause an increase in oil production, and acquiring oily skin is one of the
possible side effects associated with taking certain kinds of steroids. Many
medications can also cause dehydration that leads to a production of excess oil.
5) Cosmetics: It’s important to always use skincare products that are
appropriate for the skin type, are of a high quality and are labeled as either
oil-free or non-comedogenic. For example, if an individual use a product for
combination skin or dry skin when the skin type is actually oily, an
individual can either dry out the face, causing more oil production , or use a
product that is too greasy. Poor -quality cosmetics tend to be harsher;
damaging the skin and making the sebaceous glands pump out more oil.
6) Hormonal Changes: Androgens are the hormones mostly responsible for oil
production, and sometimes they can fluctuate, stimulating an increase in sebum
production. This often happens during puberty , just before menstruation,
during pregnancy and during menopause. Stress and illness can also prompt
extra hormones to be released, and with those hormones comes more oil.
7 ) Poor Diet: It may be difficult to not indulge in foods that contain sugar,
refined carbohydrates and dairy.
Cosmetic Problems Associated with Skin ( Chapter 15 ) 183
15.1 .2. Symptoms

Oily skin frequently affects the face. Symptoms of oily skin include:
1 ) A shiny or greasy appearance.
2 ) Very large or obvious pores on the skin.
3) Skin that looks thick or rough.
4) Occasional or persistent pimples.
5) Clogged pores and blackheads.
15.1 .3. Prevention

1 ) Avoid Rough Towels: Rough towels can stimulate sebum production and
aggravate the issue.
2) Do not Use Harsh Chemical Soaps: Too many chemicals can increase
sebum production. It’s always a better idea to use mild skin care products.
3) Avoid Unhealthy Foods: Diets rich in carbohydrates may not be a good idea
for anybody. As for the issue at stake, foods rich in carbohydrates contribute
to sebum production in the skin .
-
4 ) Use Oil free Products: Make sure the makeup and skincare products are
labeled ‘oil -free’.
5) Remove the Makeup before Sleeping: Skin hygiene is a thing and should
be maintained . Remove the makeup and cleanse the face every night before
an individual sleep.
6) Do not Exfoliate Too Much: Exfoliating is great , but is not a good idea for
people with oily skin. Gently exfoliating the skin once every few days should
be enough. An individual do not want to stimulate the skin to overproduce
sebum by constantly scrubbing it.
15.1 . 4. Treatment
1 ) Regularly Face Washing: Washing the face at least twice a day should be
part of the skincare routine. This cleans clogged pores, and removes dirt and
bacteria from the skin, while also preventing breakouts. Don’ t over-wash the
face. Over-washing can dry up the skin and cause the sebaceous glands to
produce excess sebum.
2) Drink Lot of Water: The body should stay hydrated at all times. If it lacks
water, the body may produce too much oil to keep the skin hydrated. At least
2-3 liters of water a day is ideal to keep the skin healthy.
3) Avoid Direct Sun Exposure: Direct exposure to the sun dehydrates the body
and skin. This may cause the body to overproduce oil. Wear sunscreen before
an individual step out.
4 ) Use Moisturisers: Though it may sound contradictory to apply Moisturisers
to oily skin , it is a helpful product. Moisturisers keep the skin hydrated and
prevent it from producing excess sebum. A moisturise r will keep the skin
moist , soft and supple. If an individual have oily skin then he/she should
choose an oil-control moisturise r. Use a light-weight lotion based moisturise
r to prevent the skin from feeling too heavy .
5) Using Toner in Skincare Regimen: Toners cleanse the pores and add
moisture to the skin, leaving it well -hydrated. It can be used as a deep
cleanser. Toners help with removing oil and dirt from the skin. It also
restores the skin s pH balance and refreshes it.
6) Use Blotting Paper: Blotting paper is a good option for an individual to get
rid of the mid-day greasy appearance. However, an individual must be
careful to not press these sheets too hard on the skin. An individual d o n ' t
want to deprive the skin of necessary oils. Reusing a part of the sheet on
another area of the skin is a bad idea too.
7 ) Follow a Skincare Routine: It is always healthy to follow a basic skincare
regimen to allow the skin to breathe. Don’t compromise on the products.
Buying the right products (even if they are slightly above the budget ) will
benefit the skin. Conduct a patch test before an individual use a product on
the face. Purchase only dermatologically -tested products.
8) Pat Dry the Face: Rubbing too hard may cause the skin to stimulate sebum
production. After washing the face, gently pat it dry with a clean towel.
9 ) Clean The Makeup Tools Regularly: Make it a point to clean the makeup
equipment at least once a week. Dirty tools can lead to clogged pores.
-
10) Use Oil Free Makeup Products: If an individual is prone to oily skin then
he/she should buy oil -free makeup products. Oil -based products can clog the
pores and result in skin conditions like acne. Always make it a point to
remove the makeup before sleeping.
Medical Treatment Options

1 ) Topical Retinoids:
i ) These come in the form of lotions, creams and gels. Retinoids are rich in
Vitamin A, a good source for skin health maintenance.
ii ) It is always ideal to start with a cream-based retinoid to avoid irritation.
iii ) If an individual have sensitive skin then he/she should not wear it on for
too long. It may cause irritation and redness
2 ) Cosmeceuticals: They are cosmetic products that claim to be medically
beneficial. These products are made with bioactive ingredients. However,
they are purely evidence-based. There is no guarantee that cosmeceuticals
will live up to what they stand for.
Home Remedies
1 ) Aloe Vera: Oily skin is prone to several skin hazards, including acne. The
plant of immortality ( aloe vera ) helps to prevent bacterial build-up in the
pores. Its antioxidant and anti - inflammatory properties that speed up the
healing process after a breakout.
2) Olive Oil:
i) Olive oil is rich in antioxidants that prevent bacteria build -up in the
pores.
ii) It is a great way to moisturise the skin and keep it hydrated and soft
throughout the day.
iii ) Its antibacterial properties minimize breakouts.

iv) Olive oil is non -comedogenic and won 't clog the pores. It helps to
dissolve bacteria and excess sebum.
3) Multani Mitti:
i ) A multani mitti ( fuller s earth ) face pack is an excellent way of tackling
'
bacteria and dead skin cells. It acts as natural clay and soaks up the
excess oil on the face.
ii) It is rich in zinc, which is vital to treat oily and acne -prone skin. It also
contains iron, silica , magnesium and oxides. Multani mitti face packs can
also help lighten blemishes and have no side-effects.
4) Honey: It contains antibacterial and antiseptic properties which also add
moisture to the skin. Honey also prevents the skin from producing too much oil.
5) Oatmeal: Oatmeal not only absorbs excess oil , but is also a great natural
exfoliator.
6) -
Egg White Masks: An egg-white, honey and flour paste can be used as a
face-pack. This will soak up the oil from the skin and add to its firmness.
15.2. DRY SKIN

The epidermis is normally composed of fat ( lipid ) and protein. The lipid portion
.
of the epidermis along with specific epidermal proteins ( e.g , filaggrin ) helps to
prevent skin dehydration. When there are deficient proteins and/or lipids, the skin
moisture evaporates more easily. As skin becomes dry, it also may become more
sensitive and prone to rashes and skin breakdown.
15.2. 1 . Causes
There is no single cause of dry skin . Dry skin causes can be classified as external
and internal. External factors are the most common underlying cause and are the
easiest to address. External factors include cold temperatures and low humidity,
especially during the winter when central heaters are used. Internal factors
include overall health, age, genetics, family history, and a personal history of
other medical conditions like atopic dermatitis.
External factors that cause dry skin include:
1 ) Over -washing with harsh soaps,
2 ) Overuse of sanitizers and lipid solvents ( alcohol ),
3) Cold temperature,
4) Low humidity.
The following medical conditions may cause dry skin:
1 ) Hypothyroidism
2) Diabetes
3) Malnutrition
4) Atopic dermatitis
Medications for medical conditions like high hlood pressure (such as
diuretics ), cholesterol-lowering drugs, and acne (such as retinoids like Retin
A and isotretinoin ) may also dry out the skin.
15.2. 2. Symptoms
The key symptom of dry skin is itching. People who have dry skin can often find
rough, dry, red patches on their skin , and these patches are often itchy. Typical
skin areas affected include arms, hands, lower legs, abdomen , and areas of
friction such as ankles and soles. As skin dryness becomes more severe, cracks
and fissures may evolve.
Symptoms and signs:
1 ) Itching
2) Rough dry skin
3) Red plaques of eczematous skin ( nummular eczema )
The itchy feeling may worsen the severity of dry skin . Itching can lead to the
-
development of the itch scratch cycle. That is, as a person feels itchy , he or she
scratches in response, which exacerbates the itch , and so on. The itch-scratch
cycle is often seen when conscious control of scratching is low or absent, for
instance during sleep.
Most common dry skin areas are:
1) The lower legs, 2) Hands, 3) Arms.
15.2.3. Prevention
Simple lifestyle changes can help prevent and relieve dry skin. Following
lifestyle changes are made to prevent dry skin:
1 ) Avoid using hot water to bathe or shower
2 ) Shower every other day instead of every day
3) Keep the shower time to less than 10 minutes
4 ) Use a moisturising soap when an individual bathe or shower
5 ) Apply moisturiser immediately after bathing or showering
6) Pat, rather than rub, wet skin dry with a soft towel
7) Avoid itching or scrubbing dry skin patches
8) Use a humidifier in the home
9) Drink plenty of water
15.2.4. Treatment
The best treatment for dry skin is daily lubrication with an emollient (a
substance that inhibits the evaporation of water ). Because most dry skin is due to
external causes, external treatments like creams and lotions can be applied and
effectively control the skin problem. Often , dry skin can be improved by
- -
applying a bland over the counter moisturiser.
Light moisturising lotions for mild dry skin include:
1 ) Cetaphil lotion
2) Lubriderm lotion
3) Curel lotion
Highly moisturising products for severe dry skin include:

