Lecture 5

Cell Structure and Function

(Organelles description)
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Cells
 A cell is the smallest unit of life.
 Cells can survive and reproduce on its own.
 Some cells live and reproduce independently. Others
do so as part of a multi-celled organism.

Discovery of cells
 In the middle of the 17th century, one of the pioneers
of microscopy, Robert Hooke (1635–1703), decided to
examine a piece of cork tissue with his home-built
microscope. He saw numerous box shaped structures
that he thought resembled row of empty boxes or
rooms, so he called them ‘cells’.
 THE CELL THEORY
 Every organism is composed of one or
more cells

 Cell is the smallest unit having

properties of life

 Continuity of life arises from growth

and division of single cells.

CELL TYPES
Biologists have categorized cells into two general types:
•Eukaryotic Cells
•Prokaryotic Cells
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL

Prokaryote Eukaryote
 Usually unicellular  Usually multicellular

 No true nucleus  Membrane-bound nucleus

 Organelles absent  Organelles present

 Smaller ribosomes  Larger ribosomes

 Example: bacteria,  Example: animal, plant,

archaea. fungi, algae.
 Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

1. Generally small (1-10 µm) in size 1. Generally large (5-100 µm). Eukaryotic cells
and volume are about 15 times the size of a typical
prokaryote and can be as much as 1000 times
greater in volume.

2. Cell wall is present 2. Cell walls may or may not be present.

3. Nucleus is absent 3. Nucleus is present

4. Prokaryotic cell division occurs 4. Mitosis, including mitotic spindle, centrioles

through fission or budding, no in many species.
mitosis occurs.

5. Prokaryotes generally lack 5. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are present in

membrane-bound cell Eukaryotes.
compartments: such as mitochondria
and chloroplasts.

6. Single circular chromosome 6. Multiple linear chromosomes

7. Chromosome found in a 7. Chromosomes found in a membrane-bound

cytoplasmic region called the nucleus.
nucleoid.

8. No internal membranes 8. Extensive network of internal membranes,

Some infolded plasma membrane, Complex, with microtubules, intermediate

No Cytoskeleton filaments and actin filaments

9. Intracellular movement is absent 9. Cytoplasmic streaming, endocytosis,

phagocytosis, mitosis, vesicle transport.
DRAW BY YOURSELF….
Can you find the difference between animal and plant cell?
 CELL STRUCTURE
Bacterial cells (Prokaryote)  Mitochondria
 Cell/Plasma membrane  Cytoskeleton
 Genetic Material (Nucleoid)
 Ribosomes (small) Plant cells (Eukaryotes)
 Cytoplasm  Plasma membrane
 Cell Wall  Genetic material (Nucleus)
 Capsules  Ribosomes
 Flagella  Cytoplasm
 Pili  Endoplasmic reticulum
 Animal cells (Eukaryotes)  Golgi body
 Plasma membrane  Vesicles
 Genetic material (Nucleus)  Mitochondria
 Ribosomes  Cytoskeleton
 Cytoplasm  Cell wall
 Endoplasmic reticulum Unique
 Central vacuole
to plants
 Golgi body  Chloroplast
 Vesicles
 STRUCTURE COMMON TO ALL CELLS:
PLASMA MEMBRANE

 The plasma membrane is the boundary between the cell and its environment.

 It isolates the cell, regulates what enters and leaves the cell.

 It allows interaction with other cells. It comprises of lipids and proteins.

Lipid Bilayer

 Lipids—mainly phospholipids—make up the bulk of a cell membrane.

 A phospholipid consists of a phosphate containing head and two fatty acid tails.
The polar head is hydrophilic, which means that it interacts with water
molecules. The nonpolar tails are hydrophobic, so they do not interact with
water molecules, but they do interact with the tails of other phospholipids.

 Lipid bilayers are the basic structural and functional framework of all cell
membranes, gives membrane it's fluidity
FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
 A cell must exchange materials with its surroundings, a process
controlled by the plasma membrane
 Plasma membranes are selectively permeable, regulating the
cell’s molecular traffic.
 Hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecules, such as hydrocarbons, can
dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass through the membrane
rapidly.
 STRUCTURE COMMON TO ALL CELLS:
EUKARYOTIC CELL: NUCLEUS

 The nucleus is the defining organelle of eukaryotic cells.

 The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double
membrane (two phospholipid bilayers); known as the nuclear
envelope.
 The nuclear envelope controls the passage of molecules
between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
 The nucleus contains the DNA, the stored genetic instructions
of each cell. In addition, important reactions for interpreting
the genetic instructions occur inside the nucleus.
 In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units called
chromosomes
 Each chromosome is composed of a single DNA molecule
associated with proteins
Structure – Nucleus
 STRUCTURE COMMON TO ALL CELLS:
RIBOSOMES
•Ribosomes are non-membranous organelles
responsible for the synthesis of proteins from
amino acids.
•They are composed of RNA and protein.
•Each ribosome is composed of two
subunits—a large one and a small one.
 Two types:
 Bound ribosomes: Many ribosomes are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum. Areas of rough ER are active sites of protein
production.
 Free ribosomes: Many ribosomes are also found floating freely in
the cytoplasm wherever proteins are being assembled. Cells that are
actively producing protein (e.g., liver cells) have great numbers of
free and attached ribosomes.
 STRUCTURE COMMON TO ALL CELLS:
CYTOPLASM

