SECTION- C6903 ROLL NO-B51 REG NO.-10901624 COURSE-B.

TECH(ECE) SUBMITTED TO

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

TOPIC - SPECTROMETRE AND ITS APPLICATIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are extremely grateful and remain indebted to our guide MR. BHARPUR SINGH for being a source of inspiration and for his constant support in the Design, Implementation and Evaluation of the project. We are thankful to them for their constant constructive criticism and invaluable suggestions, which benefited us a lot while developing the project on SPECTROMETRE AND APPLICATION. He has been a constant source of inspiration and motivation for hard work. He has been very co-operative throughout this project work. Through this column, it would be our utmost pleasure to express our warm thanks to his for their encouragement, co-operation and consent without which we mightnt be able to accomplish this project. We also express our gratitude to MR BHARPUR SINGH for providing us the infrastructure to carry out the project and to all staff members who were directly and indirectly instrument in enabling us to stay committed for the project.

Ajeet kumar

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1: INTRODUCTION 2: SPECTROPHOTOMETRE 3: SPECTROSCOPES 4: SPECTROGRAPHS 5: APPLICATION 6: REFERENCES

1 INTRODUCTION
A spectrometer (spectrophotometer, spectrograph or spectroscope) is an instrument used to measure properties of light over a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, typically used in spectroscopic analysis to identify materials. The variable measured is most often the light's intensity but could also, for instance, be the polarization state. The independent variable is usually the wavelength of the light or a unit directly proportional to the photon energy, such as wave number or electron volts, which has a reciprocal relationship to wavelength. A spectrometer is used in spectroscopy for producing spectral lines and measuring their wavelengths and intensities. Spectrometer is a term that is applied to instruments that operate over a very wide range of wavelengths, from gamma rays and X-rays into the far infrared. If the region of interest is restricted to near the visible spectrum, the study is called spectrophotometry. In general, any particular instrument will operate over a small portion of this total range because of the different techniques used to measure different portions of the spectrum. Below optical frequencies (that is, at microwave and radio frequencies), the spectrum analyzer is a closely related electronic device
Spectroscope

Other names

Spectrograph

Related items

Mass spectrograph

2 SPECTROPHOTOMETRE
In chemistry, spectrophotometry is the quantifiable study of electromagnetic spectra. It is more specific than the general term electromagnetic spectroscopy in that spectrophotometry deals with visible light, near-ultraviolet, and near-infrared. Also, the term does not cover time-resolved spectroscopic techniques. Spectrophotometry involves the use of a spectrophotometer. A spectrophotometer is a photometer (a device for measuring light intensity) that can measure intensity as a function of the color (or more specifically the wavelength) of light. Important features of spectrophotometers are spectral bandwidth and linear range of absorption measurement. Perhaps the most common application of spectrophotometers is the measurement of light absorption, but they can be designed to measure diffuse or specular reflectance. Strictly, even the emission half of a luminescence instrument is a type of spectrophotometer. The use of spectrophotometers is not limited to studies in physics. They are also commonly used in other scientific fields such as chemistry, biochemistry, and molecular biology. They are widely used in many industries including printing and forensic examination.

Design There are two major classes of devices: single beam and double beam. A double beam spectrophotometer compares the light intensity between two light paths, one path containing a reference sample and the other the test sample. A single beam spectrophotometer measures the relative light intensity of the beam before and after a test sample is inserted. Although comparison measurements from double beam instruments are easier and more stable, single beam instruments can have a larger dynamic range and are optically simpler and more compact. Historically, spectrophotometers use a monochromator containing a diffraction grating to produce the analytical spectrum. There are also spectrophotometers that use arrays of photosensors. Especially for infrared spectrophotometers, there are spectrophotometers that use a Fourier transformtechnique to acquire the spectral information quicker in a technique called Fourier Transform InfraRed. The spectrophotometer quantitatively compares the fraction of light that passes through a reference solution and a test solution. Light from the source lamp is passed through a monochromator, which diffracts the light into a "rainbow" of wavelengths and outputs narrow bandwidths of this diffracted spectrum. Discrete frequencies are transmitted through the test sample. Then the intensity of the transmitted light is measured with