1 ) Vaseline 2) Aquaphor
Topical steroid creams include:

1) Hydrocortisone 1% cream ( mild strength )
2 ) Pramosone 2.5% cream ( mild strength )
3) Triamcinolone 0.1 % cream ( medium strength )
4 ) Fluocinonide 0.05% cream ( strong strength )
Home Remedies
1) Exfoliating with a loofah, pumice stone, or scrub should be used to remove
dead skin cells if a doctor recommends it .
2 ) Applying ointment or cream regularly, ideally using products that contain
humectants, ceramides, or emollients.
3) Using a humidifier to add moisture to the air.
4 ) Applying a cold compress to the affected area.
5) Adding baby oil to warm bath water or applying it when the skin is damp
after a shower.
6) Using warm instead of hot water when showering or bathing.
7) Gently patting the skin dry with a towel .
15.3.SKIN MOISTURISATION
Moisturising of the skin is recognized as the first anti-aging skin care. Skin
moisturisation is essential for its appearance, protection, complexion, softness and
the reinforcement of its barrier properties against deleterious and exogenous
environmental factors. The intrinsic water binding capacity of skin is not only due to
the complex natural moisturising factor present in comeocytes, but also to hyaluronic
acid and a regulated water transport within the skin. Recent data shows that the water
movements between the cells at the different levels of the epidermis are due to
dedicated water and glycerol transport proteins named aquaporins. Their role in the
skin moisturisation is completed by comeodesmosomes and tight junctions.
Furthermore, the level of moisturisation of the skin is important in its protection
against repeated exposure to various irritant agents or phenomena such as very
frequent washing with strong tensioactive materials .
15.3. 1 . Natural Moisturising Factor ( NMF)

The role of the NMF is to maintain adequate skin hydration. Adequate hydration
of the stratum comeum serves three major functions:
1 ) It maintains plasticity of the skin, protecting it from damage;
2 ) It allows hydrolytic enzymes to function in the process of desquamation ;
3) It contributes to optimum stratum comeum barrier function.
The NMF is composed principally of free amino acids, and various derivatives of
these amino acids such as PCA, urocanic acid (a natural absorber of ultraviolet ),
and inorganic salts, sugars, as well as lactic acid and urea. Inorganic salts
identified include the chlorides, phosphates, and citrates of sodium , potassium,
calcium, and magnesium. The NMF is packaged within the comeocytes, making
up approximately 10% of the corneocyte mass and 20-30% of the dry weight of
the stratum comeum.
NMF components are highly efficient humectants that attract and bind water
from the atmosphere, drawing it into the corneocytes. This process can occur
even at a relative humidity as low as 50% , allowing the corneocytes to maintain
an adequate level of water in low-humidity environments. The water absorption
is so efficient that the NMF essentially dissolves within the water it has absorbed.
Hydrated NMF ( particularly the neutral and basic amino acids ) forms ionic
interactions with keratin fibers, reducing the intermolecular forces between the
fibers and thus increasing the elasticity of the stratum corneum. This elasticity
serves to make the skin appear healthy and supple and to help prevent cracking or
flaking due to mechanical stress.
15.3. 2. Ingredients Moisturising the Skin

Moisturisers, which rehydrate the top layer of skin cells and seal in the water, are
one of the best ways to treat dry skin. They contain three main types of
ingredients:
1 ) Humectants: These substances help attract moisture. They include
ceramides ( pronounced ser-A-mids), glycerine, sorbitol, hyaluronic acid, and
lecithin .
2 ) Occlusives: These ingredients include petrolatum ( petroleum jelly ), silicone,
lanolin , and various oils that help to seal moisture within the skin.
3) Emollients: These products contain oil , water, and an emulsifier to keep the
two from separating. They are lighter and easier to apply than petrolatum or
oils. Many commercial moisturisers contain both an emollient and a
humectant, such as linoleic, linolenic, and lauric acids.
In general, the thicker and greasier a product , the more effectively it will
moisturise the skin. Some of the most effective and least expensive are
petroleum jelly and its vegetable-based alternatives, and moisturising oils,
including vegetable oils. Because they contain no water, they’re best used while
the skin is still damp from bathing, to seal in the moisture.
Lotions designed to moisturise the skin contain water as well as oil, in varying
proportions. They usually include both humectants and emollients and can be
applied to skin throughout the day.
15.4. DERMATITIS
Dermatitis is a word used to describe a number of skin irritations and rashes
caused by genetics, an overactive immune system, infections, allergies, irritating
substances and more. Common symptoms include dry skin , redness and
itchiness.
In the word “dermatitis”, “derm” means “skin” and “itis” means “inflammation.”
The word as a whole means “inflammation of the skin.” The rashes range from
mild to severe and can cause a variety of problems, depending on their cause.
15.4. 1 . Types
1 ) Atopic Dermatitis: Also called eczema, this skin condition is usually
inherited and develops during infancy. Someone with eczema will likely
experience rough patches of dry, itchy skin.
2) Contact Dermatitis: Contact dermatitis happens when a substance touches
the skin and causes an allergic reaction or irritation. These reactions can
develop further into rashes that bum, sting, itch, or blister.
3) Dyshidrotic Dermatitis: In this type of dermatitis, the skin can ’ t protect
itself . This results in itchy, dry skin, often accompanied by small blisters. It
occurs mainly on the feet and hands.
4) Seborrheic Dermatitis: Also known as cradle cap in babies, this type is
most common on the scalp, though it can also occur on the face and chest. It
often causes scaly patches, red skin, and dandruff.
Some other types of dermatitis include:

1 ) Neurodermatitis: This type involves an itchy patch of skin, often triggered
by stress or something irritating the skin.
2) Nummular Dermatitis: Nummular dermatitis involves oval sores on the
skin , often occurring after a skin injury.
3) Stasis Dermatitis: This type involves skin changes due to poor blood
circulation.
4 ) Dermatitis Neglecta: Dermatitis neglecta refers to a skin condition that
result from not practicing good hygiene habits.
15.4.2. Causes
The causes of dermatitis vary depending on the type. Some types, like
dyshidrotic eczema, neurodermatitis, and nummular dermatitis, may have
unknown causes.
1 ) Contact Dermatitis: Contact dermatitis occurs when an individual come in
direct contact with an irritant or allergen . Common materials that cause
allergic reactions include:
i ) Detergents
ii ) Cosmetics
iii ) Nickel
iv ) Poison ivy and oak
2 ) Eczema: It is caused by a combination of factors like dry skin,
environmental setting, and bacteria on the skin. It ’ s often genetic, as people
with eczema tend to have a family history of eczema, allergies, or asthma.
3) Seborrheic Dermatitis: It is likely caused by a fungus in the oil glands. It
tends to get worse in the spring and winter. This type of dermatitis also
appears to have a genetic component for some people.
4) Stasis Dermatitis: It occurs due to poor circulation in the body, most
commonly in the lower legs and feet.
15.4.3. Symptoms
The symptoms depend on the type of dermatitis. An individual may have one
type, or may have more than one type of dermatitis. Each type may have one or
more of the following symptoms:
1 ) Itching.
2) Red rashes and bumps.
3) Rashes that look and/or feel like a burn.
4 ) Dry skin.
5) Fluid-filled blisters.
6) Thickening, hardening and swelling skin.
7) Crusting, scaling and creasing skin.
8) Painful ulcers.
9 ) When scratched , the rashes may ooze fluid or bleed.
15.4.4. Prevention
Awareness is the First step in avoiding dermatitis. The only way to prevent an
allergic reaction is to avoid contact with allergens or substances that cause
rashes, like poison ivy. But if an individual have eczema that is not always
preventable then the best option is to prevent a flare-ups:
1 ) Try to avoid scratching the affected area. Scratching can open or reopen
wounds and spread the bacteria to another part of the body.
2) To prevent dry skin , by taking shorter baths, using mild soaps, and bathing in
warm water instead of hot. Most people also find relief by Moisturising
frequently ( especially after a shower ).
3) Use water- based moisturisers after washing hands and oil -based moisturisers
for extremely dry skin.
15.4.5. Treatment
There some treatments that an individual can do at home, but they should only do
them with instructions and permission from the healthcare provider:
1 ) Ultraviolet Light: Ultraviolet A or B light waves can help the skin.
2 ) Wet Wrap Therapy: This therapy increases moisture in the skin.
' '
3) Bleach Baths: The amount of bleach is diluted. An individual shouldn t t do
this more than twice a week. Check with the healthcare provider before an
individual try this therapy.
Treatments at Home
1 ) Use Moisturiser: Right after shower or bathe, apply moisturiser to the skin.
This helps keep the skin hydrated.
2) Do not Overheat: Keep the space at a cool temperature and avoid high
humidity.
3) Skin Protection: Stay away from anything that could irritate it. This
includes rough clothing like wool.
4 ) Decrease Stress Level: Take steps to keep the stress levels down. If an
individual need to see a therapist for counseling and a psychiatrist for
medication.
5) Bathe in Lukewarm Water: Be sure to use lukewarm water instead of hot.

