Biomechanics of

Sport and Exercise

Peter McGinnis, PhD
State University of New York, College at Cortland

Human Kinetics
Contents
Preface vii
Acknowledgments ix

Part I Fundamental Biomechanical Concepts, Principles,

and Terminology 1
Chapter 1 Why Study Biomechanics? 3
What Is Biomechanics? 5
What Are the Goals of Exercise and Sport Biomechanics? 6
The History of Sport Biomechanics 12
The Future of Sport Biomechanics 14
Summary 14

Chapter 2 Anatomical Movement Terminology 17

Body Segment, Bone, Joint, and Muscle Terminology 18
Spatial and Directional Terminology 24
Planes and Axes of Motion 25
Joint Actions 29
Summary 33

Chapter 3 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Mechanics 39

The Organization of Mechanics 40
Basic Dimensions Used in Mechanics 41
Newton's Laws 44
Summary 46

Part II External Biomechanics: External Forces

and Their Effects on the Body and Its Movement 47
Chapter 4 Forces: Maintaining Equilibrium or Changing Motion 49
What Are Forces? 50
Classifying Forces 51

ill
 CONTENTS

Friction 52
itio n 57
Ad diti on of Forces: Force Com pos
Resolution of Forces 62
Static Equ ilib rium 67
Sum ma ry 72
ts in Linear Motion 75
Chapter 5 Linear Kinematics: Describing Objec
Mo tion 76
Linear Kinematics 78
Sum ma ry 93
s of Linear Motion 95
Chapter 6 Linear Kinetics: Explaining the Cause
Law of Ine rtia 96
Law of Acceleration 100
Imp uls e and Mo me ntu m 105
Law of Action-Reaction 109
Sum ma ry 110
ng the Causes
Chapter 7 Work, Power, and Energy: Explaini 113
of Motion Without Newton
Work 114
. Ene rgy 117
The Work-Energy Relationship 119
Pow er 123
Sum ma ry 125
intaining Equilibrium
Chapter 8 Torques and Moments of Force: Ma 127
or Changing Angular Motion
Wh at Are Torques? 128
136
Forces and Torques in Equ ilib rium
Wh at Is Cen ter of Gravity? 140
Sum ma ry 153
jects in Angular Motion 157
Chapter 9 Angular Kinematics: Describing Ob
158
An gul ar Position and Dis pla cem ent I
161 I
An gul ar and Linear Dis pla cem ent
I
An gul ar Velocity 163 ,I

An gul ar and Linear Velocity 163 J

An gul ar Acceleration 166
An gul ar and Linear Ac<;:eleration
166
I
Sum ma ry 167 i

I
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 Chapter 10 Angular Kinetics: Explaining the Causes of Angular Motion 171
Angular Inertia 172
Angular Momentum 178
Angular Interpretation of Newton's First Law of Motion 180
Angular Interpretation of Newton's Second Law of Motion 183
Angular Impulse and Angular Momentum 184 I

Angular Interpretation of Newton's Third Law of Motion 185

Summary 186

Chapter 11 Fluid Mechanics: The Effects of Water and Air 191

Buoyant Force: Force Due to Immersion 192
Dynamic Fluid Force: Force Due to Relative Motion 196
Summary 207

Part III Internal Biomechanics: Internal Forces and Their Effects

on the Body and Its Movement 211
Chapter 12 Mechanics of Biological Materials: Stresses and Strains
on the Body 213
Stress 214
Strain 225
Mechanical Properties of Materials: The Stress-Strain Relationship 227
Mechanical Properties of the Musculoskeletal System 230
Summary 235

Chapter 13 The Skeletal System: The Rigid Framework of the Body 239
Bones 241
Joints 244
Summary 251

Chapter 14 The Muscular System: The Motors of the Body 255

The Structure of Skeletal Muscle 256
Muscle Action 260
Muscle Contraction Force 265
Summary 276

Chapter 15 The Nervous System: Control of the Musculoskeletal System 279

The Nervous System and the Neuron 280
The Motor Unit 282
Receptors and Reflexes 284
Summary 288
 Applying Biomechanical Principles 291
Part IV
293
Chapter 16 Qualitative Biomechanical Analysis to Improve Technique
Types of Biomechanical Analysis 294
Qualit ative Biomechanical Analysis to Impro ve Technique 295
Examp le Analy ses 306
Summ ary 321
323
Chapter 17 Qualitative Biomechanical Analysis to Improve Training
Biomechanics and Training 324
Qualit ative Anato mical Analy sis Metho d 325
Examp le Analy ses 329
Summ ary .342

