AS Physics Definitions

1. Physical Quantities & Measurements

- Physical Quantity: A quantity that has a magnitude and a unit.
- Precision: It is the measure of spread/range of your measured values.
- Precise Measuring Instrument: An Instrument which has smaller graduations / lesser
uncertainty.
- Accuracy: It is the measure of how close the measured values are to the true value.
- Systematic Errors: They cause your measured values to deviate from the true value by a fixed
amount always.
- Random Errors: They cause your measured values to deviate from the true value by a random
amount.
- Uncertainties: The range in which your measured values lie.
- Scalar Quantity: Quantities completely specified by their magnitude and unit.
Eg: distance, speed, time, mass, power, energy, area.
- Vector Quantity: Quantities not completely specified by their magnitude and unit and need
mention of direction.
Eg: acceleration, velocity, force, displacement, momentum.
- Resultant: A vector that produces the same effect as 2 or more vectors.

2. Kinematics
- Displacement: Shortest distance between 2 points measured from a fixed frame of reference
along a specific linear direction.
- Distance: Actual Length covered during a journey from a fixed frame of reference.
- Velocity: Rate change of displacement along a specific linear direction.
- Speed: Rate change of distance.
- Average Velocity: Total Displacement / Total time
- Average Speed: Total Distance / Total Time
- Projectile Motion: Motion in which acceleration acts in one direction only.
- Acceleration: Rate change of velocity in a specific linear direction.

3. Forces:
- Newton’ 1st Law: An object will continue its state of rest or uniform motion until it is acted upon
by an external force.
- Inertia: The tendency of a body to continue its state of rest or of uniform motion / the tendency of
a body to resist changes to its state of motion.
- Newton’ 2nd Law: Force is equal to the rate change of momentum.
- Force: Force is the rate of change of momentum. (Never write F = ma)
- Momentum: The product of the object’s mass into velocity.
- Newton’ 3rd Law: If body A applies a force on body B, then body B will also apply an equal and
opposite force on body A.
- Equilibrium: The net force and the net moments on the object are zero.
- Principle Of Moments: For an object to be in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments must be
equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments on it.
- Weight (W): It is the attractive force of gravity a mass feels when placed in a gravitational field.
- Normal Contact Force (R): A force that is generated due to 2 rigid bodies being in contact.
 - Friction: Resistive force between 2 rigid bodies moving relative to each other or have a tendency
to move relative to each other.
- Tension: Resistive/Restorative force that develops in an object under deformation/stress.
- Drag Force: Resistive force experienced by an object moving relative to a fluid.
- Upthrust: An upward force that acts on an object immersed in a fluid.
- Archimedes Principle: The upthrust acting on an object is equal to the weight of the displaced
fluid.
- Moment Of a Force: Turning effect of a force given by the product of the force into the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the pivot.
- Torque of a couple: Turning effect of a couple given by the product of one of the forces in the
couple with the perpendicular distance between the couple.
- Centre of Gravity: Point through which the entire weight of the body is assumed to act.
- Light: Object has negligible weight (Don’t take weight into account in calculations)
- Elastic/Extensible: The object can extend and Hooke’s law and all associated calculations can be
applied
- Uniform: The centre of gravity of the object is at the geometric centre of the object.
- Non Uniform: The centre of gravity of the object acts from an unknown position that must be
found.
- Rough Surface: Take friction into account in calculations.
- Smooth Surface: Don't take friction into account in calculations.
- Rigid: Object has fixed shape, and does not deform under stress. It can provide normal contact
force.

4. Pressure, Density & Matter

- Density: Ratio of mass to volume of an object.
- Pressure: Ratio of force to cross sectional area on which the force is being applied.
- Mass: It is the property of matter that resists change in state of motion.
- Atmospheric Pressure: 1 atm / 1.0125 x 10^5 Pa/ 76cm or 760mm of mercury
- Remember gases exert equal pressures at all ends and liquids exert the same pressure at
similar depths.
- Strong Force: These forces cause an object to have a fixed volume. Solids and Liquids have
strong forces.
- Rigid Forces: These forces cause an object to have a fixed shape. Solids have rigid forces.
- Remember the mean densities of solids and liquids is approximately the same and the
mean separation of particles in solids and liquids is also approximately the same. Gases
have very low densities and very high mean separation between particles when compared
with solids and liquids.

