Neuroanatomy

YMES100

Mr J Naidoo
 Learning Objectives

• Name the subdivisions of the central nervous system.

• Name the subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system
• Describe the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems.
• Describe the components of the brainstem i.e. the midbrain, the pons and the
medulla oblongata which is the hindbrain, and explain their functions.
• Describe the components of the diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus) and
explain their functions
• Identify the components of the cerebellum and explain their functions
• Describe the ventricles of the brain and their connections to each other.
 Learning Objectives

• Name the parts of the cerebrum and its structural landmarks

• Identify the motor and sensory components of the cerebrum
• Identify the meninges of the central nervous system
• Identify the dural folds and venous sinuses of the cranium.
• Describe the gross anatomy of the spinal cord and spinal nerves.
• Illustrate and label on a diagram the structures found in a cross-section of the spinal
cord
 INTRODUCTION
• The nervous system is separated based on:
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Central (CNS) Somatic
Peripheral (PNS) Visceral

• CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord

• PNS is comprised of all structures outside CNS which connect it to body such as
spinal nerves, cranial nerves and visceral nerves
INTRODUCTION
Peripheral Nervous System
 Nervous Systems

Functionally divided into two parts:

1. SOMATIC PART
• Innervates structures derived from somites in embryo, mainly involved with receiving and responding to
information from external environment

2. VISCERAL PART
• Innervates organ systems in body, as well as visceral elements such as smooth muscle and glands in
peripheral regions, mainly involved in detecting and responding to information from internal
environment
 Somatic Part of Nervous System
• Nerves that carrying sensation from peripheries to CNS
• Nerves that innervate voluntary muscles

• Somatic nerves arise from developing CNS alongside somite – dermatomyotomes are created - a
particular nerve supplies a particular region of skin and skeletal muscle of that region due to being
derived from same somite

• Somatic sensory neurons carry information towards CNS

o Somatic sensory afferents, or general somatic afferents

• Somatic motor fibres carry information from CNS

o Somatic motor efferents, or general somatic efferents
 Visceral Part of Nervous System
• AUTONOMIC DIVISION OF THE PNS: subdivided into parasympathetic and sympathetic systems

• Visceral sensory neurons – visceral afferent fibres

o Associated with chemoreception, mechanoreception and stretch reception

• Visceral motor fibres – general visceral efferent fibres

o Synapse with other cells developing outside CNS
o Axons of visceral motor fibres that occur in spinal cord are called pre-ganglionic fibres
o Axons of visceral motor fibres that occur outside CNS are called post-ganglionic fibres

• Cell bodies of visceral motor neurons outside CNS aggregate to form ganglia
 Sympathetic System
• Innervates structures in peripheries of body and viscera

• Sympathetic trunk
o Lies on either side of vertebral column
o Attached to anterior rami of spinal cord
o Series of sympathetic ganglia present – formed from
collection of postganglionic cell bodies

• “Fight or Flight” response activated by this system

• Increases heart rate, oxygen intake via quick breathing etc.
 Parasympathetic System
• Innervates viscera only

• Parasympathetic fibres are associated with some of cranial and spinal nerves; preganglionic neurons
are in CNS

• “Rest and Digest” response activated by this system

• Conserves energy to be used later, digestion stimulated etc.

Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Systems
Central Nervous System
 Central Nervous System
BRAIN
• Parts of the brain are:
o Cerebrum
 Outer portion – gray matter – which contains cell bodies
 Inner portion – white matter – which contains axons that form tracts and pathways
o Cerebellum
o Brainstem

SPINAL CORD
• Lies in superior two-thirds of vertebral canal
• Circular-oval in cross-section, has a central canal
Embryological Divisions of the Brain
 Divisions of the Brain
The brain is divided into five parts:
1. Telencephalon – Cerebrum
o Large cerebral hemispheres
o Surface of these hemispheres consists of:
 Elevations (gyri)
 Depressions (sulci)
o Two hemispheres are separated via longitudinal fissure
 Divisions of the Brain
The brain is divided into five parts:
2. Diencephalon
o Hidden from view in adult hemispheres
o Consists of:
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Related structures
 Divisions of the Brain
The brain is divided into five parts:
3. Mesencephalon – Midbrain
o First part of brainstem seen when intact
adult brain is examined
 Divisions of the Brain
The brain is divided into five parts:
4. Metencephalon
o Forms:
 Cerebellum – has two hemispheres and midline
 Pons – bulging part of brainstem
 Divisions of the Brain
The brain is divided into five parts:
5. Myelencephalon - Medulla Oblongata
o Caudal-most part of brainstem
o Ends at foramen magnum and is continuous with
spinal cord
 Divisions of the Brain
The brain is divided into five parts:
5. Myelencephalon - Medulla Oblongata
o Caudal-most part of brainstem
o Ends at foramen magnum and is continuous with
spinal cord
Cerebrum
 Cerebrum
• External surface of cerebral hemispheres is convoluted into a series of gyri separated by sulci
o Gyri and sulci are able to be identified and are each given a name
• Main cerebral sulci divide cerebrum into lobes:
• Central sulcus separates frontal and parietal lobes
• Lateral fissure separates temporal lobe from frontal and parietal lobes
• Parieto-occipital sulcus separates parietal and occipital lobes
• Pre-occipital notch separates temporal and occipital lobes
 Lobes
• There are six lobes of the cerebrum:
o Frontal lobe
o Parietal lobe
o Temporal lobe
o Occipital lobe
o Limbic system
o Insula
 Structural Landmarks of Cerebrum
• Central sulcus – runs from superior part of lateral surface to lateral fissure, separates frontal
and parietal lobes as well as motor and sensory cortex

