Data Chapter 6

Routing in Switched Networks

January 10, 2020

By Lake F.
Outlines
2

By Lake F.
 Review: Two Key Network-Layer Functions
3
Analogy:
Routing:
● Forwarding: process of
 Determine route taken by
packets from source to getting through single
destination. interchange.
Forwarding:  Passing thru A.A

 Move packets from ● Routing: process of

router’s input to planning trip from
appropriate router source to dest.
output.  Gonder - A.A - Jimma
By Lake F.
Introduction to Routing
4

 Routing is one of the most complex and crucial design aspects

of switched data networks.
 Routed networks are often large and complex, and it would be
very difficult to manage and update network information on all
routers all the time.
 The primary function of a packet-switching network is to
accept packets from a source station and deliver them to a
destination station.

By Lake F.
Cont’
5

 Hence, a routing function must be performed and some of

the requirements for this function are include:
 Correctness
 Simplicity
 Optimality
 Efficiency
 Stability

By Lake F.
 Cont’
6

 Several routing algorithms have been developed to address

routing and updating information difficulties.

 These algorithms allow the routers to learn about the

network and then make decisions based on that information.

 To learn paths (or routes) through a network, and make

decisions on where to send packets, a router use the following

parameters:

By Lake F.
Cont’
7

 Destination address: Typically the IP address of the

packet destination.

 Source address: Where the information came from.

 Possible routes: Routes that can get information from its

present location or source to some other location.

 Best route: The best path to the intended destination.

 Status of routes: The current state of routes, which

routers track to ensure timely delivery of information.

By Lake F.
How to determine “best” path?
8

Performance criteria used for selection of route:

 Hop count: Number of times a packet goes over a router.

 Delay: Time required to reach the destination.

 Reliability: Bit-error rate of each network link.

 Cost: Arbitrary value based on a network.

 Maximum transmission unit (MTU): Maximum

message length (or packet size) allowed on the path.

 The “minimum hop” can be generalized as “least cost” routing.

By Lake F.
Graph theory: Defn.
9

 A graph is a set of vertices (or nodes) linked by edges.

1
3

2 5
4
 Mathematically, we often write G = (V,E)
 V: set of vertices, so |V| = number of vertices
 E: set of edges, so |E| = number of edges

By Lake F.
Graph theory: The need
10

 To present the relationships between different

objects/elements in a mathematical way
 Examples:
 Network connections
 Friendship
 Roads, Airline routes,
 Question: What could the vertices and edges
represent in the above examples?

By Lake F.
Real-time example: Graph application
11

3 Hospital
4
Maraki
1 5
Arada
College
5

Azezo
7 1

Mesgid

Question: Which road has least cost from Azezo to Arada?

By Lake F.
Graph theory: for routing
12
Routing protocol
5
Goal: determine “good” path
(sequence of routers) through 3
v w
network from source to 2 5
destination.
u 2 1 z
 Graph abstraction for 3
1
2
routing algorithms: G(N,E) x y
1
 Graph nodes (set N) are
routers. “Good” path: minimum cost path.

 Graph edges (set E) are

physical links.
By Lake F.
 Routing Algorithms: Graph abstraction
13

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
Graph: G = (N,E)

♪ N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
♪ E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

By Lake F.
Graph abstraction: costs
14

5
 c(A,A’) = cost of link (A,A’)
3
v w 5
2
u Example: c(w,z) = 5
2
3
1 z
1 2
x 1
y

Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

Question: What is the least-cost path between u and z ?

Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path!

By Lake F.
Routing protocols-classification
15

Routing protocols

Adaptive(dynamic) Non-Adaptive(static)

Interior Gateway Exterior Gateway

Protocol(IGP) Protocol(EGP)

Distance Vector Link State

Most Important !

By Lake F.
Cont’
16

Dynamic: Interior Gateway

Protocol(IGP)
 Learn about changes in the
 Handle routing within an
network automatically.
Autonomous system.
Static:
Exterior Gateway
 Only a network
Protocol(EGP)
administrator can change
 Handle routing outside an
an information.
Autonomous system.

By Lake F.
Cont’
17

Note:
 An autonomous system is a network or a collection of

networks that are all supervised by a single entity or an

organization.