5. Momentum
- Linear Momentum: The product of an object’s mass into velocity.
- Principle of Conservation of Momentum: For a closed system, the total momentum remains
constant given there is no resultant force on the system.
- Collision
1. Elastic Collision: Momentum is conserved.
Kinetic energy is conserved.
2. Inelastic Collision: Momentum is conserved.
Kinetic energy is not conserved.
 - Coalescing: Upon collision, the masses combine and move together as one unit. This kind of
collision is never elastic.
- Elastic Collision: The relative speed of approach is equal to the relative speed of separation.

6. Work, Energy, Power:

- Work done (J): Force x Distance moved in the line of action of the force.
- Energy(J): Ability to do work.
- Principle of Conservation of energy: For a closed system, the total energy remains constant.
- Potential Energy: Energy an object possesses by virtue of its state such as position in a field or
its deformation.
1. Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy an object possesses by virtue of its position in
a gravitational field.
2. Elastic Potential Energy: Energy an object possesses by virtue of its deformation.
3. Electric Potential Energy: Energy an object possesses by virtue of its position in an
electric field.
- Kinetic Energy: The energy an object possesses by virtue of its motion.
- Power (W): Rate at which work is being done / Rate of change of work.

7. Deformation Of Solids
- Hooke’s Law: The tensile force applied on an object under stress is directly proportional to the
change in length of the object until the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
- Spring’s Constant: Ratio of tension applied to the change in length produced until the limit of
proportionality.
- Limit of proportionality: After this point Hooke’s Law is not obeyed / After this point an
increment in force does not produce a proportional increase in the change of length.
- Elastic Material: Once deformed, the object returns to its original shape / length.
E.g. rubber band
- Elastic Limit: Point after which object does not return to its original shape / length or gets
permanently deformed.
- Plastic Material: Once deformed, the object does not return to its original shape / length.
E.g. playdough.
- Loading/Loading Curve: An increasing force is being applied / The graph obtained when an
increasing force is being applied.
- Unloading/ Unloading Curve: The force applied earlier is being gradually removed / The graph
obtained when the applied force is removed.
- Breaking Point: It is the point after the object ruptures / breaks
- Stress: Ratio of tensile force applied to the cross sectional area for a deformed solid.
- Strain: Ratio of change in length to the original length of a deformed solid.
- Young’s Modulus: Ratio of the stress to strain of an object.

8. Waves
- Progressive Waves: Waves that transfer energy from one point to another.
- Stationary Waves: These types of waves do not transfer energy.
- Transverse Waves: Motion of particles is perpendicular to direction of travel of waves / to
direction of propagation of energy.
 - Longitudinal Waves: Motion of particles is parallel to direction of travel of waves / to direction of
propagation of energy.
- Compression: A point on a longitudinal wave where the pressure is greater than atmospheric /
surrounding pressure.
- Rarefaction: A point on a longitudinal wave where the pressure is less than atmospheric /
surrounding pressure.
- Displacement (in a displacement/distance or displacement/time graph): Distance moved by
particle from its mean position.
- Distance (in a displacement/distance graph): Distance moved by the wave.
- Amplitude: Maximum displacement of a particle from its mean position.
- Wavelength (λ): Distance between 2 consecutive wavefronts / Distance between 2 consecutive
points in phase / crests / troughs.
- Phase Difference: The difference in the phase angle of 2 points on the same wave or different
waves.
- Time Period (T): The time taken for 1 complete oscillation / 1 complete wave to form.
- Frequency: The number of complete waves formed in 1 sec.
- Intensity of wave: It is the power incident per unit area.
- Doppler’s effect: Change in observed frequency due to relative motion between observer and
source.
- Redshift: Wavelength of light stretched to longer wavelengths due to separation velocity between
galaxies.
- Blueshift: Wavelength of light shortened to smaller wavelengths due to approach velocity
between galaxies.
- Wavefront: It is an imaginary line joining all points in phase on different waves.
- Refraction: The bending of a wave as it passes from a rare to a denser medium or vice versa.
- Diffraction: Spreading of a wave into its geometric shadow as it passes through a narrow slit or
edge.
Spreading of a wave into its geometric shadow as it passes a slit or edge.
- Polarisation: It is the process of confining the oscillations of particles in one direction only.
- Polarised: The oscillation of particles / electric field vector is in one direction only and always
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of energy.
- Unpolarised: The oscillation of particles / electric field vector is in many directions that are
always perpendicular to the direction of propagation of energy.
- Polaroid Filter: It lets you plane polarised light.
- Partial Polarisation: The oscillation of particles is not restricted fully to 1 direction only that is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of energy.
- Full / Complete Polarisation: The oscillation of particles is fully restricted to 1 direction only that
is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of energy.

