STRATEGIES

As teachers utilize teaching styles in the classroom, they also incorporate various teaching strategies or
instructional delivery systems to enhance the process of learning. The word "strategy" originally
described the placement of an army in an advantageous position in relation to the enemy.
An instructional strategy is a particular arrangement of the teacher, learner, and environment to
produce desired learning outcomes.

 a plan for a pattern of actions aimed at once or more students achieving and demonstrating
mastery of a specific goal or objective (Hurwitz, 1985)
Zelazo, Muller, Frye & Marcovitch (2003) assert that a strategy is a way of translating aim into
meaning. Shore (2003) views a strategy as involving a teacher’s attempts to translate aims into practice.
Hence, teaching strategies are ways of presenting instruction to students attaching effect and meaning or
impression.

Harrison & Blackmore (1992) [1] assert that there is no one best strategy for any one teaching
style, rather strategies should be selected that best meet the needs of instructional situation, and each
strategy should be adapted to the parameters of that particular style. This shows that a teacher should be
well versed in a variety of teaching strategies so as to link them to appropriate teaching styles.

Since learners vary in their response to various strategies and since distinct strategies produce
diverse outcomes, a number of strategies are presented to facilitate the selection of the opportunities are
presented to facilitate the selection of the appropriate one for the subject, the learner, the teacher, and the
instructional environment (http://www.sportscienceresearch.com/IJSEHR_201712_03.pdf) .

SELECTING A TEACHING STRATEGY

Consideration must be given to selecting appropriate strategies for students who lack self-
motivation or discipline and for situations in which large classes are taught in limited facilities. There is
no one best strategy for any one teaching style on the spectrum. Rather strategies should be selected that
best meets the needs of the instructional situation, each strategy should be adapted to the parameters of
that particular style. Teachers selecting strategies to amplify the learning process should have a prime
consideration high engaged time and large numbers or correct learning trials for students.

1. LECTURE
 is a verbal presentation to an audience of a defined segment of information by one or more
persons.
 it includes special reports, one side speakers, and panel discussions.
A teacher may use a lecture to present rules, a panel discussion to elaborate on health concepts, or
a police officer to speak on the dangers of drugs. Lectures can introduce, summarize, explain, or create
an interest in a topic. They can be used to impart information to a large group of students in a short
period of time. When classes are large, limited student-student and student teacher interactions may
result in students misunderstanding the information. Teachers using the lecture method in the classroom
should prepare in such a way that the experience is meaningful and is not limited to memory learning.
Magill (1993) defines a lecture as a verbal presentation to an audience of a defined segment of
information to a large group of students in a short time. It covers outside reports, outside speakers and
panel discussions. Bergs (2005) asserts that a teacher can select a lecture strategy for students to simply
listen. This shows that the lecture strategy is useful when presenting information to a number of students.
However according to Johnson and Johnson (1999), the lecture strategy has a weakness in the teaching of
Physical Education since it is limited to memory learning and treats students as passive recipients. Buehl
(2001) states that students learn better if they are actively engaged with a dominant characteristic of PE.
It can therefore be concluded that while the lecture method has some degree of usefulness it is obviously
not the best method for teaching PE .

2. Individual Instruction
Individualized instruction programs enable each learner to progress at him or her own peace.
Such program assumes that students are capable of learning independently with minimum direction of
teachers. "A major goal of individualization is to promote self- directed learners who are capable of
engaging effectively in the process of decision making.
The teachers are the free to act as consultants to students who need or desire their assistance.
Educators conceiving individualization methodologies must consider what the student already knows,
what the student wants to know, and what the students need to know.
A teaching attempting top formulate an individualized approach to teaching physical education
should be familiar with mastery learning task sheets contact learning, guests, individualize learning
pockets and programmed learning (CAI).
Edmonds & Kennedy (2010) [7] state that the individualized instruction strategy is a strategy
which allows each learner to progress at his or her own pace and develops the ability to learn
independently with minimum help from the teacher. This shows that individualized instruction can be
used to help students become independent strategic learners. Individualized instructional strategy can
motivate students and help them focus attention (Coates, 1997). Schmidt (1991) asserts
that in the individualized instruction the teacher must take into consideration what the students already
know, what the students want to know and what the students need to know. Therefore, individualized
instruction strategy enables students to master intended concepts through mastery learning task sheets,
contract learning, quests and individualized packets.

According to Coates (1997) the individualized instruction strategy is too demanding in terms of
time. Students can learn at high levels if given sufficient time and help. Kagan (1990) [11] establishes
that the individualized strategy demands the student’s ability to learn independently with minimum
supervision. If the student is unable to learn independently, his or her performance may be negatively
affected ( http://www.sportscienceresearch.com/IJSEHR_201712_03.pdf) .

3. Mastery Learning
 is a theory of school learning based on the premise that almost all students can learn at a high
level what the schools have to teach if given sufficient time and instructional help (Bloom,
1976)
Bloom asserted that children in schools are being taught as "good and poor" learners rather that
"fats and slow" learners, and when students are provide with favorable learning condition most of them
become very similar with regard to learning ability. Students taught using mastery learning techniques
are expected to succeed. Torshen suggested that this is the case because in mastery learning, individual
differences are taken into account.

Bloom's LEARNING MASTERY (LFM) is a group-based teacher-pace approach.

It should not be confused with Keller's PERSONALIZED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTIONAL

(PSI), which is an individually based student-paced model.
Both systems employ many of the same components but BLOOM'S model has been widely used.
The mastery model includes the following components:
1. Performance objectives
2. Instructional activities
3. Diagnosis assessment
4. Feedback
5. Prescription

CORRECTIVENESS are activities engaged in by students who did not attain mastery, which
enable most of them to do so in future formative tests. Such activities include practicing the tests,
practicing the test skills in other ways, and personalized instruction form a teacher or a peer.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES are activities provided for students who have passed
mastery tests and are waiting to move on to the next task. Such activities include probing deeper and
more completely into the instructional task at hand, peer tutoring between students and independent
learning.
Teachers often find teaching for mastery very tune consuming and its inception but discover that
the rewards in the end are worth the effort. The rewards of mastery learning include (1) individual
student success (2) student willingness to practice, (3) progress easily identified (4) and high levels of
achievement.

USES:
1. To identify students needing help
2. To enrich the learning of advance students
 3. To enhance safety

Advantages:
1. It permits the teacher to work with students who need the most help.
2. It permits advance students to move on to new objectives.
3. It increases student effort.
4. It rewards student's effort.

Limitations:
1. It necessitates advance planning.
2. It may be difficult to supervise many groups doing different things at the same time.
3. It often emphasizes the testing situation rather than games or play.

TASK SHEETS

Task sheets are used to motivate students to practice tasks and keep a record of learning activities.
They shift some of the decisions for learning to the students, thereby involving students in on-the
behavior and eliminating standing around or "goofing off". Some students require extra help in order to
succeed in working o their own, but they will grow by doing so, and students will learn to accept the
consequences for their learning decisions. The task sheet includes lists of tasks to be done, with the
instruction for performance, such as quantity, quality, and use of equipment.
Tan and Tan (1997) view task sheets as an important aspect in the teaching of Physical Education
since they make students to practice tasks and keep a record of learning activities. Metzler (1990) points
out that task sheets are useful for pre-class as well as during class activities where each student can be
given a task sheet and a list of activities. Students are then assessed by partners or the teacher. According
to Kamps (2008) [12] task teaching has an advantage in empowering students to assess each other thereby
encouraging students to learn from others strengths and weaknesses. Therefore, task teaching is a strategy
that instils cooperation among students.
Task teaching is sometimes called station teaching. Station teaching is a strategy in which two
or more tasks are practiced at the same time. Each task is allocated an area and students rotate from one
station to another (Kyriacou 1991, Mawer, 1997)
(http://www.sportscienceresearch.com/IJSEHR_201712_03.pdf) .
Although extra preparation is necessary to create task sheets, they can be extremely valuable for
pre-class activities, as well as during class time. Task sheets can be issued to each student, and items can
be checked off by partners, team captains, student assistants, or the learner. A composite list can be
maintained by the teacher. Task sheets may form part of the grade for a unit.

CONTRACT LEARNING
Contract learning is the use of an individual learning pocket in which a student contracts (or
agrees) with the teacher to complete specified grade. Contracts individualize learning by allowing
students to select different tasks or learning and self-assessment. They permit students to work at their
own pace on clearly defined tasks. Types of contracts include:
1. The teacher-controlled contracts in which the tasks and the reinforces are determined by the
teacher.
2. Transitional contracting in which decision-making is shared by the student and the
teacher.
3. Student-controlled contractions are the gymnastics grade contract.
 Some limitations of contracts might include the necessity of using additional media and outsides
facilities, the time-consuming preparation involved, and the fact that some students are not ready to work
on their own without that constant teacher direction.

QUESTS
A quest is an individualized learning activity in which the students write the objectives and
learning activities (subject to teacher approval). On other ways it is similar to contract learning. Quest
allows students to set and pursue their own goals at their own pace to take responsibility for their o2wn
learning. They encourage individual initiative and creativity and decrease unhealthy competition between
students, since each student has different goals. However, since students are doing different types of
projects, teachers may find it difficult to state or measure the quality of each quest. Some teachers have
difficulty letting students do their own thing.

INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING PACKETS

Individualized learning pockets are packets of materials prepared in such a way that they can be
used with little or no direct teacher supervision. They are used to individualize instruction and increase
student responsibility for learning.

Advantages:
1. Self-pacing
2. Adaptability to various interest or levels of development of different learners, and
3. The ability to study a specific area of interest in greater depth than allowed in the
normal classroom.
4. Students also learn to provide their own feedback.

Challenges imposed by this technique are finding time to write, evaluate, and update program and
managing classes in which students are working individually. Some students may perceive individualized
units as busy work.

PROGRAMMED LEARNING AND COMPUTER-ASSITED INSTRUCTION

Programmed learning is a method of organizing instruction into small steps can be readily learned
by the students. Most is a process of learning rather than a product. Most computer-assisted instruction
(CAI) is programmed.

Programmed learning consists of the following characteristics:

1. Content is divided into small steps and carefully organized into a logical sequence with each
step building on the preceding step.

2. The student is presented with an activity responds to one question at a time.

3. The student receives immediate knowledge of results.
4. Each student can progress at his or her own rate.
5. Programs are written or created to insure a minimum of errors.

Programmed Learning encourages student responsibility for learning. Immediate knowledge of

results yielded higher learning motivation and confidence. Programming frees the teacher to provide
individuals to help to students. Programs consist that each point be thoroughly understood, therefore,
programmed learning works well for slower student and results in learning efficiency per unit of time.
Programmed learning cannot be used to teach attitudes, opinion or values. Students may lose interest if
cheat.
Interactive Teaching

Bronson (2009) defines interactive teaching as the type of teaching that incorporates a two way
communication between the teacher and pupils, pupil to pupil and the teacher continuously monitors and
responds to pupils ‘s thinking by adjusting the flow and focus of the lesson. According to Collis and
Lacey (1996) in the interactive teaching strategy the aim is to allow pupils to dig deeper into meaning
and concepts. It is about the notion of knowledge being constructed jointly rather than content being
delivered to learners by teachers. Therefore, interactive teaching focuses on interpersonal relationships
among learners and teachers ( http://www.sportscienceresearch.com/IJSEHR_201712_03.pdf).