Take no more than one bath or shower per day .
6 ) Use a Mild Soap: Use soap or cleanser that is unscented.
7 ) Avoid Scratching: Scratching at the dermatitis irritates it. An individual
could break the skin, risking infection.
Medications
1 ) Moisturising Creams: Creams that hydrate and help to restore the skin
barrier.
2 ) Calcineurin Inhibitors: These topical medications decrease inflammation .
3) Corticosteroid Creams and Ointments: Corticosteroids decrease
inflammation.
4) Phosphodieterase-4 Inhibitors: This also helps with inflammation.
5) Biologies: This injection blocks functions of the immune system that affect
dermatitis.
6) Oral Medications: Pills that reduce immune responses that affect dermatitis.
7 ) Antihistamines: These are used, sometimes, for contact dermatitis.
8) Antibiotics: These can be used for people who have perioral dermatitis.
15.5. BLEMISHES
A blemish is any type of mark , spot, discoloration, or flaw that appears on the
skin . Blemishes on the face may be unsightly and emotionally upsetting, but most
are benign and not life-threatening. Some blemishes, however, can signal skin
cancer.
15.5. 1 . Types
1 ) Acne: It is a common condition. Acne is caused when sebum (oil ), bacteria,
or dirt clogs hair follicles. Acne can sometimes leave dark spots, pockmarks,
or scarring on the skin. These are also types of blemishes.
2) Papules: They are small skin lesions of varying types. They ’ re typically
around 1 centimeter in diameter. They can range in color from pink and to
brown. Pimples are sometimes referred to as papules. Papules can occur
individually or in clusters and can be any shape.
3) Nodules: They are a collection of tissue. They’re hard to the touch larger
than papules, usually 1 to 2 centimeters in diameter. Nodules can occur at
any level of the skin. They can vary in color from flesh -toned to red. Skin
tags and warts are examples of nodules.
4 ) Age Spots ( Liver Spots): These small, dark spots can form on any area of
the body that’s been exposed to the sun. They ’re most common in
people over 50, but they can also occur in individual od any age. Age
spots are a type of hyperpigmentation.
5) Pustules: They are fluid- or pus-filled bumps. Whiteheads and chickenpox

blisters are types of pustules. Other conditions that might cause pustules to
form include scabies and rosacea, a common skin condition marked
by blisters and visible blood vessels.
6) Birthmarks: They typically occur either at birth or shortly afterward. They
can range in appearance, size, shape, and color. Moles and port -wine stains
are types of birthmarks that typically last for life. Other types, such
as hemangiomas and salmon patches, tend to fade over time.
7 ) Melasma: It is very common during pregnancy. It’s a skin condition
identified by brownish patches. It can be brought about by sun exposure and
hormonal changes.
8 ) Cysts: They are benign ( noncancerous) sacs that contain a substance, such as
fluid. They may appear as bumps of varying sizes on or under the skin.
They’re often rounding.
9 ) Scars: Scarring of the skin occurs when the dermis layer becomes
damaged. The dermis is the deep layer of skin where small blood vessels
( capillaries ), sweat glands, hair follicles, and nerve endings are located.
Anything that causes the skin to open can lead to scarring, such as a wound
or popped pimples.
10 ) Cold Sores: The herpes simplex virus type 1 ( HSV- 1 ) cause’s cold sores.
They’re fluid-filled blisters which are found on or near the mouth. They may
itch or cause a tingling sensation. When the blisters open and drain , a red or
yellow scab forms until they heal .
11 ) Hyperpigmentation: An overproduction of melanin can cause uneven skin
tone or dark patches.
12 ) Whiteheads: Whiteheads are small , round blemishes that are white or skin -
colored. They develop as a result of oil and dead skin cells blocking the pores.
15.5.2. Causes
1 ) Viruses: Some blemishes, like cold sores, are caused by viruses, such as
HSV-1. The varicella-zoster virus ( VZV ) causes chickenpox.
2 ) Infections: Certain types of skin infections can cause blemishes to erupt on
the skin. These include malassezia folliculitis ( fungal acne ), an infection in
the hair follicles. This condition is caused by an overgrowth of yeast and
causes pustules to form.
3) Genetics: Acne may have a genetic link. Certain hereditary conditions can
also cause blemishes to occur. These include:
i ) Darier Disease: Wart like blemishes form on the skin that are oily,
smelly, and hard to the touch.
ii ) Gangliosidosis: This is a rare, hereditary condition that causes
noncancerous blemishes to form on the lower torso.
iii ) Fabry Disease: This is an inherited disorder that involves a gene
mutation. Small groupings of dark, red spots are a symptom.
4) Sun Exposure: Overexposure to the sun’ s harmful ultraviolet ( UV ) A and B

rays can cause skin cancer, hyperpigmentation, and other forms of skin damage.
5 ) Clogged Pores: Overproduction of oil from the sebaceous glands can cause
blemishes. Hormonal changes often trigger this overproduction, such as
puberty.
6) Diet: Food allergies and contact dermatitis can both cause skin irritation and
bumps. Dairy products, such as skim milk , may cause acne. Diets high in
sugar and simple carbohydrates may also lead to blemishes.
7 ) Medications: Some prescription and over-the-counter (OTC) medications
may cause acne as a side effect . These include:
i ) Corticosteroids ii ) Androgenic steroids
iii ) Lithium iv ) Anti-seizure drugs
15.5.3. Prevention
1 ) Properly Wash The Face: To help prevent pimples, it’ s important to
remove excess oil , dirt , and sweat daily. Washing the face more than twice a
day may make acne worse, however. Don’t wash the face with harsh
cleansers that dry skin. Use an alcohol -free cleanser.
2 ) Know The Skin Type: Anyone can get pimples, no matter their skin type.
Oily skin is the most pimple - prone. It’s caused by the skin ’ s sebaceous
glands producing too much oily sebum. Another type of skin that may cause
pimples is combination skin . Combination skin means an individual have
both dry areas and oily areas. The oily areas tend to be the forehead, nose,
and chin, also called the T-zone.
3) Moisturise Skin: Moisturisers help skin stay hydrated. But many
Moisturisers contain oil, synthetic fragrance, or other ingredients that may
irritate skin and cause pimples. To help prevent pimples, use fragrance-free,
non-comedogenic. An individual should moisturise the face after washing or
when the skin feels dry.
-
4) Use Over The-Counter Acne Treatments: Over-the-counter (OTC ) acne
treatments may help zap pimples fast or prevent them in the First place. Most
contain either benzoyl peroxide, salicylic acid, or sulphur. Use an OTC
treatment to spot-treat pimples. Or use it as a maintenance regimen to control
outbreaks. To help prevent side effects such as redness, irritation, and
dryness, precisely follows the manufacturer’s usage instructions.
5) Stay Hydrated : If an individual is dehydrated, then the body may signal the
skin’s oil glands to produce more oil. Dehydration also gives the skin a dull
appearance and promotes inflammation and redness.
6) Limit Makeup: When an individual do wear makeup, avoid greasy, heavy
foundation , and use products that are non -comedogenic, sheer, and
fragrance-free. Greasy or oily shampoos, body washes, shaving creams, and
hair styling products may all cause pimples. To help prevent outbreaks,
choose oil-free, non -comedogenic options.
7) Do not Touch the Face: The hands encounter grime and bacteria constantly
throughout the day. And each time an individual touch the face, some of
those pore-clogging impurities may get transferred to the skin .
8) Limit Sun Exposure: Catching some rays may dry out pimples in the short
term, but it causes major problems in the long run. Frequent sun exposure
dehydrates the skin, which over time causes it to produce more oil and block
pores. It’s important to wear sunscreen to help prevent skin cancer. However,
many sunscreens are oily. For both sun and pimple protection , wear a non-
comedogenic, oil-free sunscreen.
9 ) Reduce Stress: Stress doesn ' t’ cause pimples, but it may make them worse.
Some theories have proven that when an individual is stressed, then the body
produces more oil-stimulating hormones. Some options to help an individual
to manage stress are:
i ) Yoga ii ) Meditation iii ) Journaling
iv ) Massage v ) Aromatherapy
15.5.4. Treatment
Treatment should be determined by the cause of the blemish.
1 ) Acne Medications: There are many OTC products that can help reduce or
eliminate pimples, whiteheads, and blackheads. An individual may have to
experiment with several before an individual find the best treatment for an
individual . These include facial scrubs, astringents, and topical gels. If the
acne doesn ’t’ respond to OTC solutions, the doctor may prescribe oral
antibiotics or topical medication.
2 ) Salicylic Acid: Products containing salicylic acid can help unclog pores.
3) Hydrocortisone Cream: Topical creams can reduce allergic reactions and
irritations. They may also be beneficial for alleviating ingrown hairs. If an
individual is treating ingrown hairs, then he/she should stop using hair
removal techniques during treatment.
4 ) Sun Protection: Sunscreen, sun-protective clothing, sunglasses, and hats
reduce the exposure to UVA and UVB rays. This can help protect the skin
from additional damage.
5 ) Dermatologic Procedures for Hyperpigmentation: There are several
procedures which can remove age spots. These include:
i ) Microdermabrasion ii ) Laser therapy
iii ) Chemical peels iv ) Cryotherapy
6 ) Creams for Hyperpigmentation: Prescription creams
containing hydroquinone may help lighten age spots, acne scarring, and
melasma. They work by slowing down the production of melanin.
7 ) Healthy Hygiene Habits: Regular cleansing of the face, body, and hair can
help eliminate excess oil, dirt, and bacteria on the skin. But don t overdo it.
'
Too much cleansing can further irritate the skin ,