Chapter 18 Qualitative Biomechanical Analysis

to Understand Injury Development 347
8teven T. McCaw
Mechanical Stress and Injury 348
Tissue Respo nse to Stress 350
Ii
Mecha nism of Overu se Injury 353
Indivi dual Differences in Tissue Thresh old 354 1
Intrins ic and Extrinsic Factors Affecting Injury 354
1
Runni ng 358
Summ ary 367

Appen dix A Trigonometric Functi ons

369 I
(

J
379
Appen dix B Answe rs to Selected Review Quest ions
385 I
Glossary
395
References and Sugge sted Readings

I
399
Index
406
About the Autho r
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Index
A average velocity 88-89
abdomen 18-19 avulsion fracture 231
abduction 30,32-35 axes, anatomical 26-29,174-175
absolute angular position 159, 167 axis ofrotation 165,174-175
acceleration 44,90-93,100-105,166-167,207 B
activity, effect of 230-231,352-353 balance 286-287
adduction 30,32-35 ball-and-socket joints 246-247
adductor longus muscle 22 balls
age, effect of 230-231 action-reaction and 110
agonist muscles 262 as projectiles 97-98,100-101,208
airfoils 204-205 spin on 206,315-316
anatomical analysis. See qualitative anatomical analysis baseball 13,306-310
anatomical axes 26-29 base of support 148-154
anatomical planes 25-29 bench presses 116,326-329
anatomical position 24 bending loads 220-223,225,235
angles 158-159,161 Bernoulli's principle 204-206
angular acceleration 166-167,328-329,334,337,342 biceps brachii muscle 19,22,134-135,262-264
angular displacement 158-163,169 biceps femoris muscle 23-24 .
angular impulse 184-185,188 biomechanical analysis 293-321. See also qualitative
angular inertia 172-178,186 anatomical analysis
angular kinetics 171-188 evaluation of performance 304-305
angular momentum 178-185 fastball pitch 306-310
angular impulse and 184-185 football punt 331-335
human body and 179-180 forehand drive in tennis 310-316
Newton's laws and 180-187 ideal technique 295-300
overview 186-188 identifying goals 296-297
rigid body 178-179 instructing performer 305-306
angular motion 77 observation of performance 300-304
angular position 159,167 qualitative 294-295
angular velocity 163-166,181-182,187 quantitative 294-295
anisotropic materials 230 sprint running 316-321,334-339
ankle 19-20,30-32,250,330-339 technique improvement 295-306
antagonist muscles 263 training and 324-325
anterior, definition of 24 vertical jump 330-331
anteroposterior (AP) axis 26-27,30-33,35 biomechanics 3-14
aponeuroses 257 definition 5-6
Archimedes 194 friction and 56-57
arm curls 134-135,138-139 future of 14
arms 18-19. See also elbow goals of 6-12
articular capsule 247 history of 12-14
articular cartilage 232-233,247-249,251 body fat 195
autonomic nervous system 281 bones
average acceleration 90-91 anatomy and classification 241-243
average angular velocity 163 elastic modulus 231
average speed 85-89 growth and development 243-245

399

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 INDEX ]

bones (continued) density 194-196,200

loads on 216-218,220,222-223,230-232,235-236 depression 33,35
long 242-245,260 Descartes, Rene 79
marrow 242 diagonal planes 29,33
ove;rview 240 diaphYSis 243
surface irregularities 242-243 discus throwing 115,119-120,185
tendon attachment 259 displacement 81-85,93,97,115-116,158-163,169
terminology 18-19 distal, definition of 24
brittleness 229-230 distance traveled 80-81,83,85. See also displacement
buoyant force 192-196,207 diving, moments of inertia 175-176
bursa 259 dorsiflexion 30-31,35
C downward rotation 33,35
cancellous (trabecular or spongy) bone 231,241 drafting 202, 296
cardinal plane 25-26 drag force 197-202,208
carpals 18-20 ductility 229-230
Cartesian coordinate system 79-81, 82 dynamic fluid force 196-208. See also fluid mechanics
cartilage 232-233,242-249,251 dynamic friction 53-56
cartilaginous joints 245-246 dynamics 41, 76, 96, 326 'j