By Lake F.
Distance-Vector (DV) routing
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 Bellman-Ford algorithm is used to perform routing.

 It is least cost algorithm.

 Each node knows the distance (cost) to its directly

connected neighbors.

 A node sends a list to its neighbors with the current

distances to all nodes.

By Lake F.
Cont’
19

 When a router receives information from another router, it

increments whatever metric it is using. This process is called
distance accumulation.
 Routers using this method know the distance between any
two points in the network, but they do not know the exact
topology of an internetwork.
 Distance vector uses regular updates and sends the whole
routing table every time.
 RIP is in use today.
By Lake F.
Cont’
20

Basic idea:
 From time-to-time, each node sends its own distance

vector estimate to neighbors.

B-F equation:

Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

• Dx(y) = Least cost path from x to y

• min is taken over all neighbors v of x

By Lake F.
How Distance vector routing works?
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1 Initialization:
2 for all destinations y:
3 Dx (y) = c(x,y)
4 for all neighbors w: //for all destinations y: Dw(y) = infinity
6 for all neighbors w: // send Dx(y)
7
8 loop
9 wait (until I see a link cost change to neighbor w
10 or until I receive update from neighbor w)
11
12 for all destinations y:
13 Dx(y) = minv { c(x,v) + Dv(y) }
14
15 if we have a new Dx(Y) for any destination Y
24 send new values Dx(Y) to all neighbors
25
26 forever

By Lake F.
Example: Initialization of tables
22

22.22

By Lake F.
Example- Final Distance vector routing tables
23

22.23

By Lake F.
Example
24
5
Clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3,
dw(z) = 3 3
v w
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
B-F equation says: 1
2
x y
1
Cost between u&z
du(z)
= min { c(u,v) + dv(z), c(u,x) + dx(z), c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5, 1 + 3, 5 + 3}
=4

 Node that achieves minimum is next hop in shortest path.

By Lake F.
Link-State (LS) Routing
25

 The shortest paths can be compute with Dijkstra’s algorithm.

 It is Least-cost routing algorithm.

 Measure the delay (cost) to its neighbors.

 The distance information (link state) is broadcast to all

nodes in the network.

 Each node calculates the routing tables independently.

By Lake F.
Cont’
26

 Link-state routing provides better scaling than distance-

vector routing because it only sends updates when there is a

change in the network, and then it only sends information
specific to the change that occurred.

 It is designed to overcome the drawbacks of DV routing.

 When a router is initialized, it determines the link cost on

each of its network interfaces.

By Lake F.
 Cont’
27

 The router then advertises this set of link costs to all other

routers in the internet topology, not just neighboring routers.

 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is the main protocol in use

today.

Dijkstra’s algorithm:

“Find the shortest path from a given source node to all other
nodes by developing the paths for increasing path length.”

By Lake F.
How Link state Routing works?
28
1 Initialization:
2 N = {S}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to S
5 then D(v) = c(S,v)
6 else D(v) = infinity
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N:
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N

By Lake F.
Example
29

Step start N D(B),p(B) D(C),p(C) D(D),p(D) D(E),p(E) D(F),p(F)

0 A 2,A 5,A 1,A infinity infinity
1 AD 2,A 4,D 2,D infinity
2 ADE 2,A 3,E 4,E
3 ADEB 3,E 4,E
4 ADEBC 4,E
5 ADEBCF

5
3
B C 5
2
A 2 1 F
3
1 2
D E
1

By Lake F.
Example…
30
Resulting shortest-path tree from A:

B C
A F

D E

Resulting forwarding table in A: Destination Link

B (A,B)
D (A,D)
C (A,D,E,C)
E (A,D,E)
F (A,D,E,F)

By Lake F.
Comparisons
31

Distance vector routing Link State routing

 Bellman-Ford algorithm is used.  Dijsktra algorithm is used.

 The routers receive the topological  The router receive complete

information from the neighbor. information on the network

 Calculates the best route based on topology.

the distance.  Calculates the best route on the

 Updates full routing table. basis of least cost.

 Simple to implement.  Updates only the link state

 Complex to implement

By Lake F.
By Lake F.