Peer Teaching Strategy

According to Sawyer (2006) peer teaching is an instructional strategy to reach out to low
performing students in a positive way. It uses parings of high performing students under the supervision
of a teacher. This shows that the strategy is student centered and it emphasizes active teaching and
learning as students work in teams. Whitman (1988) states that peer teaching strategy induces hands- on,
heads- on and hearts on learning in students (
http://www.sportscienceresearch.com/IJSEHR_201712_03.pdf). .

Learning Contracts

Swanson & Holton (1997) assert that learning contract is a document used to assist planning of a
learning project, a written agreement negotiated between a learner and a teacher. Hence, a learning
contract involves negotiation and agreement on the part of learner and the teacher. According to Dixon
(1991) a learning contract considers psychological principles of the adult learner since the learner is
encouraged to take more responsibility for their own learning. The elements of learning contract include
learning objectives and goals, and the strategies and resource available to achieve the objectives. It also
demands the evidence to indicate that objectives have been achieved
(http://www.sportscienceresearch.com/IJSEHR_201712_03.pdf) .

Questioning Strategy

According to Wells (2001) [22] questioning is a core function of both learning and teaching. It is a
designer of curricular and instructional activities that facilitate interactions. Questioning enables
interaction where student interact with their teacher and peers. Questioning promoted higher order
thinking through explanation of high level questioning. (Covey 1990)
(http://www.sportscienceresearch.com/IJSEHR_201712_03.pdf)

Active Teaching

According to Hermin and Toth (2006) active learning refers to the level of academic student engagement
in and outside classroom. Active teaching is intended to make students active rather than passive
participants in learning. Silberman (1996) states that active hands on teaching strategies and learning
activities are designed to take students out of their seats or classroom. This shows that active teaching
involves active participation on the part of the student rather than passive recipients. Buehl (2001) [3]
asserts that many individuals learn best and become proficient in skills by practicing them rather merely
being a spectator to the skill. This shows that individuals learn by doing which are active hands on
approach (http://www.sportscienceresearch.com/IJSEHR_201712_03.pdf)
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
A current trend in the academic classroom is toward more cooperative learning strategies.
In cooperative learning, a team of students work together to help its members achieve at a certain
goal, progressing only as fast as all members have learned each skill or passed each quiz.
Cooperative learning is based on the philosophy that students make no effort to learn unless
satisfy student's needs to belong. Glasser believes that to the extent that we can satisfy our needs to
survive and gain love, power, fun, and freedom, we gain effective control over our lives. Ultimately,
students get the idea that knowledge is power.
"Cooperative learning" places the responsibility for learning where it belongs, on the students.
As students gain a greater sense of control, their attitudes toward school learning, and classmates
improve, and a large percentage of students work-task resulting in better classroom behavior. Although
more time-consuming than teacher-directed strategies, cooperative learning significantly increases student
academic performances, social interactions, and group participation, communication, and leadership
skills. It makes teaching and learning more fun. All these benefits can lead to a more effective learning
environment.
Cooperative learning increases student involvement in learning and motivates slower learner to
improve their performance, while reinforcing the learning of the faster learners. Heterogeneous grouping
increases learning for all students. Low-skilled students benefit by observing high-skilled students.
High-skilled students gain greater insights through teaching.
The physical education classroom is an ideal setting for cooperative learning. In his reciprocal
style, Mooston assigned pairs of students to work cooperatively together, with each student given
responsibility as their observer of the doer.

Harrison & Blackmore (1992) [1] assert that cooperative learning teaching strategy is a strategy
that utilized learning in groups where learners are assigned a learning task or project to complete as a
team. The teams are heterogeneous and are evaluated both individually and as a group. Holton (1998)
[9] postulates that there are three common cooperative learning structures utilized in the cooperative
teaching strategy. These include the pairs check, jigsaw and group activities.

Kagan (1990) [11] states that cooperative learning reflects on how well the team functions and
how to function even better through interpersonal and small group skills like communication, trust,
leadership, decision making and conflict resolution. Therefore, cooperative learning requires the
contribution of each of the group members in order to achieve goals
(http://www.sportscienceresearch.com/IJSEHR_201712_03.pdf) .