• Pre-central gyrus – gyrus anterior to central sulcus, contains primary motor cortex, the sulcus
before it is known as pre-central sulcus

• Post-central gyrus – gyrus posterior to central sulcus, contains primary sensory cortex, the
sulcus after is known as postcentral sulcus
Structural Landmarks of Cerebrum
Motor and Sensory Components of Cerebrum
 Motor Component of Cerebrum
PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX
• Area anterior to central sulcus is responsible for motor function
• Primary motor cortex is located in pre-central gyrus
• Includes an area responsible for precise, conscious and voluntary
movement of skeletal muscles

Homunculus: ‘little man’

Representation of the human body in the motor cortex
Specific areas of the cortex are linked to areas of the body
 Sensory Component of Cerebrum
PRIMARY SENSORY CORTEX
• Area posterior to central sulcus is responsible for sensory function
• Primary sensory cortex is located in post-central gyrus
• Includes an area responsible for conscious awareness of sensation
and the ability to localise it.

Homunculus: ‘little man’

Representation of the human body in the Sensory cortex
Specific areas of the cortex are linked to areas of the body
Ventricles of Brain
 Ventricles of Brain
• Fluid-filled spaces within the brain
• Production, storage and flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Choroid plexus

• Two lateral ventricles – within the cerebrum

o Interventricular foramina
• Third ventricle – surrounded by thalamus and hypothalamus
o Cerebral aqueduct
• Fourth ventricle – between pons and medulla (anteriorly) and cerebellum (posteriorly)

• CSF then enters subarachnoid space

Ventricles of Brain
Thalamus
 Thalamus
• Structure from diencephalon
• Involved in relay of both sensory and motor signals and contains
various nuclei that assist in this functioning
• Also involved in memory, arousal and emotion due to its involvement
in the limbic system
Brainstem
 Brainstem
• Stalk-like structure that connects forebrain and spinal cord

• Three main functions:

o Acts as a channel for ascending and descending pathways
o Houses cranial nerve nuclei
o Has reflex centres for autonomic functioning (respiration etc.)

• Comprised of three parts: midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata

 Midbrain
• Lies between forebrain and pons

• Has cranial nerves III and IV emerging from its surface

• Has colliculi present on its posterior surface

• Internally has several nuclei present:
o Such as the Edinger-Westphal nucleus,
oculomotor nuclei and trochlear nucleus.

• Functioning in motor movements, and roles in

auditory and visual processing as well as functions in
sleep.
 Pons
• Between midbrain and medulla oblongata
• Pontomedullary junction
o Point where pons meets medulla oblongata
o Important landmark, many cranial nerves arise from
brainstem at this junction (Cranial nerves VI, VII and VIII)
• Cranial nerve V emerges from anterolateral surface of pons

• Internally several nuclei are present

• Also contains facial colliculus (fibres of the facial nerve wrapping
around abducens nucleus creating a bump)
• Functioning involves: relay station, nuclei involved in sleep and
breathing
 Medulla Oblongata
• Longest portion of brainstem, connects with spinal cord caudally
• Anterior median fissure
o Medullary pyramids, involved in descending tracts, lie lateral
to fissure
o Medullary olives lie lateral to pyramids, involved in
movement and co-ordination
• Cranial nerves IX, X, XI and XII arise from aspects of the medulla

• Functionally, the medulla is responsible for cardiovascular and

respiratory systems as well as being a relay station.
Cerebellum
 Cerebellum
• Largest structure of hindbrain
• Composed of two hemispheres, connected in midline by vermis
• Connected to brainstem via cerebellar peduncles

• Folia – convolutions of cerebellum, separated by fissures.

• Two fissures are landmarks that divide cerebellum into lobes:
o Primary fissure – divides anterior and posterior lobes
o Posterolateral fissure – defines the flocculonodular lobe
(which includes flocculus of both hemispheres and nodule of
vermis)
 Cerebellum
• Involved in co-ordination and movement of motor skills, as well as
maintaining posture, balance and equilibrium

• Functionally cerebellum can be divided into three:

o Vermis, in midline – influences movements along the axis of
body (incl. neck, trunk, abdomen and pelvis)

o Intermediate zone, adjacent to vermis – controls muscles of

distal upper and lower limbs

o Lateral zone – participates in co-ordinating sequential

movements of entire body
Meninges
 Meninges
• Meninges refer to three concentric coverings that encase central
nervous system and act to support and stabilise the brain and
spinal cord.