a photodiode or other light sensor, and the transmittance value for this wavelength is then compared with the transmission through a reference sample. In short, the sequence of events in a spectrophotometer is as follows: 1. The light source shines into a monochromator. 2. A particular output wavelength is selected and beamed at the sample. 3. The sample absorbs light. Many spectrophotometers must be calibrated by a procedure known as "zeroing." The absorbency of a reference substance is set as a baseline value, so the absorbencies of all other substances are recorded relative to the initial "zeroed" substance. The spectrophotometer then displays % absorbency (the amount of light absorbed relative to the initial substance).

3 SPECTROSCOPE

Comparison of different diffraction based spectrometers: Reflection optics, refraction optics, fiber optics

Spectroscopes are often used in astronomy and some branches of chemistry. Early spectroscopes were simply prisms with graduations marking wavelengths of light. Modern spectroscopes, such as monochromators, generally use a diffraction grating, a movable slit, and some kind of photodetector, all automated and controlled by a computer. The spectroscope was invented by Joseph von Fraunhofer. When a material is heated to incandescence it emits light that is characteristic of the atomic makeup of the material. Particular light frequencies give rise to sharply defined bands on the scale which can be thought of as fingerprints. For example, the element sodium has a very characteristic double yellow band known as the Sodium D-lines at 588.9950 and 589.5924 nanometers, the color of which will be familiar to anyone who has seen a low pressure sodium vapor lamp.

In the original spectroscope design in the early 19th century, light entered a slit and a collimating lens transformed the light into a thin beam of parallel rays. The light then passed through a prism (in hand-held spectroscopes, usually an Amici prism) that refracted the beam into a spectrum because different wavelengths were refracted different amounts due to dispersion. This image was then viewed through a tube with a scale that was transposed upon the spectral image, enabling its direct measurement.

With the development of photographic film, the more accurate spectrograph was created. It was based on the same principle as the spectroscope, but it had a camera in place of the viewing tube. In recent years the electronic circuits built around the photomultiplier tube have replaced the camera, allowing real-time spectrographic analysis with far greater accuracy. Arrays of photosensors are also used in place of film in spectrographic systems. Such spectral analysis, or spectroscopy, has become an important scientific tool for analyzing the composition of unknown material and for studying astronomical phenomena and testing astronomical theories. In modern spectrographs, the spectrum is generally given in the form of photon number (in the UV, visible, and near-IR spectral ranges) or Watts (in the mid- to far-IR) and is displayed with an abscissa given in terms of wavelength, wavenumber, or eV.

A comparison of the three abscissa types typically used for visible spectrometers.

A comparison of the three abscissa types typically used for infrared spectrometers.

4 SPECTROGRAPH

Grating spectrometer schematic

A very simple spectrometer based on a prism

A spectrograph is an instrument that separates an incoming wave into a frequency spectrum. There are several kinds of machines referred to as spectrographs, depending on the precise nature of the waves. The first

spectrographs used photographic paper as the detector. The star spectral classification and discovery of the main sequence, Hubble's law and the Hubble sequence were all made with spectrographs that used photographic paper. The plant pigment phytochrome was discovered using a spectrograph that used living plants as the detector. More recent spectrographs use electronic detectors, such as CCDs which can be used for both visible and UV light. The exact choice of detector depends on the wavelengths of light to be recorded. The forthcoming James Webb Space Telescope will contain both a nearinfrared spectrograph (NIR Spec) and a mid-infrared spectrometer (MIRI). An echelle spectrograph uses two diffraction gratings, rotated 90 degrees with respect to each other and placed close to one another. Therefore an entrance point and not a slit is used and a 2d CCD-chip records the spectrum. Usually one would guess to retrieve a spectrum on the diagonal, but when both gratings have a wide spacing and one is blazed so that only the first order is visible and the other is blazed that a lot of higher orders are visible, one gets a very fine spectrum nicely folded onto a small common CCD-chip. The small chip also means that the collimating optics need not to be optimized for coma or astigmatism, but the spherical aberration can be set to zero. A spectrograph is sometimes called polychromator, as an analogy to monochromator