Cooperative learning can help students internalize and apply physical education principles. For
example, the lesson focus may be to perform a proper free throw in basketball. The students need to
understand the biomechanics of body alignment, the impact of spin on ball rebound patterns, the
appropriate angle of ball projections, and so forth: The teacher provides this information using a lecture
format, written materials, appropriate group work, or some combination of these. While practicing free
throws, in small groups, the social skills needed are:
1. Observing students practice
2. Evaluating performance based on correct mechanics
3. Communicating to the performer, what the skill looked like and,
4. Providing accurate feedback to the performance for skill improvement. When
students learn and teach other, they will be more likely to apply these concepts in their own
lives.
 Students need time to learn how to work together, how to communicate affectivity and how to
take responsibility to their own learning. Teachers should not be discouraged early in the process. The
hard work the teacher does at the beginning of the learning process will pay large dividends in student
performance later on. Pre-planning is necessary including planning for specific dynamics. Student must
be taught cooperation skills, just as they are taught psychomotor skills on classroom management skills,
by modeling, practice, feedback, and more practice. "For true cooperation to take place, students must
realize that they will sink or swim together".
As the composition of physical education classes becomes richer through diversity, changes
becomes necessary I the teachers and administration approach teaching. Collaboration becomes more than
just a nice idea. It becomes an essential strategy for meeting the needs of students. In physical education,
there are number of people who is collaborates with the regular physical educator to provide for the needs
of all students.

The first step the physical educator must take is to recognize that it is all right to ask for support
and assistance.

There are many individuals with when regular physical educators may wish to collaborate to
provide to provide for needs of student:

1. Collaborative with an adapted physical education resource specialist a person educated

on adapting curricula and adapting teaching methods to meet the needs of students with
challenges. Share ideas for adapting activities and for increasing the numbers of teachers
in the gymnasium through the use of peer tutors, volunteers, paraprofessional, or team
teaching with an adapted physical educator.
2. Collaborative with the student’s other teachers, who might have successful teaching
methods and insights to share.
3. Collaborative with the student’s physical therapist, or occupational therapist and other
health services providers, who can share suggestions regarding positioning, assistive
devices, exercises and so forth.
4. Collaborate with school administrators to brainstorm about support systems needed and
how they might be provided.
5. Collaborative with parents or caregivers, who have rich stores of knowledge about their
children’s likes, dislikes, past experiences, and future aspirations.
6. Collaborative with other students in the schools, who may serve as peer tutors.
7. Collaborative with teachers of English as a Second Language and other language
specialist to use as bodies as translators, teachers learning key words in other languages
and extra wait time to include students with diverse languages.

An important part of all physical educators’ responsibilities is being active and positive
spokespersons for physical education. The critical need for advance for quality program requires that busy
teachers consider how to provide information to parents, community agencies, and organizations about
the value of physical education and they work actively in the community to support and guide positive
programs. Important groups with which to network include community leaders; physicians other
educators; parents groups such as the PTA; and youth providers such as YMCA’s and YWCA’s.

SIMULATION
An excellent teaching aid is a simulation of an event. Once again, the "doing" aspect of learning
is built into the learning experience. Students not competing on an athletics or intramural team may never
have the experience of playing with official rules, referees, and scores.
 Simulation activities are selected simplification or representations-of-real-real situations in game
or laboratory - type setting. They can be used to promote the learning of game skills, knowledge,
attitudes, strategies and social skills. Possible experiences include a simulated track or gymnastics meet.
Disadvantages of simulation are increased time needed for preparation and learning and the
expenses involved in providing actual equipment in some instances. Some teachers complain that
simulation activities oversimplify real situations.
Ruddell and Ruddell (1995) [19] define simulation activities as selective simplifications or
representations of real life situations in game or laboratory type settings. Hermin and Toth (2006) assert
that simulation of an event promotes learning of game skills, knowledge, attitudes, strategies and social
skills. This shows that, the simulation strategy enables individuals to learn and become proficient in skills
through observation and practice ( http://www.sportscienceresearch.com/IJSEHR_201712_03.pdf).