cartwheel axis (anteroposterior axis) 26-27,30-33,35

catching technique 108
E
eccentric contraction 261-263,273-274,277,286,327 'I
center of gravity eccentric force 128-129
definition 140 effective radius 165 I
in free-body diagrams 67-68 elastic behavior 227-228,231,233 I
in human body 143-145 elastic cartilage 232
mathematical determination 140-143 elastin 230,233
movement and 145-147,151-153,299 elbow 19-21,30-31,250-251,338,343
stability and 147-154 elevation 33,35
center of pressure 206,359-360 ellipSOidal joints 246
central nervous system 280-282. See also nervous system endolymph 286
centric force 128-129 endomysium 257, 259
centripetalforce 166-169 epicondyle 242
children, bones in 243-244 c epimysium 257, 259
circumduction 33 epiphyseal cartilage 242-244
clavicle 19-21 epiphysis 243
clockwise 160 equipment 8-9, 12, 272. See also running, shoes
colinear forces 57-59 Erasquin, Felix 7
collagen 230,232-234,236,259 erector spinae muscle group 24
combined loads 224-225,235 eversion 30,32,35
compact bone 231 exercise machines 272
compression 51,217-218,220,223,235,349-350 extension 30-31, 35
concentric contractions 260-262,273-274,276,327 external forces 52. See also forces
concurrent forces 59-62 external oblique muscle 22,24
condyle 242 external rotation 33-35
connective tissue 230-231 exteroceptors 284,287-288
conservation of angular momentum 182 F
conservation of mechanical energy 122-123 failure strength 229,235-236
contact forces 52 fascicle 257, 259
cortical bone 231-232,241 fastball pitch 306-310
cosine function 65-66 fatigue, muscle 275
counterclockwise 160 femur 19-21,222-225,244
creep 232-234 Fenn, Wallace 13
cross-country skiing 8, 10-11, 56-57 fibrous cartilage 232
cross-training 364 fibrous joints 245-246
Cureton, Thomas 13 fibula 19-21 i
curvilinear translation 76-77 figure skating 10-11,67-68,182
D fingers 19, 22-23 j
dancing, angular momentum 185 flexibility exercises 286
deceleration 91 flexion 30-31,35 I
deep, definition of 24 fluid friction 52-53
deformation 40,216-217,220,223,225-226,233 fluid mechanics 191-208
deltoid muscle 19,22 buoyancy 192-196
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 center of pressure 206 H
drag force 197-202 hammer throwing 167-168
lift force 202-206 hamstring muscle 270-272
overview 40 hand 18-19
relative velocity 196-197,202 head 18-19
foot 18-19,223,358-362,365 heel 350
football punt 331-335 Held, Dick 8-9
force couples 128 Held, Frank ''Bud'' 8-9
forces. See also Newton's laws of motion high jumping 3,7-9,144,298-300,302-304
addition of 57-62 Hill, Archibald V. 13
buoyant 192-196,207 hinge jOints 245,248
centric 128-129 hip
centripetal 166-169 in football punt 331-333,335
colinear 57-59 in javelin throwing 338,341,344-345
compressive 51, 349-350 joint movement 30-34, 246
concurrent 59-62 overview 19-21
contact 52 in sprint running 338-339
definition of 43,50 in vertical jump 330
drag 197-202,208 horizontal motion 96-98,101-102. See also displacement
dynamic fluid 196-208 hormones, bones and 244
eccentric 128-129 human body. See also qualitative anatomical analysis
graphical determination of 63-64 angular momentum 179-181
gravitational 45-46,52,59 axes 26-29,174-175
impact 108-109,328-329,334,337 buoyancy 195-196
injury and 348,350 center of gravity 143-145
lift 202-206,208 mechanical properties 230-235
moment of. See torque moments of inertia 175-176
in muscles 138-139,273-274 response to stress 350-353
net 57,66-67, 106 humerus 18,20-21,216-218
normal 53-54 hurdling 182-183
reaction 68-71,98,103-104,109-110,359-361 hyaline cartilage 232
resultant 57-62 hyperextension 30-31,35
static equilibrium 67-72 I
tensile 51,266-274,350 ice hockey 296-297
torque and 136-140 ice skating 10-11,67-68,182
trigonometric determination of 64-67 impact force 108-109,328-329,334,337
types of 51 impulse 105-109,184-185,187-188
zero net 98-100 impulse-momentum equation 105-108,110
forearm 18-19 impulsive load 360
forehand drive in tennis 310-316 inertia 42-44,96-100,172-179,186,188
form drag 199-202 inferior, definition of 24
Fosblll"Yr Dick 7, 9 injury 347-367
fossa 242 biomechanics and 11-12,235,304
fovea 242 cross-training and 364
free-body diagrams 67-71 factors affecting 354-358
friction 52-57 individual differences and 354, 356
frontal plane 25-27,35 loading patterns and 359-360
frontal-sagittal (longitudinal) axis 26-27,29,33,35 mechanical stress and 348-351
frontal (transverse) axis 26-27,30,34-35 overuse 352-353,358-367
G psychological considerations 366-367
gastrocnemius muscle 23-24,263 traumatic 353
general motion 77-78 instantaneous acceleration 91
gliding joints 245 instantaneous angular velocity 163 I,I
gluteus maximus muscle 19,23 instantaneous speed 88 I1