5 APPLICATION
Customer Applications Agricultural and Food
Plant Reflectance

Description
Spectral reflectance from plants can indicates plant stress and predict growth rate Initial high-temperature schedule to reduce drying time and control kiln brown stain in ponderosa pine shop lumber. The surface color

Lumber Colorimetery

and lightness of rough green and dry fleshly planed boards were determined using a StellarNet Spectrometers The effects of weathering on the surface properties of wood-plastic composites (WPC) were examined. Highdensity polyethyleneWPCs made from modified wood flour were subjected to accelerated (xenon-arc) weathering. Colorimetery and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy were employed to monitor the color change and surface chemistries of the weathered WPC surface. The study showed that longer exposure time caused higheroxidation, lower wood lignin and higher plastic content of the weathered WPC surface. A fiber optic sensor measures percent soluble solids in onions for a big pay off at market time. Detection of Fecal/Ingesta Contaminants on Poultry Processing Equipment Surfaces By Visible and Near-Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy Hyperspectral Reflectance Measurements of ChlorophyllConcentration and Related Water Quality Predictors The foraging strategies of wading birds may be inuenced by their degree of crypsis to aquatic prey. White plumage has been hypothesized to be adaptive for herons hunting in open water habitats. We tested this hypothesis with laboratory and eld experiments with multiple prey species. The foraging strategies of wading birds may be inuenced by their degree of crypsis to aquatic prey. White plumage has been hypothesized to be adaptive for herons hunting in open water habitats. We tested this hypothesis with laboratory and eld experiments with multiple prey species. Spectral Signatures of the reflectance of visual and near infrared radiation are used to make

Surface Characterization of Weathered Wood-Plastic Composites Produced from Modified Wood Flour

Onions Contaminants on Poultry Processing Equipment

Environmental and Ecology

Remote Sensing MonitoringTallapoosa Watershed

Inuence of plumage colour on prey response:does habitat alter heron crypsis to prey?

Spectral Signatures of surface materials in pig buildings

statistically significant discrimination between clean and dirty pig building areas Exploring how the Black Phoebes (a small bird that is a sit-and-wait predator) vision, the reflectance of prey items and the background, and irradiance interacted to change how the bird looked for food items. Aposematic signals may be subject to conflicting selective pressures from predators and conspecifics. We studied female preferences for different components of aposematic coloration in the polymorphic poison frog Oophaga pumilio across several phenotypically distinct populations. The development of sensors for hybrid rocket motors has lead to the use of nearinfrared diode lasers for characterizing hybrid rocket plumes. Emission Spectra obtained can be used to calculate species concentrations and temperatures, both spatially and temporally, in rocket exhaust plumes. In this paper we report our findings from a study of the emission spectra of hybrid rocket exhaust plumes in the ultraviolet, UV, visible, VIS, and near-infrared, NIR, regions of theelectromagnetic spectrum. A 1.5 kW, 2.45 GHz microwave sustained plasma in a flowing sample of stack exhaust gas has been shown in recent DOE/EPA testing to be an accurate monitor of trace hazardous metals (in the part per billion range) such as lead, chromium, and beryllium.Optical-UV spectroscopic studies are being carried out to better understand this particular atmospheric pressure plasma torch. The use of organic optoelectronic devices such as organic light-emitting diodes and organic photodiodes in micro-optical systems is discussed. Potential applications like optical interconnects and optical sensor systems are examined. Device characteristics including emission spectra, I-V-curves and the dynamic behaviour are analyzed. In the combination

Birds- Black Phoebes

Female Preferences for Aposematic Signal Components in a Polymorphic Poison Frog

Physics
OH Emission Spectra of Hybrid Rocket Motors Using PMMA and HTPB Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrometry Characterization of Combustion in Hybrid Rocket Motors Spectroscopic Diagnostics of an Atmospheric Microwave Plasma for Monitoring Metals Pollution