i ) Natural Solutions
ii) Blemishes are not caused by underlying medical conditions can be

treated with home remedies. These can include:
iii ) Witch hazel
iv) Aloe vera
v) Apple cider vinegar
8) Experiment with Diet: Keeping a food diary can help an individual to
pinpoint any foods that might be causing break out. Try eliminating one food
at a time for a few days.
15.6. WRINKLES
Wrinkles are creases, folds, or ridges in the skin. They naturally appear as people
get older.
The first wrinkles tend to appear on a person’s face in areas where the skin
naturally folds during facial expressions. They develop due to the skin becoming
thinner and less elastic over time. Wrinkles also tend to appear on parts of the
body that receive most sun exposure, such as the face and neck, back of the
hands, and arms.
15.6. 1 . Causes
l ) Wrinkles are a natural part of the aging process. As people get older, their
skin becomes thinner, drier, and less elastic, which means it, is less able to
protect itself from damage. This leads to wrinkles, creases, and lines on the
skin.
2 ) Facial expressions, such as smiling, frowning, or squinting, lead to the
development of fine lines and wrinkles at an individual age. These lines
deepen as the person gets older.
3) Exposure to ultraviolet ( UV ) light from sunbathing, tanning booths, and
outdoor sports increases the development of wrinkles. UV light breaks down
the collagen and elastin fibers in the skin. These fibers form the connective
tissue that supports the skin . As this layer breaks down , the skin becomes
weaker and less flexible. The skin starts to droop, and wrinkles appear.
4) People who work in sunlight have a higher chance of early wrinkles.
Wearing clothes that cover the skin, such as hats or long sleeves, may delay
the development of wrinkles.
5) Regular smoking accelerates the aging process of skin because it reduces
the blood supply to the skin.
6 ) Alcohol dehydrates the skin, and dry skin is more likely to develop wrinkles.
15.6. 2. Prevention
1) Using Sun Protection: Avoiding UV exposure reduces skin damage.
Dermatologists recommend wearing a hat and clothing to protect the skin and
using a sunscreen of SPF 30 or higher every day .
2 ) Moisturising Regularly: Moisturising prevents dryness, which reduces the

chance of wrinkles forming.
3) Quitting Smoking: Smoking greatly speeds up skin aging and causes skin
wrinkles.
4 ) Drinking Less Alcohol: Alcohol dehydrates the skin , which causes damage
over time.
5) Eating a Healthful, Balanced Diet: Eating plenty of fruit and vegetables can
prevent skin damage, whereas sugar and refined carbs can speed up skin aging.
6) Washing the Face Twice a Day: Use a gentle cleanser. Rubbing the skin
can cause irritation and speed up skin aging.
7) Washing the Face after Heavy Sweating: Sweat can irritate the skin, causing
damage over time. This is especially true while wearing a hat or helmet.
15.6.3. Treatment
Medical Treatments
1 ) Vitamin A Acid ( Tretinoin ): People must use creams containing tretinoin
on an ongoing basis. They may produce redness and peeling at first , but
people usually can minimize discomfort by lowering the retinoid cream ’ s
concentration or applying it less often until the skin gets used to it.
-
2) Alpha Hvdroxy Acids: These so-called “fruit acids” include glycolic and
lactic acid. Preparations containing these fruit acids are quite safe and cause
no more than mild and temporary irritation.
3) Antioxidants: These include preparations that contain vitamin A. vitamin C,
and vitamin E, as well as beta-carotene.
4) Ordinary Moisturisers: Creams that don t contain any of the above
'
substances can only moisturise the skin , making wrinkles look temporarily
less prominent ( “reduce the appearance of fine lines”).
Procedural Options
1 ) Glycolic Acid Peels: These superficial peels can make a very slight
difference in the intensity of fine wrinkles.
2 ) Deeper Peels: These peels use ingredients like salicylic acid and
trichloroacetic acid and penetrate somewhat deeper into the skin. Deeper
peels do a better job of smoothing fine lines.
3) Microdermabrasion: This refers to “sanding the skin” with a machine
containing silica or aluminium crystals. Microdermabrasion does not change
skin anatomy, though it may make the face feel smoother.
4) Dermabrasion: This is a true surgical procedure, often performed under
general anaesthesia. The treating physician uses a rotating instrument to sand
the skin down.
5) Laser Resurfacing: A medical professional passes the laser several times
over the area to be treated until the damage reaches the middle of the dermis,
the skin’s second layer. This helps stimulate the body’s natural collagen
synthesis ( production ), which plumps up sagging skin and wrinkles.
6) Fractional Resurfacing: Treatments affect not the whole skin but instead
only evenly spaced spots surrounded by undamaged skin.
-
7 ) Non Ablative Laser Resurfacing: Newer lasers attempt to stimulate
collagen synthesis under the skin without damaging the epidermis.
8 ) Heat and Radiofrequency: Another variation of non-invasive facial
rejuvenation is to heat tissue using radiofrequency devices and infrared light
sources.
9) Cosmetic Surgery: Surgical facelifts, brow lifts, and similar operations can
be very helpful for selected patients.
10 ) Thread Lift: In this procedure, barbed medical professionals insert a stiff
thread into facial skin in the appropriate direction and the tissue is pulled to
catch on the barbs, producing a lifted appearance.
11 ) Botox: Injection of botulinum toxin, the muscle poison, can paralyze facial
muscles that produce the “frown lines” on the forehead , fine lines around the
eyes, and other wrinkles.
12 ) Fillers: Medical professionals inject fillers into the skin to increase volume
and flatten wrinkles and folds. In the past , the most popular filler was
collagen . More recently, health care professionals use new filler substances
such as hyaluronic acid , lactic acid , and autologous fat transplants because
their effects can last six to nine months or even longer.
15.7. ACNE
Acne is a skin condition that occurs when the hair follicles become plugged with
oil and dead skin cells. Acne is a chronic, inflammatory skin condition that
causes spots and pimples, especially on the face, shoulders, back, neck, chest,
and upper arms.
15.7.1. Types
Acne can take several forms. They include:
l ) Blackheads: Open bumps on the skin that fill with excess oil and dead skin.
They look as if dirt has deposited in the bump, but the dark spots are actually
caused by an irregular light reflection off the clogged follicle.
2) Whiteheads: Bumps that remains closed by oil and dead skin.
3) Papules: Small red or pink bumps that become inflamed.
4) Pustules: Pimples containing pus. They look like whiteheads surrounded by
red rings. They can cause scarring if picked or scratched.
5) Fungal acne ( pityrosporum folliculitis ): This type occurs when an excess
of yeast develops in the hair follicles. They can become itchy and inflamed.
6) Nodules: Solid pimples that is deep in the skin. They are large and painful .
7 ) Cysts: Pus-filled pimples. These can cause scars.
15.7.2. Causes
Doctors believe that one or more of the following can lead to acne:
1 ) Too much oil in the pore.
2 ) Buildup of dead skin cells in the pore.
3) Growth of bacteria in the pore.
The following factors may make it more likely for an individual to develop acne:
1) Hormones. 2 ) Family history .
3) Medications. 4) Age.
The following do not cause acne, but may make it worse.
1) Certain foods.
2 ) Stress.
3) Pressure from sports helmets, tight clothes, or backpacks.
4 ) Pollution and high humidity.
5) Squeezing or picking at pimples.
6) Scrubbing the skin too hard.
15.7.3. Prevention
1 ) Wash the face no more than twice each day with warm water and mild soap
made especially for acne.
2 ) Do not scrub the skin or burst the pimples, as this may push the infection
further down , causing more blocking, swelling, and redness.
3) Avoid popping pimples, as this makes scarring likelier.
4) A specialist can treat a pimple that requires rapid removal for cosmetic reasons.
5) Refrain from touching the face.
6) Hold the telephone away from the face when talking , as it is likely to contain
sebum and skin residue.
7) Wash hands frequently, especially before applying lotions, creams, or makeup.
8 ) Clean spectacles regularly as they collect sebum and skin residue.
9) If acne is on the back, shoulders, or chest, try wearing loose clothing to let
the skin breathe. Avoid tight garments, such as headbands, caps, and scarves,
or wash them regularly if used.
10) Choose makeup for sensitive skin and avoid oil -based products. Remove
makeup before sleeping.
11 ) Use an electric shaver or sharp safety razors when shaving. Soften the skin
and beard with warm soapy water before applying shaving cream.
12) Keep hair clean, as it collects sebum and skin residue. Avoid greasy hair
products, such as those containing cocoa butter.
13) Avoid excessive sun exposure, as it can cause the skin to produce more
sebum. Several acne medications increase the risk of sunburn.
14) Avoid anxiety and stress, as it can increase production of cortisol and
adrenaline, which exacerbate acne.
15 ) Try to keep cool and dry in hot and humid climates, to prevent sweating.
15.7.4. Treatment
1) Lifestyle: Probably the most useful lifestyle change one can make is to never to
pick or squeeze pimples. Playing with or popping pimples, no matter how
Cosmetic Problems Associated with Skin (Chapter 15 ) 199
careful and clean one is, nearly always makes bumps stay redder and bumpier
longer. People often refer to redness as “scarring,” but fortunately, it usually isn’t
permanent. It’s just a mark that takes months to fade if left entirely alone.
2) Open the Pores: Occasional visits to an esthetician who is an expert at
safely removing blackheads during a facial can be beneficial.
3) Cleansing and Skin Care: Despite what one might read in popular style and
fashion magazines, there is no magic product or regimen that is right for
every person and situation.
i) Mild cleansers: Washing once or twice a day with a mild cleansing bar
or liquid will keep the skin clean and minimize sensitivity and irritation .
ii ) Exfoliating cleansers and masks : A variety of mild scrubs, exfoliants,
and masks can be used. These products may contain salicylic acid in a
concentration that makes it a very mild peeling agent. These products
remove the outer layer of the skin and thus open pores. Products
containing glycolic or alpha hydroxy acids are also gentle skin exfoliates.
iii ) Retinol: Not to be confused with the prescription medication Retin-A,
this derivative of vitamin A can help promote skin peeling.
4 ) Reducing Bacteria:
i ) Antibacterial Cleansers: The most popular ingredient in over the
counter antibacterial cleansers is benzoyl peroxide.
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ii) Topical ( External ) Applications: Antibacterial cleansers come in the
form of gels, creams, and lotions that are applied to the affected area.
The active ingredients that kill surface bacteria include benzoyl peroxide,
sulphur , and resorcinol.
5 ) Reduce Excess Oil:
i) One cannot stop oil glands from producing oil. Even isotretinoin only
slows down oil glands for a while; they resume normal activity later.
ii) Use a gentle astringent/ toner to wipe away oil.
iii ) Products containing glycolic acid or one of the other alpha hydroxy acids
are also helpful in clearing the skin by causing the superficial layer of the
skin to peel (exfoliate).
iv ) Masks containing sulphur and other ingredients draw out facial oil.
v ) Antibacterial pads containing benzoyl peroxide have the additional
benefit of helping to wipe away oil.
15.8. PRICKLY HEAT