gluteus medius muscle 19,23 instantaneous velocity 89,318

golf 164-165,178-179,206 internal forces 51
Golgi tendon organ 286,289 internal rotation 33-35
gracilis muscle 22 International Amateur Athletic Federation (lAAF) 7-9
gravitation 45-46,52,59,101,118 interneurons 282
groin muscle 24 interoceptors 284
gymnastics 6,12,59-61,182,185 inverse dynamic analysis 326
 INDEX
]

inversion 30,32,35 injury and 359-360

iron cross 10-11 mechanical 219-224
isometric activity 273-274,276-277,327 during running 358-362
isotropic materials 230 shear 219
strength increase from 230-231
J torsion 223-224
javelin throwing 7-8,206-207,338-342
uniaxial 219,235
Johnson, Ben 86-87
loading rate 231-232
Johnson, WaIter 13
longitudinal axis 26-27,29,33,35
joints. See also specific joint
longitudinal fibers 261,266-270,276
analysis of motions 29-35,326-329,330-332
long jump 301-302
angular acceleration 328-329,334,337,342
cavities 248-249,294 M
classification 244-247 Magnus effect 205-207
flexibility 249-251 Marey, Etienne Jules 13
javelin throw and 338 mass 42-43,364-365. See also weight
range of motion 249-250,252,329,334-335,337-339, mechanics 39-46. See also biomechanical analysis;
342 biomechanics
stability 248-252 medial, definition of 24
terminology 18-19 mediolateral (transverse) axis 26-27,30,34-35
joules 115-116 men, center of gravity 143
jumping metacarpals 18,20
anatomical analysis 330-331 metatarsals 19-20
center of gravity 145-147 modulus of elasticity 228,233
high jump 3,7-9,144,298-300,302-304 moment arm 131,134-135,150
landing techniques 108-109 moment of force. See torque
long jump 301-302 moment of inertia 172-179,188
momentum 106-108 momentum 105-110,187. See also angular momentum
prestretch and 274 motion 76-78
K motor neurons 282-286
kinesiology 12-14 movement, center of gravity and 151-153
kinetic energy 117-118 muscles 255-277
kinetics 41,96 contractions
knee concentric 260-263
in football punt 331-333,335 eccentric 261-263
injuries 350 in football punt 335
joint movement 30-31,249 in javelin throwing 338-345
overview 19-21 mechanics of 264
running and 361-362, 365-366 muscle length and 268-271
in sprint running 334-335,337,339 qualitative anatomical analysis of 327-328,333-334
tensile loading 250 recruitment of 284
in vertical jump 330 in sprint running 334-337, 339
Koch, Bill 8 types of 260-262
velocity of 271-274
L effect of inactivity 352-353
laminar flow 199-200,202 fibers
lateral, definition of 24 contractions and 265
lateral flexion 30,32-33,35 fatigue and 275
lateral (transverse) axis 26-27,34-35 longitudinal 261,266-270,276
latissimus dorsi muscle 23-24 nervous system and 282-283
legs 18-19,136 pennate 261,266-270,276
length 42-43 structure of 257-261
Lewis, Carl 86-87 Typel/ll 275
lift force 202-206,208 force and 138-139,265-276,283
ligaments 231-234,249-251 length of 268-271
linear momentum 105, 187 line of pull 260
linear strain 225-226 maximum tension in 270,284
load mechanical properties of 234-236
bending 220-223,225,235 moment arms in 162-163
on bones 216-218,220,222-223,230-236 nervous system and 282-283