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES
Problem solving strategies can be used to develop the ability to solve problems and verify
solutions to problems. They can also be used to encourage the application of the concepts already
leaned. If done in a group, they can encourage the use of cognitive processes other than memory and
increases retention. However, they are more time-consuming than teacher-dominated instruction and can
take time away from practicing psychomotor skills.

The problem-solving techniques are:

1. Questioning
2. Inquiry learning, and
3. Brainstorming and buzz sessions.

Other examples of problem-solving strategies are:

1. Choreographing dance or gymnastics routine
2. Developing new games with given parameters
3. Thinking up and sharing new plays for games.

Most of the affective learning activities also fall into the category of problem- solving.

When problem-solving strategies are used, teachers should keep in mind that it is difficult to
meaningfully involve some students (i.e., slow learners, culturally disadvantaged, and students who lack
the knowledge necessary to solve problem) in problem-solving situation.

Wood (2002) [23] views problem solving strategies as strategies that develop the capacity to
solve previously unencountered situations by combining old rules and principles into new higher order
ones. Problem- solving strategies have the capacity to present students with worthwhile problem
demanding recall of previously learned knowledge.

The problem- solving teaching strategy as Zelano, Muller, Frye and Mcovitch (2003) say,
encourages the application of the concepts, students, interaction and team work. Levy (2002) [13]
identifies the duties of the teacher in the problem solving strategy in various ways. The duty of the
teacher is to provide assistance to channel students thinking. The teacher should help children identify
problems, label problems for children when they arise in play and encourage children to describe the
problems the encounter (http://www.sportscienceresearch.com/IJSEHR_201712_03.pdf) .

a. Questioning Strategies
 Teachers use questions to arouse interest and hold attention to help learners perceive the
referent of a concept or discover a specific relationship or principle, to stimulate thought, develop
understanding, apply information, develop appreciation and attitudes, or emphasize a point or
clarify of misconception. Questioning can also be used to evaluate student understanding and
learning. Its use during a lecture increases individual student participation and understanding.
Questioning requires considerable skill on the part of the teacher to accomplish the objectives
without embarrassing students or limiting the responses to only a few students.

Some examples of questions at the various level of the cognitive taxonomy are:

1. Knowledge or fact questions: who, where, when. Involves recognition or recall of

facts, events, places or names.
2. Comprehension: Compare the belief in (subject) of… and … Explain
in your own words. Involved understanding of what was expressed.
3. Application: If you were… What might you do? How does this apply in
our lives? Involves using knowledge in new ways.
4. Analysis: Give evidence … What effect was caused by … Tell why
… Involves breaking information into parts.
5. Synthesis: Write a journal of your reactions to your fitness
program. Described how physical education makes a difference in your
life. Involves combining parts to whole.
6. Evaluation: Should people … Judge whether behavior was right or
wrong. Defend the … Involves making judgment based on standards.

b. Inquiry Learning
Inquiry learning is a process through which students learn how to seek out answers
scientifically by asking thought-provoking questions. Although inquiry learning in more time-
consuming, then conventional learning it tends to help students learn how to learn by putting the
responsibility for learning directly on them, thereby providing them more meaningful learning.

c. Brainstorming and Buzz Sessions

Brainstorming mean generating solutions to a defined problem by stating any relevant
idea comes to mind. For example, a small group of students might generate ideas a new game or
dance.
In a buzz session, a large group is divided into small groups of people who generate ways
to solve a problem. Group members can be protected to increase the diversity of ideas. Both
techniques can be used to solve a specific problem of to fine creative approaches to problem
solving. They can result in individual creativity maximum group participation, and unique,
creative solution to problem.