A prickly heat rash, also known medically as miliaria , is a rash that may develop
in patients who tend to sweat a great deal more than what is usual , who are also
faced with sweat glands that become blocked .
Prickly heat rashes usually affect the parts of the body that are covered with
clothing, such as the back, the abdomen , the neck, the upper chest or the groin
and armpits. This condition is characterised by an itchy rash, which is made up of
small , red raised spots that cause a prickling or stinging sensation.
15.8. 1 . Causes
Prickly heat rash can be caused by excessive perspiration , usually seen in hot,
humid climates. This excessive perspiration can make it easier for dead skin cells
as well as bacteria to block the body’ s sweat glands, in turn causing a barrier of
sorts to be formed, which traps the sweat under the skin.
This condition then results in the sweat building up under the skin, in turn
resulting in the characteristic bumps of this condition being seen. As the bumps
caused begin to burst , released the trapped sweat , the patient can suffer from a
prickly, or stinging sensation that gives this condition its name.
15.8.2. Symptoms
In most cases, heat rash has fairly common symptoms that one can look out for,
which are normally limited to the formation of small, itchy red bumps, which
may feel prickly, stinging or burning.
However, in certain cases, it is important to seek medical consultation if :
1 ) The heat rash being suffered from does not go away on its own within a few
days.
2) An individual, or someone an individual know, beings to develop an
infection in an area where an individual recently had heat rash.
15.8.3. Prevention and Treatment

It’s important to not scratch the rash. Scratching can lead to more irritation and
possibly an infection .
1) Cool Baths and Showers: Heat rash usually eases up after the skin is cooled
down . Bathing in cool water can help with this. Washing the skin gently can
also unclog the pores. This is crucial, since clogged pores contribute to heat
rash.
2 ) Fans and Air Conditioners: While the skin heals, avoid excessive sweating
and humid air. Ventilation is important in letting the rash dry out and stay
cool. Stay in an air-conditioned room, or use an air fan.
3) Light, Moisture- Wicking Clothes: As the skin heals itself , it’s essential to
avoid clothing that irritates the skin or makes an individual sweat more.
Moisture-wicking clothing that’s light and loose-fitting can help the skin heal
without irritating it.
4 ) Ice Packs or Cold Cloths: Cold compresses are great for soothing irritated
skin. Face cloths soaked in cold water, or ice wrapped in a cloth, can reduce
the pain and irritation associated with heat rash.
5) Oatmeal: It is effective at reducing itching and inflammation. This makes it
a useful home remedy for heat rash and a number of other skin conditions.
6) Antihistamines: Over-the-counter antihistamines whether topical or oral
can relieve the itching associated with heat rash. If an individual is giving an
antihistamine to a child, be sure to talk to the paediatrician or pharmacist
about which types are best.
7 ) Sandalwood: Research suggests sandalwood is an anti -inflammatory and

analgesic, meaning it may reduce pain. Sandalwood powder mixed with a
little water and applied to the rash can reduce the burning, painful sensation
associated with heat rash.
8) Baking Soda ( Sodium Bicarbonate ): It can soothe itchy skin. It 's also
something most of us have in our pantry . This makes it a great home remedy
for heat rash and other itchy skin conditions. Add 3 to 5 tablespoons of
baking soda to a lukewarm bath and soak for about 20 minutes.
9) Aloe Vera: It is an anti-inflammatory and antiseptic that can cool down the
skin while preventing infections. This can help soothe swelling and pain. Use
aloe vera gel directly on the heat rash to relieve the discomfort.
10) Unscented Talcum Powder: Talcum powder reduces sweat by absorbing
perspiration. In turn, this ensures the pores aren’t blocked. Use unscented
talcum powder, as scents might irritate the skin. Apply a little on sweat-prone
areas like the underarms, backs of the knees, and inner thighs. Coat the skin
and let it sit as if it were an antiperspirant deodorant .
11 ) Neem ( Margosa ): It can be used on a number of skin rashes. Research has
shown it has antimicrobial and anti -inflammatory properties. However,
human studies are limited.
12 ) Calamine Lotion: It has a number of benefits for the skin , partly because it
contains zinc oxide. It can help treat heat rash by soothing itchiness. Dab
some calamine lotion onto the rash using a cotton pad. Reapply as needed.
13) Epsom Salt ( Magnesium Sulphate ): It has a range of claimed health
benefits. A lukewarm bath with a cup or two of Epsom salt may relieve
itchiness, according to anecdotal accounts.
14 ) Hydrocortisone Cream: It can be used to relieve heat rash. It’s available
over the counter at any pharmacy and can be applied once or twice a day to
soothe itching.
15.9. BODY ODOUR

Body odour is the perceived unpleasant smell our bodies can give off when
bacteria that live on the skin break down sweat into acids.
Body odour is most likely to occur in the following places:
1) Feet
2 ) Groin
3) Armpits
4) Genitals
5) Pubic hair and other hair
6) Belly button
7 ) Anus
8 ) Behind the ears
9) The rest of the skin, to a lesser extent
15.9. 1 . Causes
Body odour is caused by bacteria breaking down sweat and is largely linked to
the apocrine glands. Most body odour comes from these. These glands are found
in the breasts, genital area, eyelids, armpits, and ear. In the breasts, they secrete
fat droplets into breast milk . In the ear, they help form earwax. Apocrine glands
in the skin and the eyelids are sweat glands.
Most of the apocrine glands in the skin are located in the groin , armpits, and
around the nipples. In the skin, they usually have an odor. They are scent glands.
The apocrine glands are mainly responsible for body odor because the sweat they
produce is high in protein , which bacteria can break down easily.
15.9. 2. Prevention and Treatment

The following steps may help control body odour:
1 ) Wash Daily with Warm Water: Have a shower or bath at least once a day.
Remember that warm water helps kill off bacteria that are present on the skin. If
the weather is exceptionally hot, consider bathing more often than once a day.
2 ) Clothing: Natural fibers allow the skin to breathe, resulting in better
evaporation of sweat. Natural - made fibers include wool, silk or cotton.
3) Avoid Spicy Foods: Curry, garlic, and other spicy foods have the potential
to make some people 's sweat more pungent. Some experts believe a diet high
in red meat may also raise the risk of developing more rapid body odor.
4) Aluminum Chloride: This substance is usually the main active ingredient in
antiperspirants. If the body does not respond to the home remedies mentioned
above, talk to a pharmacist or the doctor about a suitable product containing
aluminum chloride. Follow the instructions given to an individual carefully.
5) Botulinum Toxin: This is a toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum; it is
the most poisonous biological substance known. The individual is given
approximately 12 injections of botulinum toxin in the armpits. It is a
procedure that should not last more than 45 minutes. The toxin blocks the
signals from the brain to the sweat glands, resulting in less sweating in the
targeted area. One treatment can last from two to eight months.
6) Surgery: When self -care and medicinal measures are not effective at treating
severe body odor, a doctor can perform a surgical procedure called
Endoscopic Thoracic Sympathectomy ( ETS ) that destroys the sweating-
controlling nerves below the skin of the armpits. This procedure is a last
resort and runs the risk of damage to other nerves and arteries in the area.
15.10. COMEDOGENIC
“Comedo” is Latin for blackhead i.e., dirt or fatty matter in a skin duct. “Genic”
means “ producing” or “favoring”- as in photogenic. Comedogenic therefore
literally means “blackhead causing”, and is conventionally accepted to be acne-
causing, since clogged pores are an important cause of acne.
Comedogenic ingredients are “pore-clogging” ingredients. There are more than