combined 224-225,235 overview 19-24
impulsive 360 power output and velocity 271-274,276-277
 INDEX .mi
qualitative analysis of 325-329 Poisson's ratio 226-227
range of motion and 252 pole vaulting 10-11,139-140,144,175-177
roles of 262-264 position 24,78-81,158-161,167
single- vs. multiple-joint 270-271 posterior, definition of 24
spindles '285-286 potential energy 117-119, 149-152
structure of 256-260,265 power 123-125,271-274,276-277
torque in 132-134,186,262-263,276 pressure 193-194,206,294,349,359-360
types of 256 prestretch 274
myofibrils 257-259,265 principal axes 174-175
myofilaments 257-258,265 projectile motion 96-98,100-102,207-208
pronation 33-35,361-362
N
proprioceptors 284-287
neck 18-19,31-34,242 proximal, definition of 24
nervous system 279-289 proximal radioulnar joint 19-20
exteroceptors 287-288 pubic symphysis 245-246
motor unit 282-284,288 Pythagorean theorem 62, 64
muscle contractions and 264
neurons 280-282,288 Q
proprioceptors 285-287,289 Q angle 365-366
receptors and reflexes 284-285 quadriceps femoris 263
net force 57, 66-67, 106 qualitative anatomical analysis
neurons 281-282,288 football punt 331-335
neutralizer muscles 263-264 javelin throwing 338-345
newton meters 131 overview 325-329, 342
newtons 50 sprint running 334-339
Newton, Sir Isaac 44 vertical jump 330-331
Newton's laws of motion quantum mechanics 41
action-reaction 109-110 R
angular momentum 180-187 radial deviation 30, 32, 35
overview 44-46 radians 160, 162
projectile motion 98-100, 102-105 radioulnar joint 19-20,34
static equilibrium and 67 radius 18,20-21,165
Nike Sport Research Laboratory 12 radius of gyration 174,186
Nordic ski racing 8,10-11 range of motion 249-250,252,329,334-335,337-339,342
normal contact force 53-54 reaction forces 68-71,98, 103-104, 109-110,359-361
o rearfoot motion 361 .
Q'Brien, Parry 122 reciprocal inhibition 286
otoliths 286 rectilinear translation 76
rectus abdominis muscle 22, 24
P rectus femoris muscle 22, 24
pacinian corpuscles 287, 289 reference frames 78-80
pain receptors 287-288 reflexes 284-289
pascals 215, 349 relativistic mechanics 40-41
patellofemoral pain 362 remodeling 352-353
pectineus muscle 22 resultant displacement 81, 83-85
pectoralis major muscle 22, 24 resultant force 57-62
pelvis 19-21 ribs 19-21
pennate fibers 261,266-270,276 right-hand thumb rule 160
performance righting reflex 287, 289
biomechanics and 6-11, 298-300 rigid-body mechanics 40-41,46
center of gravity and 145-147 rotary (angular) inertia 172-178,186
evaluation of 304-305 running
observation of 300-304 anatomical analysis 334-338
perimysium 257, 259 angular momentum 180
peripheral nervous system 280-281 average speed 86-89
phalanges 18-20 biomechanical analysis 316-321
physiologic loading zone 351-352 body mass 364-365
pitching 306-310 effect of road slope 357
pivot joints 245-246 foot structure and 365
planes, anatomical 25-29 knees and 365-366
plantar flexion 30-31,35,361-362 loading patterns 358-362
plastic behavior 228-229 overuse injuries 358-367
 -
running (continued)
INDEX