Organic semiconductor devices for micro-optical applications

with a polymeric optical fibre (POF) a transmission line comprising a organic light emitting diode and organic photodiodes is demonstrated. An important step towards integration is realized by coupling the amplifiedspontaneous emission of an organic semiconductor material into a single mode polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) waveguide. Combining the multi-faceted environmental responsiveness of polymers with photonically active structures, we developed spiral photonic actuators which can reversibly change both shape and colour in response to the chemical environment. Here we report on the design and drawing of a hollow optical fibre lined with an interior omnidirectional dielectric mirror. Confinement of light in the hollow core is provided by the large photonic bandgaps established by the multiple alter-nating submicrometre-thick layers of a high-refractive-index glass and a low-refractive-index polymer. The fundamental and high-order transmission windows are determined by the layer dimensions and can be scaled from 0.75 to 10.6mm in wavelength.The transmission losses are found to be less than 1.0 dB m 21, orders of magnitude lower than those of the intrinsic fibre material, thus demonstrating that low attenuation can be achieved through structural design rather than high-transparency material selection.
Cadmium sulphide (CdS) thin films deposited on indium tin oxide (ITO) substrates were prepared by chemical bath deposition technique by using different conditions to agitate the bath and the substrate. The deposited films were characterized on their morphology, on the band gap energy, and on thickness. The implemented novel technique for substrate oscillation has shown to improve the films quality, by the chemical bath without colloidal precipitates and by the clean film surfaces obtained. CdS films with variable deposition time can be achieved depending on the agitating technique. In addition, by oscillating only the substrate during deposition is possible to obtain clean

Colour-tunable spiral photonic actuators

Wavelength-scalable hollow optical fibres with large photonic bandgaps for CO2 laser transmission

Physical properties of CdS/ITO thin films growth by CBD technique with substrate oscillating agitation

films and avoid the formation of colloidal precipitates on the chemical bath, normally presented when it is magnetically or ultrasonically agitated.

Emission characteristics of a nanosecond discharge in inert gases and its halo-genides without preionization of the gap from an auxiliary source have been investigated. A volume discharge, initiated by an avalanche electron beam (VDIAEB) was realized atpressures up to 12 atm. In xenon at pressure High Power UV and VUV Pulsed of 1.2 atm, the energy of spontaneous radiation in the full solid angle was 45 mJ/cm 3 Excilamps , and the FWHM of a radiation pulse was 110ns. The spontaneous radiation power rise in xenon was observed at pressures up to 12 atm. Pulsed radiant exitance of inert gases halogenides excited by VDIAEB was 4.5 kW/cm 2 at eciency up to 5.5 %.

Chemistry Living anionic polymerization of methyl methacrylate controlled by metal-free phosphazene catalyst as observed by small-angle neutron scattering, gel permeation chromatography and UVvisible spectroscopy

Phosphazene (PZN) catalyst, PZN catalyst coexisting with a co-catalyst 1hydroxycyclohexyl phenyl ketone and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) have been observed for the first time by small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) and UV-visible spectroscopy to elucidate the aggregation behavior of the PZN molecules themselves and the state of living chain ends in a living polymer solution. Polyaniline and polypyrrole were considered as pseudocapacitivecoatings for carbon nanotube film electrodes. The conducting polymers were deposited electrochemically using cyclic voltammetry. The electrochemical effects of the number of voltage cycles and monomer and electrolyte concentrations on film thickness were studied. The effects of the polymer coating on the capacitance of the CNT electrodes were analyzed as well. The final results were evaluated using CV and scanning electron microscopy techniques.