120 of these comedogenic ingredients scientifically shown to trigger
product acne ( acne cosmetica ).
Though these cause massive problems for breakout -prone skin, the majority of
people with acne don’t actually know what they are and may have a medicine
cabinet full of these pore-cloggers.
Product acne is such a common problem in my clinic that over 90% of new
clients are using comedogenic products without knowing it. Even a
single comedogenic ingredient or one-time use cloggy product ( i.e. a mask or a
friend ’s sunscreen ) can trigger these little breakouts.
A clinical use test is where individuals use a product under normal conditions
for several weeks and are then evaluated for blackheads or pimples. This is the
most meaningful way to determine if a product is compatible with a person’s
skin . One can test on a small area of facial acne-prone skin, or even on non -
facial skin such as the chest or back. These areas contain a high density of
pores with oil glands.
15.11 . SUMMARY
1 ) Oily skin happens when the sebaceous glands in the skin make too much
sebum. Sebum is the waxy, oily substance that protects and hydrates the skin.
2 ) The epidermis is normally composed of fat ( lipid ) and protein . The lipid
portions of the epidermis along with specific epidermal proteins (for
example, flagging ) help prevent skin dehydration.
3) Moisturising of the skin is recognized as the first anti-aging skin care.
4) Dermatitis is a word used to describe a number of skin irritations and rashes
caused by genetics, an overactive immune system , infections, allergies,
irritating substances and more.
5 ) A blemish is any type of mark, spot, discoloration , or flaw that appears on
the skin.
6) Wrinkles are creases, folds, or ridges in the skin. They naturally appear as
people get older.
7 ) Acne is a skin condition that occurs when the hair follicles become plugged
with oil and dead skin cells.
8 ) A prickly heat rash , also known medically as miliaria , is a rash that may
develop in patients who tend to sweat a great deal more than what is usual ,
who are also faced with sweat glands that become blocked.
9 ) Body odour is the perceived unpleasant smell our bodies can give off when
bacteria that live on the skin break down sweat into acids.
10 ) "Comedo" is Latin for blackhead - dirt or fatty matter in a skin duct .

"
Genic" means “producing” or “favoring”- as in photogenic .
11 ) Comedogenic therefore literally means “blackhead causing”, and is
conventionally accepted to be acne -causing, since clogged pores are an
important cause of acne .
15.12. EXERCISE
1 ) What is sebum?
2) Give any two symptoms of oily skin.
3) What is epidermis composed of ?
4 ) Give any two preventive measures for dry skin.
5) Give the full form of NMF.
6) Name the three main types of ingredient used in moisturisers.
7) What are wrinkles?
8) What are the causes of prickly heat?

1) Enlist the causes of oily skin.
2) Write a short note on skin moisturising.
3) Describe the types and causes of acne.
4) Elaborate the prevention and treatment of prickly heat.
5) Write a short note on body odor.
6) Write a short note on comedogenic.

1) Explain the prevention and treatment of oily skin.
2) Explain causes, symptoms and treatment of dry skin.
3) Explain the types, causes, prevention and treatment of dermatitis.
4) Explain the types, causes, prevention and treatment of blemishes.
Cosmetic Problems Associated with Hair and Scalp ( Chapter 16 ) 205
CHAPTER Cosmetic Problems

16 Associated with Hair and
Scalp
16.1 . DANDRUFF
Dandruff is a common condition that causes the skin on the scalp to flake.
Dandruff is considered to be a mild form of seborrheic dermatitis. In babies,
seborrheic dermatitis is called cradle cap .
In some cases, dandruff can cause redness in the affected area and may appear
crusty and start to itch , sometimes pretty badly. On rare occasions, dandruff can
even lead to hair loss if it isn 't treated . Any lost hair should grow back once the
dandruff is treated, though.
Dandruff is not contagious or an indication of poor hygiene and it often can be
controlled by daily shampooing with a gentle shampoo. In more severe cases, a
doctor may recommend a medicated shampoo or cream.
16.1 . 1 . Comporestion
Dandruff scale is a cluster of corneocytes, which have retained a large degree of
cohesion with one another and detach as such from the surface of the stratum
comeum. The size and abundance of scales are heterogeneous from one reste to
another and over time. Parakeratotic cells often make up part of dandruff. Their
numbers are related to the severity of the clinical manifestations, which may also
be influenced by seborrhea.
16.1 .2. Causes

Dandruff itself produces no symptoms. However, the most common cause of
dandruff , seborrheic dermatitis ( seborrhea ), is an itchy red rash that tends
to occur on the scalp, ears, face, mid -chest , and mid -back. The cause of
seborrhea is unknown , although yeast that often lives on the skin, Malassezia
furfur , may play a role.
The flakes associated with dandruff sometimes can be caused by conditions other
than seborrhea , including:
1 ) Irritated, oily skin
2 ) Not shampooing enough
3) A yeast - like fungus ( malassezia ) that feeds on oils on the scalps of most
adults.
4 Dry skin
)
5) Senrestivity to hair care products ( contact dermatitis )
6 ) Other skin conditions, such as psoriasis and eczema
16.1 .3. Symptoms

Dandruff signs and symptoms may include:
1 ) Skin flakes on the scalp, hair, eyebrows, beard or mustache, and shoulders
2) Itchy scalp
3) Scaly , crusty scalp in infants with cradle cap
16.1 .4. Prevention

Following steps are taken to prevent development of dandruff or to control it:
1 ) Manage Stress: Stress affects overall health , making an individual
susceptible to a number of conditions and diseases. It can even help trigger
dandruff or worsen existing symptoms.
2) Eat a Healthy Diet: A diet that provides enough zinc, vitamin B and certain
types of fats may help prevent dandruff .
3 ) Often Shampooing: If an individual tends to have an oily scalp, daily

shampooing may help to prevent dandruff. Gently massage the scalp to
loosen flakes and rinse thoroughly .
4 ) Get Enough Sunlight: Sunlight may be good for controlling dandruff. But
because exposure to ultraviolet light damages the skin and increases risk of
acquiring skin cancer so avoid sunbathe.
5 ) Limit Hair Styling Products: Hair styling products can build up on the hair
and scalp, making them oilier.
16.1 .5. Treatment

The itching and flaking of dandruff can almost always be controlled. For mild
dandruff . First try daily cleansing with a gentle shampoo to reduce oil and skin
cell buildup. If that doesn 't help then try a medicated dandruff shampoo.
If an individual develop itching, stinging , redness or burning from any

product , then he/she should stop using it. If an allergic reaction develops like
a rash , hives or difficulty breathing then immediate medical attention should
be seeked .
On the basis of therapeutic components dandruff shampoos are classified as

follows:
1 ) Pyrithione Zinc Shampoos: These contain the antibacterial and antifungal
agent zinc pyrithione.
2) Tar - Based Shampoos ( Neutrogena T/Gel ): Coal tar slows how quickly
skin cells on the scalp die and flake off . If an individual have light -colored
hair, this type of shampoo may cause discoloration. It can also make the
scalp more senrestive to sunlight .
Shampoos containing salicylic acid ( Neutrogena T/Sal, Baker’s P & S,
others ). These products help eliminate scale.
3) Selenium Sulfide Shampoos ( Head & Shoulders Intensive, Selsun Blue,