• Meninges:
o Dura mater
o Arachnoid mater
o Pia mater
 Dura Mater
• Tough, fibrous sheet composed of two layers:
o Outer periosteal layer – adherent to the skull
o Inner meningeal layer – lies against arachnoid mater
• Two layers are generally close together, separate in some areas forming dural venous sinuses,
which receive cerebral drainage

• Within cranial cavity dura mater folds on itself to create several reflections or septa:
o falx cerebri which are present between cerebral hemispheres
o falx cerebelli which are present between cerebellar hemispheres
o tentorium cerebelli which lies between cerebrum and cerebellum
Dura Mater
 Arachnoid Mater & Pia Mater
ARACHNOID MATER
• Composed of several layers of flattened cells that lie adjacent to dura mater
• Has trabeculations – strands of connective tissue that extend from outer layer to pia mater
• Loosely invests brain, is avascular and does not receive any innervation

PIA MATER
• Thin, veil-like membrane that is tightly adherent to brain
• Follows sulci and gyri of brain
• Like dura mater this layer is vascularised
 Spaces
• Formation of meninges also brings about potential spaces

• Two spaces that exist in terms of dura:

o Epidural – between skull and periosteal layer
o Subdural – between meningeal layer and arachnoid mater

• Third space created is space between arachnoid mater and pia mater (subarachnoid space)

• Subarachnoid space is generally filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Meninges
Dural Venous Sinuses
 Dural Venous Sinuses
• Channels within dura mater, often triangular in
shape, that function as veins and drain blood of
brain

• Venous drainage of blood does not follow pattern

of arterial supply, there are several cortical veins
which drain surface of cerebrum

• Blood from these cortical veins then flows into

nearest dural venous sinus
 Dural Venous Sinuses
SUPERIOR SAGITTAL SINUS
• Unpaired sinus located in superior margin of falx cerebri
• Drains blood from lateral aspects of anterior cerebral
hemispheres into confluence of sinuses

INFERIOR SAGITTAL SINUS

• Unpaired sinus located in inferior margin of falx cerebri
• Drains blood from medial aspects of cerebral
hemisphere into straight sinus

STRAIGHT SINUS
• Receives blood from inferior sagittal sinus and
cerebellum and drains into confluence
 Dural Venous Sinuses
CONFLUENCE
• Merger of superior sagittal sinus and straight sinus
• Drains blood into transverse sinuses

TRANSVERSE SINUSES
• Paired sinuses draining blood from confluence of sinuses
• Drains into sigmoid sinuses

SIGMOID SINUSES
• Receive blood from transverse sinuses, as well as superior
petrosal sinuses (which carry blood of the cavernous sinus)
• Eventually drains into internal jugular vein
Dural Venous Sinuses
Spinal Cord
 Spinal Cord
• Continuous with medulla oblongata at foramen magnum
• Located in vertebral canal to L1/L2 vertebral level

• At L1/L2 level, spinal cord tapers to become conus medullaris

o Spinal nerves arising from end of spinal cord are bundled
together and termed cauda equina

• Two ‘enlargements’ of spinal cord:

o Cervical enlargement: C4-T1, Brachial plexus
o Lumbar enlargement: T11-L1, Lumbar and sacral plexuses
 Spinal Cord
• Same meninges protecting it, dura mater of spinal cord is continuous with
meningeal layer of dura mater of cranial cavity

• Anterior median fissure of medulla oblongata continues and is present

along spinal cord

• Posteriorly spinal cord has a shallow depression – posterior median sulcus

• Emerging from spinal cord are a series of rootlets, which then form
anterior and posterior roots at corresponding cord segments
 Spinal Cord
• Internally, spinal cord has H-shaped gray matter that consists
of neurone cell bodies and white matter that is composed of
myelinated axons

• Ventral (anterior) horns of gray matter contain motor neurones

• Dorsal (posterior) horns contain cell bodies that are receiving
sensory information

• There are several ascending and descending tracts that

traverse spinal cord relaying information to/from cortex
Spinal Nerves
 Spinal Nerves
• There are 31 symmetrical pairs of spinal nerves
o 8 Cervical
o 12 Thoracic
o 5 Lumbar
o 5 Sacral
o 1 Coccygeal
 Spinal Nerves
• Spinal nerves contain both motor and sensory fibres

• Dorsal root of spinal nerve contains sensory fibres from

neurons in dorsal root ganglia from dorsal horn

• Ventral root contains motor fibres of motor neurons of

ventral horn of spinal cord
 Spinal Nerves
• Mixed spinal nerve then branches out into:
o A dorsal ramus (posterior)
o A ventral ramus (anterior)

• REMEMBER!
o Rami are after spinal nerve has been formed
o Therefore, ramus would have mixed fibres
o However, roots are before nerve has formed
o Thus have specifically either motor or sensory fibres
Spinal Nerves
That’s All Folks!

For any queries or questions

please feel free to contact me:

joastin.naidoo@mandela.ac.za
 RESOURCES

Grays Anatomy for Students, 6th Edition

Chapter 9 – Neuroanatomy

https://www.clinicalkey.com/student/content/book/3-s2.0-
B9780323393041000099#hl0001319