Electrochemical Synthesis of Conducting Polymers on Carbon Nanotube Films and Its Effect on Electrochemical Capacitance

Soluble Narrow Band Gap Polymers (Dry-Box)

Soluble Narrow Band Gap and Blue Propylenedioxythiophene-Cyanovinylene Polymers as Multifunctional Materials for Photovoltaic and Electrochromic Applications Pigmentation, which is primarily determined by the amount, the type, and the distribution of melanin, shows a remarkable diversity in human populations, and in this sense, it is an atypical trait.Numerous genetic studies have indicated that the average proportion of genetic variation due to differences among major continental groups is just 1015% of the total genetic variation. In contrast, skin pigmentation shows large differences among continental populations. The reasons for this discrepancy can be traced back primarily to the stronginfluence of natural selection, which has shaped the distribution of pigmentation according to a latitudinal gradient. Research during the last 5 years has substantially increased our understanding of thegenes involved in normal pigmentation variation in human populations. At least six genes have been identified using genotype/phenotype association studies and/or direct functional assays, and there is evidence indicating that several additional genes may be playing a role in skin, hair, and iris pigmentation. The information that is emerging from recent studies points to a complex picture where positive selection has been acting at different genomic locations, and for some genes only in certain population groups. In a continuing series of experiments designed to determine the spectral extinction cross section of bacterial aerosols, spectral transmittance was measured as a function of particle concentration,and extinction cross sections were calculated. Visible band measurements of Bacillus globigii aerosols indicated a slight increase in the extinction cross section with increasing wavelength. The extinction cross section was estimated to be

Bio-Science Human Pigmentation Variation: Evolution, Genetic Basis, and Implications for Public Health

Extinction Cross-Section Measurements of Bacillus globigii Aerosols

2.58 (0.25)10 8 cm 2 at the 543-nm wavelength.

Mitochondrial succinicsemialdehyde dehydrogenase of the -aminobutyrate shunt is required to restrict levels of reactive oxygen intermediates in plants

The -aminobutyrate (GABA) shunt is a metabolic pathway that bypasses two steps of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and it is present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In plants the pathway is composed of the calcium/calmodulin-regulated cytosolic enzyme glutamate decarboxylase and the mitochondrial enzymes GABA transaminase and succinicsemialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH). The activity of the GABA shunt in plants is rapidly enhanced in response to various biotic and abiotic stresses. However the physiological role of this pathway remains obscure. To elucidate its role in plants, we analyzed Arabidopsis TDNA knockout mutants of SSADH, the ultimate enzyme of the pathway. Four alleles of thessadh mutation were isolated, and these exhibited a similar phenotype. When exposed to white light (100 mol of photons per m2 per s), they appear dwarfed with necrotic lesions. Detailed spectrum analysis revealed that UV-B has the most adverse effect on the mutant phenotype, whereas photosynthetic active range light has a very little effect. The ssadh mutants are also sensitive to heat, as they develop necrosis when submitted to such stress. Moreover, both UV and heat cause a rapid increase in the levels of hydrogen peroxide in the ssadh mutants, which is associated with enhanced cell death. Surprisingly, our study also shows that trichomes are hypersensitive to stresses in ssadh mutants. Our work establishes a role for the GABA shunt in preventing the accumulation of reactive oxygen intermediates and cell death, which appears to be essential for plant defense against environmental stress. A plasma needle using a dielectric barrier discharge reactor at atmospheric pressure with a funnel-shaped nozzle was developed. The preliminary characteristics of the plume and applications to the ablation of cultured human hepatocellular carcinoma HCC BEL-7402 cell line are presented.

Ablation of Liver Cancer Cells in Vitro by a Plasma Needle

Process Monitoring and Quality Control

Semi-Conductor
The MPSS (Multi Probe Spectrophotometer System) is a multi-channel process control monitor used in semi-conductor fabrication and other real-time process applications. A dual beam process monitor using "Neural Networks" to measure the concentration of alcohol in a process stream. A multi-channel system used to monitor silver film deposition on a moving roll of plastic using transmission and reflectance. The "Dilatometer" analytical instrument designed for specifically for polymer chemists. A triple-channel SpectroColorimeter used as a process Quality Control monitor for plastic injection molding operations. A list of patents filed using StellarNet spectrometers

Alcohol

Film Deposition Dilatometer Colorimeter StellarNet Patents

6 REFERENCES
1 FUNDAMENTAL OF PHYSICS (HALLIDAY/ RESNICK/ WALKER) 2 NEHRU LABORATORY , PATNA 3 WIKIPEDIA