others ): These contain an antifungal agent . Use these products as directed
and rinse well after shampooing, as they can discolor the hair and scalp.
-
4 ) Ketoconazole Shampoos ( Nizoral A D): This shampoo is intended to kill
dandruff -causing fungi that live on the scalp. It 's available over -the-counter
or by prescription .
Topical Steroids
1 ) Corticosteroid creams and lotions reduce inflammation . These can be
purchased over the counter in either 0.5% or 1 % concentrations. They are
safe to use on the face and will often help in just a couple of days when
applied twice daily. These products also are available as scalp lotions that are
applied once a day, preferably on damp hair after shampooing. One can use
scalp corticosteroid creams together with medicated shampoos.
2 ) Antifungal creams are often effective, apparently because they reduce the
number of yeast organisms living on the skin . Over -the-counter creams
include 1 % clotrimazole cream and miconazole cream 2% . Antifungal
creams also are applied once or twice a day.
Home Remedies
1 ) Coconut Oil: Start by rubbing 3 to 5 teaspoons of this into the scalp, then
wait an hour and shampoo the hair.
2 ) Aloe Vera: Rub a bit into the scalp just before an individual shampoo the
hair.
3) Apple Cider Vinegar: Mix a quarter cup of apple cider vinegar with a
quarter cup of water, then pour it over the scalp. Leave it for at least 15
minutes, and then rinse the scalp well .
4) Aspirin: Crush two aspirin and mix them with the shampoo, then shampoo
the hair. Let it rest for 2 minutes then rinse it out.
5) Baking Soda: Wet the hair, and then put baking soda on the scalp. Let it rest
for a few minutes, and then rinse it out.
6) Lemon Juice: Rub 2 teaspoons of lemon juice into the scalp; let it rest for a
couple of minutes, then rinse. Follow that by mixing another teaspoon of
lemon juice mixed with 1 cup of water and pouring it over the scalp.
7 ) Olive Oil: Rub several drops of olive oil into the scalp, cover the hair with a
shower cap, and then sleep on it. In the morning, shampoo the hair.
.
16.2 HAIR FALL
Hair loss can be temporary or long lasting. Temporary hair loss can be easy to fix
when its cause is identified and dealt with , or difficult when it is not immediately
clear what the cause is. Hair loss that could possibly have been temporary may
become long lasting as a result of an incorrect diagnosis. Alopecia is the medical
term for excessive or abnormal hair loss.
16.2. 1. Types
There are many types of hair loss, also called alopecia. With the exception of
androgenic alopecia, most hair loss conditions affect a relatively small
percentage of people.
1 ) Involutional Alopecia: In this type of hair loss called involutional
alopecia, the hair follicles gradually go into the telogen ( resting ) phase. The
remaining hair becomes shorter and fewer in number, sometimes even brittle.
2 ) Telogen Effluvium: An individual may experience temporary hair loss
weeks to months after a stressed episode like childbirth, fever, severe illness,
stress or sudden weight loss, which decreases gradually in a few months.
Such type of hair loss is called telogen effluvium. This happens due to
changes in the growth cycle of hair, when a large number of hairs go into the
resting phase ( telogen ) at the same time.
3) Anagen Effluvium: Hair shedding and thinning that usually occurs as the result
of exposure to chemicals or toxins (such as cancer treatment like
chemotherapy or radiation ) during anagen, the growth phase of the hair lifecycle.
4 ) Male and Female Pattern Baldness: If an individual is a male with a
receding hairline and gradual disappearance of hair from the crown, may be
suffering from androgenic alopecia ( also called male pattern baldness). In
this condition, the individual may experience hair loss as early as in the teens
or early 20s.
Men with androgenic alopecia may notice hair loss at the top of the scalp and
a receding hairline particularly along the temples. The typical pattern begins
at the hairline which then gradually moves backward and forms an " M '
shape. Finally the hair becomes finer, shorter and thinner creating a U -shaped
pattern of hair around the sides of the head.
If an individual is a female with general thinning of the hair over the entire
scalp, extensive hair loss at the crown with the hairline at the front intact , she
individual may be suffering from female pattern baldness. The hair part may
become wider with time. As hair thinning occurs, the scalp becomes
progressively more visible. The hair loss rarely progresses to total or near
total baldness.
5 ) Alopecia Areata: If an individual is a child or an adult with one to two
totally smooth, round patches of hair loss mostly on the scalp, an individual
may be suffering from alopecia areata. The hair loss may also be seen in the
eyebrows, arms, legs or facial hair. It is often sudden in onset and the hair
usually grows back in six months to a year. Alopecia areata is generally
considered an autoimmune condition, in which the body attacks its own hair
follicles.
6 ) Scarring Alopecia: They result in permanent loss of hair. Inflammatory skin
conditions ( cellulitis, folliculitis, acne ), and other skin disorders ( such as
some forms of lupus and lichen planus ) often result in scars that destroy the
ability of the hair to regenerate. Hot combs and hair too tightly woven and
pulled can also result in permanent hair loss.
7 ) Lichen Planopilaris: A type of scarring hair loss that occurs from

a skin disease known as lichen planus, which affects areas of the skin with
hair. It can cause redness, irritation, and in some cases, permanent hair loss.
8) Tinea Capitis: Tinea capitis ( ringworm of the scalp ) is a fungal infection of
the scalp which usually affects school -age children and goes away at puberty.
It involves only parts or whole of the scalp. Hair breaks off at areas that are
infected causing bald scalp with small black dots. The skin has inflamed ( red
swollen ), round , scaly areas with pus-filled sores called kerions. The child
may have a low-grade fever or swollen lymph nodes in the neck. It is
contagious and can spread from sharing combs and hats. Once the infection
is cured , the hair grows back.
9) Traction Alopecia: Hair loss can also occur due to pressure on hair because
of particular hairstyles causing small, localised areas of hair loss. This type
of hair loss is called traction alopecia.
10 ) Trichotillomania: Some people have the habit of voluntarily twisting or
pulling their own hair from the scalp and eyelashes. This is referred to
as trichotillomania or hair pulling disorder. It is a psychological disorder seen
most frequently in children .
11 ) Trichorrhexis Nodosa: A defect in hair fibers characterized by fraying and
swelling nodes along the hair shaft that cause the hair to break off easily.
16.2. 2. Causes
1 ) Heredity: Hair loss caused due to genetic makeup is a natural condition. It is
called androgenetic alopecia and is common in men. It is also called male -
pattern baldness or hereditary -pattern baldness.
2 ) Hormonal Changes: Women experience hormonal changes during
pregnancy, childbirth , and menopause or during a change of contraceptives.
Hormonal changes affect the growth cycle of hair and lead to increased hair
fall. Childbirth involves extreme stress on the body and can push a lot of hair
follicles to a resting phase or telogen phase. Telogen effluvium is a term used
to describe this sort of hair loss from the scalp. But fret not, this condition is
totally reversible.
3) Medications and Radiation Therapy: Medications like chemotherapeutic
drugs, antidepressants, arthritis and high blood pressure drugs can lead to
hair loss. Radiation therapy is used to treat cancer and it can lead to hair loss.
4 ) Stress: Stress can deprive the hair of essential nutrients making them
weaker. Yoga, meditation or work out for a healthy mind and body.
5) Excessive Hair Styling: Heat styling and other damaging styling techniques
like bleaching, perming, curling and straightening can lead to hair breakage.
6 ) Hair Care Products: Harsh chemicals in hair care products like shampoos
can lead to hair fall. It is important to choose a gentle shampoo that is made
for an individual.
7 ) Infections: Fungal and bacterial skin infections can reduce the amount of
hair on the scalp, causing balding or hair thinning. Treating conditions like
syphilis can restore the hair growth.
8) Vitamin Deficiency: The hair is made up of protein , amino acids and peptide
bonds. To nourish these structures, it is important to eat a balanced diet. Lack
of proteins (animal or plant sources ), iron , zinc, vitamin C and B in the diet
can cause hair fall .
9) Pollution: A study found out that dust and fuel particles from the air can
affect the scalp and interfere with hair proteins. Air pollution is one of the
causes of premature hair loss and greying of hair.
10 ) Lifestyle Habits: Lifestyle habits like inadequate sleep, working outdoors in
the sun and smoking can cause hair loss. All these disrupt the mechanisms in
the body that make healthy hair.
16.2. 3. Symptoms
Hair loss can occur suddenly or gradually. While some kinds of hair loss are
temporary, some are permanent. The most common symptoms of hair loss are:
1 ) Gradual thinning at the forehead or receding hairline
2) Circular patchy bald spots or alopecia
3) Loosening of hair
4) Patches of scaling due to an infection
5) Full body hair loss due to medical treatments like chemotherapy
16.2. 4. Prevention
1) Switch to a balanced diet.
2) Get adequate sleep.
3) Steer clear of tight hairstyles.
4) Pop a multivitamin tablet.
5) Cover the hair with a scarf when an individual are out in the pollution.
6) Stay away from hair styling techniques as much as possible.
7) Regular oil massages will calm the mind, relieve stress and strengthen the
roots.
8) Washing hair with hot water can cause hair fall. Cool water is always
recommended for hair wash.
16.2.5. Treatment
Medications
1 ) Minoxidil is an over-the-counter drug that is believed to help in hair growth.
Be gentle with the concentrations as high dosage that can lead to scalp
irritation and acne.
2 ) Phenylephrine is another medication that helps the hair follicles to contract,
thereby preventing hair breakage when pulled.
3) Finasteride is also a medication that is available on prescription and helps in
hair growth.
Cosmetic Problems Associated with Hair and Scalp (Chapter 16 ) 211
-
In Office Treatment Options
1 ) Hair Transplantation: It involves the surgical removal of hair follicles from
a donor in the body to the areas of baldness. This is a minimally invasive
procedure and commonly performed for male pattern baldness.
2) Scalp Reduction: It is a procedure that involves surgical removal of regions
of scalp that are affected by baldness. It is like scalp lifting and is performed
in both men and women.
3 ) Laser Therapy: People with genetic hair loss or chemotherapy can benefit
from low-level lasers. The red light therapy works by stimulating epidermal
stem cells.
4 ) Platelet - Rich Plasma: The blood is run through a centrifuge to separate out
platelets. This platelet rich plasma is then induced in the scalp for hair
growth.
Diet
Have a protein rich diet. Include amla in the diet as it prevents hair fall and
greying of hair. Coconut and moong beans are exceptionally good for preventing
hair loss.
Excess salt consumption is a definite cause of early greying and hair fall.
Consumption of raw Aloe leaf juice regularly will help balance hormones and
prevent hair fall linked with hormones.
Natural Remedies
People have been using natural methods since ages to help prevent hair loss,
though there is no scientific evidence.
Onion juice, hibiscus leaves, massaging with essential oils, coconut oil , green
tea
and aloe vera are common natural treatments for hair growth.
16.3. SUMMARY
1 ) Dandruff is a common condition that causes the skin on the
scalp to flake. Dandruf f
is considered to be a mild form of seborrheic dermatitis.
2) Dandruff scale is a cluster of comeocytes, which have
retained a large degree of
cohesion with one another and detach as such from the
surface of the stratum
comeum.
3) The cause of seborrhea is unknown, although yeast
that often lives on the skin,
Malassezia furfur, may play a role.
4) For mild dandruff first try daily cleansing with
a gentle shampoo to reduce oil and
skin cell build-up. If that doesn’t help, try a medicated
dandruff shampoo.
5) Alopecia is the medical term for excessive or
abnormal hair loss
.
6) Hair loss can occur suddenly or gradually. While some kinds of hair loss are
temporary , some are permanent.
7) Temporary hair loss can be easy to fix when its cause is identified and dealt with,
or difficult when it is not immediately clear what the cause is.
8) Hair transplantation involves the surgical removal of hair follicles from a donor
reste in the body to the areas of baldness.
.
16.4 EXERCISE
1) What is seborrheic dermatitis called in babies?
2) What is the medical term for excessive or abnormal hair loss?
3) Mention any two symptoms of hair fall .
4) Mention any two preventive measures for hair fall.
5) Name some over-the-counter medication for hair fall treatment.
6) What is androgenetic alopecia?