somatic nervous system 281

position-time graph 361 space travel 352
Q angle 365-366 specific gravity 194-195
shoes 12,56,358-359,361,364-365 speed 85:90,164
speed and injury 362-363 spin, ball 205-206
surfaces 363-364 spinning actions 185
Ryan, Nolan 90 sport biomechanics. See biomechanical analysisi
S biomechanics
saddle joints 246 sprinting 175-176,316-321,334-339. See also running
sagittal (anteroposterior) axis 26-27,30-33,35 stability 147-154,151-153,248-252
sarcolemma 257, 259 stabilizer muscles 263 .
sarcomeres 257-258,265,268-269,272-273,276 stances 148-149,152-154
sartorius muscle 22, 24 static equilibrium 67-72,136-140
scapula 18, 21 static friction 53-56
segments ofthe body 18-19 statics 41
self-experiments Steindler, Arthur 13
acceleration 100,103 stiffness 234-235
angular motion 162,165,173,181,187 stimulus duration 274-275,284
bending loads 221 strain 118-119,225-227,235
buoyant force 193 streamlined shapes 200-202,204
center of gravity 141-142,145 strength 229-231,235-236,249-250
deformation 233 strength-training 134-136
elastic behavior 228 stress 214-224
energy 117-119 compression 217
friction 53-56 continuum 351
impulse and momentum 106-108 definition of 214-215,235,349
joint motion 251 in feet of runners 358-359
lift force 203 injury and 348-354
linear motion 77-78 relaxation of 232-234
linear strain 225 shear 217-220,224,235,350
moment of inertia 174 stress-strain relationship 227-230,232,234-235
muscle contraction force 265-267,272,274 tension 215-216,220,230,235
net force 104 tissue response to 350-353
projectile motion 97,102 WiUiams's model of 352-353
reaction force 98-99,104,110 stretching exercises 234-235
speed, velocity, and acceleration 89, 91-92 stretch reflex 285-286,289
stress 215,218 superficial, definition of 24
stretch reflex 285 superior, definition of 24
torque 129-130,132,135,137-138 supination 33-35,361-362
work 114 surface area 54-55,196
semimembranosus muscle 23-24 surface drag 198-199, 202
semitendinosus muscle 23-24 surface texture 200
sensory neurons 281 swimming 7,195,203
sesamoid bones 242 swinging 71
shear strain 226 synergy 264
shear stress 217-220,224,235,350 synovial joints 245-251
shock absorbance 122 Systeme-Internationale d'Unites (SI units) 42-43,46
shoes 12,56,358-359,361,364-365 T
shotput 106-107,121-122 tangent function 65
shoulder tangential acceleration 166, 169
abduction 27-28 tarsals 19-20
in javelin throwing 338,341,343 technique improvement 6-8, 12,295-306. See also
joint movement 30-34,246,330-331 performance
overview 19-20 tendon reflex 286
in sprint running 337, 339 tendons 231,233-235,249,257-259
sine function 65-66 tennis 310-316
skating 10-11,67-68,182 tensile forces 51,266-274,350
skeletal system 239-252. See also bonesi joints tensile strength 249-250
skiing 8,10-11,56-57 tensile stress 215-216,220,230,235
skull 19-20,246 tension 215-216,223
soleus muscle 23-24 thigh 18-19

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 INDEX

thorax 18-19 vastus medialis muscle 22, 24

throwing sports 106-108,121-122,306-310 vectors
tibia 19-21 acceleration 91-93
tibialis anterior muscle 22, 24 addition of 57-64
tightrope walking 186 angular velocity 57-64, 163
time 42-43,326 components 96-98
tonic neck reflex 287-289 definition of 50
torque displacement and 81,83-85
angular momentum 183-188 torque 131,139-140
examples of 131-133 velocity 88-89
force and 136 velocity
muscular 132-134,186,262-263,276 angular 163-166,181-182,187
net 137-140 average 88-89
overview of 128-131,153 of fastball pitch 307
torsion load 223-224 injury and 362
toughness 229, 235 instantaneous 89,318
training 323-345. See also qualitative anatomical linear 163-166
analysis moment of inertia and 177-178
cross-training 364 muscle contraction and 271-274
improvement of 9-11 overview 85, 88-90
physical 325 during performance 303
technical 324-325 relative 196-197,202,208
training effect 352-353 vertebral column 19-21,227
trajectories 96-98,100-102,207-208 vertical (longitudinal) axis 26-27,29,33,35
transverse axis 26-27,30,34-35 vertical motion 100-102
trapezius muscle 23-24 vestibular system 286-287,289
triceps brachii muscle 19,23 viscosity 198-199,202
trigonometry 64-67,84-85,369-378 W
trunk 31-34,340-341,344 water pressure 193-194
turbulent flow 199-200,202 watts 123-124
Type ITA muscle fibers (FOG) 275 weight 43,59,69-70,364-365
Type IIB muscle fibers (FG) 275 weight-lifting 69-70,98-99,135-136,273-274. See also
Type I muscle fibers (SO) 275 arm curls; bench presses
U withdrawal reflex 288
ulna 18,20-21 Wolff'slaw 350-352,365
ulnar deviation 30,32,35 women, center of gravity 143
ultimate strength 229,235-236 work 113-117,119-125
uniaxialloads 219,235 wrestling 132,134,154
uniaxial tension 224 wrist 19-23,31-32
units 42-43,46 Y
upward rotation 33,35 yield strength 229, 235
V Young's modulus 228,233
vastus intermedius muscle 24 Z
vastus lateralis muscle 22, 24 zero net force 98-100