 In prokaryotes, cytoplasm inside the membrane is a jelly-like

substance comprises of water, enzymes and some proteins. It
also contains the genetic material.
 In eukaryotes, the cytoplasm is a network of fibers that
organizes structures and activities in the cell and known as
cytoskeleton.
 Between the nucleus and plasma membrane of all eukaryotic
cells is a system of interconnected protein filaments
collectively called the cytoskeleton.
 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending
throughout the cytoplasm. Elements of the cytoskeleton
reinforce, organize, and move cell structures, anchoring
many organelles.
 COMPONENTS OF CYTOMEMBRANE SYSTEM-
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

 Part of the cytomembrane system (a series of interacting organelles)

is an extension of the nuclear envelope called endoplasmic
reticulum, or ER.
 ER forms a continuous compartment that folds into flattened sacs
and tubes.
 The space inside the compartment is the site where many new
polypeptide chains are modified.
 Two kinds of ER:

Rough ER
 Ribosomes on surface give it a rough appearance

 Some polypeptide chains enter rough ER and are modified

 Cells that specialize in secreting proteins have lots of rough ER

Smooth ER
 No ribosomes on surface

 Lipids assemble
Functions of ER
•The smooth ER
1.Synthesizes lipids
2.Metabolizes carbohydrates
3.Detoxifies drugs and poisons
4.Stores calcium ions
•The rough ER
1. Has bound ribosomes
2. Distributes transport
vesicles, proteins
surrounded by membranes
3. Is a membrane factory for
the cell
COMPONENTS OF CYTOMEMBRANE SYSTEM-
GOLGI BODIES

 The golgi is a series of flattened membrane

compartments, whose purpose is to process and
package proteins produced in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
 The processed molecules are packaged into
membrane vesicles, then targeted and transported
to their final destinations.
Functions of the Golgi apparatus
 Modifies products of the ER

 Manufactures certain macromolecules

 Sorts and packages materials into transport

vesicles.
COMPONENTS OF CYTOMEMBRANE
SYSTEM- VESICLES
Small, membrane-enclosed, saclike vesicles form in
great numbers, in a variety of types, either on their
own or by budding. There are many types but two
main are:
i) Lysosomes: Digestion & recycling centers
 That bud from Golgi bodies take part in intracellular
digestion.
 They contain powerful enzymes that can break down
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.
 The enzymes work best in the acidic environment
inside the lysosome.
 Lysosomes break down worn out cell parts or
molecules so they can be used to build new cellular
structures
COMPONENTS OF CYTOMEMBRANE
SYSTEM- VESICLES
ii) Peroxisomes:
 In plants and animals, there are vesicles present called
peroxisomes.
 Peroxisomes contain enzymes that digest fatty acids and
amino acids.
 Peroxisome enzymes convert hydrogen peroxide (by-
product of FA metabolism) to water and oxygen, or use it in
reactions that break down alcohol and other toxins.
ENERGY RELATED ORGANELLES:
MITOCHONDRIA
 The mitochondrion (plural, mitochondria) is a type of organelle
that specializes in making ATP (molecule used by cells as main
energy source).

 They have various enzymes to catalyze cellular respiration.

 Cells that have a very high demand for energy tend to have many
mitochondria e.g. liver needs more because needs more energy.

 Mitochondria, like most organelles, can move within the cell and
they grow and divide independently.
Mitochondria structure

Double membrane system:

• Smooth outer membrane
facing cytoplasm
• Inner membrane (cristae)
where chemical reactions to
make ATP take place.
ENERGY RELATED ORGANELLE:
CHLOROPLAST
 Plastids are a category of
membrane-enclosed
organelles that function in
photosynthesis or storage in
plant and algal cells.
 Plastids called chloroplasts
are organelles specialized
for photosynthesis which
contain the green pigment
chlorophyll, as well as
enzymes and other
molecules that function in
photosynthesis.
ENERGY RELATED ORGANELLE:
CHLOROPLAST
Chloroplast structure includes
 Stroma: Each has two outer membranes enclosing a
semifluid interior, the stroma, that contains enzymes and
the chloroplast‘s own DNA.
 Thylakoids: Inside the stroma, a third, highly folded
membrane forms a single, continuous compartment
(Thylakoid membrane) which resembles stacks of flattened
disks and the disks are called grana (singular, granum).

 By the process of photosynthesis, chlorophylls and other

molecules in the thylakoid membrane harness the energy in
sunlight to drive the synthesis of ATP. The ATP is then used
inside the stroma to build carbohydrates from carbon dioxide
and water.
ENERGY RELATED ORGANELLE:
MITOCHONDRIA & CHLOROPLAST
 Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities
with bacteria:
 Double membrane envelope
 Free ribosome and circular DNA
 Independent growth and reproduction

 They may have evolved from ancient bacteria that

were engulfed but not digested.
 Mitochondria and chloroplasts developed because
as a prokaryote it gained protection by living
inside the eukaryote and in turn produced energy
for the eukaryote (symbiotic relationship).
LOCOMOTOR APPENDAGES:
CILIA & FLAGELLA

 Cilia – Cilia (singular, cilium) are short, hair-like

structures that project from the surface of some cells.
Mainly found in eukaryotic cells.
 The coordinated waving of many cilia propels cells through
fluid, and stirs fluid around stationary cells.

 Flagella –Flagella are long hair-like structure and

present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

 In prokaryotes flagellum projects from the cell wall and

enables a cell to move. In eukaryotes, flagellum structure
is different from the prokaryotic cells and whip back and
forth to propel cells such as sperm through fluid. They have
a different internal structure and type of motion than
flagella of bacteria.
Cilia