1 ) Explain comporestion and write the causes and symptoms of dandruff.
2) Write a short note on treatment of hair fall.
3) Enlist home remedies for dandruff .

1 ) Describe prevention and treatments of dandruff.
2) Elaborate the types and causes of hair fall.
Index 213
Index
A E
Acne, 197 Enamel, 42, 46
Acute Gingivitis, 45 Epidermis, 32, 36
Aerosol, 67 Evolution of Cleansing Soaps, 178
Alcohol-Based and Hydro-Alcoholic Emollients, 29
Roll -On, 65 Evaluation, 138
Anti-Dandruff Shampoo, 76
Antiperspirant Creams, 62 F
Antiperspirant Sprays, 62
Antiperspirants and deodorants Face wash, 48, 58
Formulation, 60 Fluoride Toothpaste, 102
Preparation, 61 Formulation , 172
Arrector pili, 38, 40
Aloe, 127 G
Amla, 133
General Purpose Cleaning Shampoo 74 .
B
H
Baby Shampoo, 77, 97
Blemishes, 191 Hair, 37
Blood and Lymphatic Vessels, 34 Hair Bulb, 38, 40
Body odour, 201 Hair Conditioner, 81
Hair dyes, 88, 98
Hair Fall, 207
c Hair Growth Cycle, 39
Cavities, 45 Hair oils, 85, 97
Clear Water-in -Oil Roll -On, 66 Hair Shaft, 38, 40
Cold creams, 53, 58 Herbal cosmetics, 124
Comedogenic, 203 Humectants, 28
Conditioning Shampoo, 75 Henna, 132
Cosmeceuticals, 18
Cosmetic Excipients, 22 I
Clove, 138
Cosmetics, 15 Inferior Segment, 37
Cosmetics as OTC Drugs, 17 Infundibulum, 37, 40
Cosmetics as Quasi , 17 Isthmus, 37
Crown, 42, 46 Ingredients, 170
D K
.
Dandruff 205 Keratinocytes, 32
Dentin, 42, 46
Dermatitis, 188 M
Dermis, 34
Malpighian layer, 34
Dermoepidermal Junction, 34, 36
Melanocytes, 33
Disorders of Gastrointestinal Tract
Moisturising Creams, 50, 58
Acute Gingivitis, 45, 47
Moisturizer Cream, 129
Dry Shampoo, 77
Mouthwashes, 109, 116
Dry Skin, 185
Mouth , 41 Sticks and Solids, 63

Stratum basale, 33, 36
N Stratum corneum, 33, 36
Stratum granulosum , 33, 36
Natural Moisturising Factor, 187 Stratum spinosum, 33, 36
Nerve Supply, 35 .
Subcutaneous Tissue, 34 36
Neem, 136 Sun Protection, 116
Sunscreen, 117
o Suspension Roll -On, 65
Syndetbars, 169
Oily skin, 182 Surfactants, 22, 31
Oral cavity, 41
Oral Cavity
.
Semi- Permanent/Direct Hair Dye 90
T
P
Tartar Control Toothpaste, 103
Periodontitis, 45 Tooth Powder, 107
Prickly Heat, 199 Toothpaste for Sensitive Teeth , 103
Pump, 66 Toothpastes, 99, 115
Preservatives, 29, 31 Types of Antiperspirants and
Preparation, 173 Deodorants, 61
Para -Phylene Diamine- Based Hair Dye. Turmeric, 130
91 Temporary Hair Dye, 88
Teeth, 42
R Tongue, 43
Roll-on , 64
Rheology modifiers, 24 V
Vanishing creams, 54, 58
s
Sensitive Teeth, 45 w
Shampoos, 71 Water- Based Roll -On , 64
Skin, 32 Whitening Toothpaste, 103
Skin Moisturisation, 187 Wrinkles, 195
Soaps, 169
SPF, 122
Bibliography 215
Bibliography
• Harry R .G., Reiger M .M ., Harry ' s Cosmeticology , Chemical Publishing
Company.
• Balsam M.S., Sagarin E., Cosmetics: Science and Technology , Wiley
Interscience.
• Rao Y.M., Shayeda, Cosmeceuticals , Pharma Med Press.
• Paye M., Basel A.O., Maibach H.L, Handbook of Cosmetic Science &
Technology , Informa Healthcare.
• Sharma P.P., Cosmetics Formulation, Manufacturing and Quality’ Control ,
Vandana Publication Pvt. Ltd.
• .
Poucher W.A., Butler H ., Poucher ’s Perfumes Cosmetic & Soaps , Springer
India Pvt . Ltd.
• Nanda S., Nanda A., Cosmetic Technology , Birla Publication .
• SCCS's Notes of Guidance for the Testing of Cosmetic Ingredients and their
Safety Evaluation , 7th Revision . European Commission.

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Cosmetic »

Dr. Saiya Prakaah Stnyh

Dr. Satya Prakash Singh

Dr. Vijay Nigam

THAKUR PUBLICATION PVT. LTD., LUCKNOW

Books are Available for Online Purchase at: tppl .org . in

ISBN No. 978-93-90972-62-3

Copyright © All Rights Reserved

- Dr. Satya Prakash Singh

- Dr. Vijay Nigam

Please e- mail us at, thakurpublication @ gmail.com

I am thankful to Mr. Vinod Awasthi ( Marketing Head ) of Thakur Publication

- Dr. Satya Prakasli Singh

I am highly obliged in taking the opportunity to sincerely thank my staff

- Dr. Vijay Nigam

Chapter 7: Antiperspirants and Deodorants

Chapter 8: Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Hair

Chapter 9: Principles of Formulation and Building Blocks of Oral

Unit 12: Analytical Cosmetics

Chapter 16: Cosmetic Problems Associated with Hair and Scalp

CHAPTER Introduction to Cosmetics

A good cosmetic should have the following properties:

. 1.2.Definition of Cosmetics as per Indian and EU

The European Union Cosmetics Directive defines a cosmetic as “any substance

1.1.3. Classification of Cosmetics

I i Hair Nail Hygienic

1.1 .4. Cosmetics as Quasi Drugs

1.1 .5. Cosmetics as OTC Drugs

Merits of OTC Drugs

Demerits of OTC Drugs

1.2.2. Evolution of Cosmeceuticals from Cosmetics

3) In 1980’s there was a rapid expansion of the cosmeceuticals due to hydroxy

1.2.3. Classification of Cosmeccutical Products

Based on various products presently on the market , cosmeceuticals can be

1.4.2. Short Answer Type Questions

1.4.3. Long Answer Type Question

2.1. COSMETIC EXCIPIENTS

2.1 .2. Properties of Excipients

2.3. RHEOLOGY MODIFIERS

Rheology modifiers are often referred to as thickeners. It will also be essential to

Properties of an Ideal Humectant

Properties of an Ideal Preservative

2.8. 2. Short Answer Type Questions

2.8.3. Long Answer Type Question

3.1.1, Basic Structure

keratinocytes. These keratinocytes constantly move towards the periphery of

The comeocyte-bilayered lipid structure acts as a physical barrier. It also

There is another thin layer of translucent cells called stratum lucidum .

It consists of the following two layers:

Sebaceous (oil ) gland

A characteristic feature of blood supply of skin is the presence of numerous

3.3.2. Short Answer Type Questions

3.3.3. Long Answer Type Question

4.1.1. Basic Structure

Externally, the hair follicle is divided into three segments:

2) Arrector pili: These muscles are involuntary muscles controlled by

Homy layer. Epidermis

Cuticle Inner root sheath

Figure 4.2: Enlarged Diagram of Hair Bulb

4.1 .3. Hair Growth Cycle