9. Superposition
- Principle of Superposition: When 2 or more waves meet at a point, the resultant displacement
is the algebraic sum of the individual displacements at that point.
- Interference: Whenever 2 waves superpose, they shall produce an interference pattern if:
1.Same nature & frequency. 3.They should have the same polarisation.
2.Should meet at a point. 4.They must be coherent.
- Coherent: The waves have a constant phase difference.
- Path Difference: The difference in distances travelled by 2 coherent waves interfering at a point.
 - Constructive Interference: When 2 waves, 0° out of phase superpose at a point, the resultant
displacements are always greater than the individual displacements.
- Destructive Interference: When 2 waves, 180° out of phase superpose at a point, the resultant
displacements are never greater than the individual displacements.
- Formation of a Stationary Wave: One wave travels forward, another wave travels backward.
When these 2 waves having the same velocity, wavelength and frequency superpose, they
produce a stationary wave.
- Nodes: Points of minimum or zero displacement.
- Antinodes: Points of maximum displacement.
- Diffraction: Spreading of wave into its geometric shadow as it passes through an edge or a slit.
- Monochromatic Light: Light of a single colour.

10. Electricity:
- Charge(C): A charge is a property that causes an object to experience a force in an electric field.
- Current (A): Rate of flow of charge.
- Conventional Current: Current flows from +ve to -ve.
- Actual Current: Current flows from -ve to +ve.
- Potential Difference: Work done per unit charge in converting electrical energy to other forms of
energy.
- Electromotive force: Work done per unit charge in converting chemical energy to electrical
energy.
- Ohm’s Law: The potential difference across a component is directly proportional to the current
given the temperature remains constant.
- Ohmic Conductor: A conductor that follows Ohm’s law i.e. V ∝ I.
- Non Ohmic Conductor: A conductor that does not follow Ohm’s law.
- Resistance: Hindrance to the flow of charge.
- Volt: Joule / Coulomb.
- Ohm: Volt / Ampere.
- Internal Resistance: It is the small resistance marked / drawn with each battery to account for
the power losses through it.
- Kirchoff’s 1st Law:
- Kirchoff’s Current Law
- Sum of incoming currents in a junction = sum of the outgoing currents from the junction, based
on the principle of conservation of charge.
- Kirchoff’s 2nd Law:
- Kirchoff’s voltage law
- Sum of e.m.f = sum of p.d in a closed loop, based upon conservation of energy.
- Drift Velocity: The average velocity of an electron flowing through wire.
- Potential at a point: The voltage measured at a point relative to ground (0V).
- Charge Density: Number of free electrons per unit volume in a conductor.

11. Radioactivity:
- Isotope: They are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different mass
number.
- Atomic Number: The number of protons in a nucleus.
- Nucleon Number / Mass Number: The number of protons + neutrons in the nucleus.
- Atomic Number and Proton number mean the same thing.
- Mass number and Nucleon Number mean the same thing.
 − +
- Radioactivity: The random and spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei releasing β , β , γ or α
radiation.
- Random: Each unstable nuclei has an equally likely probability of decaying in the sample.
- Spontaneous: The rate of decay is not affected by external factors.
- Half life: The time required for the initial rate of the decay to become half of its original value.
- Leptons: Not made up of quarks and they cannot experience strong nuclear force.
Eg: electron, Muon, Tau, Electron neutrino,Muon neutrino & Tau neutrino (and their antimatter
counterparts)
- Hadrons: Made up of quarks and experience the strong nuclear force.
- Quarks: Smallest indivisible kind of matter which experiences the strong nuclear force.
- Strong Nuclear Force: The binding glue / force that keeps the nucleus together.
- Mesons: A type of hadron made up of a quark and an antiquark.
+
Eg: π , Kaon
- Baryons: A type of hadron made up of 3 quarks.
Eg: protons(uud) & neutrons(udd).
- Bosons: Exchange particles that transfer energy / momentum / force in a nuclear reaction.
E.g: Higgs Boson, W Boson, Z Boson, Gamma photon, Gluon.
- Neutrino: Has no mass or charge and doesn't interact with anything.
- Antimatter: It has the same mass as its matter counterpart but opposite charge.
- Annihilation: When a matter and its antimatter counterpart interact, they annihilate each other
releasing energy.
- Pair Production: If energy is used to produce matter, antimatter is always formed.
2
- Mass-energy equivalence: The total mass-energy content of a system is constant. (E = m𝑐 )
Properties of Radiation:
Physical Quantities Estimation: