Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Review article

Applications of energy storage systems in power grids with and without

renewable energy integration — A comprehensive review
Md Masud Rana a, *, Moslem Uddin a, Md Rasel Sarkar a, Sheikh Tanzim Meraj b,
G.M. Shafiullah c, S.M. Muyeen d, Md. Ariful Islam e, Taskin Jamal e
a
School of Engineering & Information Technology, The University of New South Wales, Canberra, ACT 2610, Australia
b
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia
c
School of Engineering and Energy, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia 6150, Australia
d
Department of Electrical Engineering, Qatar University, Doha 2713, Qatar
e
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka 1208, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Energy storage system (ESS) is recognized as a fundamental technology for the power system to store electrical
Energy storage system energy in several states and convert back the stored energy into electricity when required. Some excellent
Power grid characteristics such as availability, versatility, flexible performance, fleet response time, modularity etc., make
Microgrid system
ESS more attractive for power system applications. The ESS has signification contributions and applications to
Renewable energy system
Energy management
operate the power system optimally in power grids with and without integrating renewable energy (RE) systems.
Peak load shaving This paper presents a comprehensive review of ESS technologies and their applications in power grids. Five
different types of ESS, namely mechanical, chemical, electrical, electro-chemical and thermal, are elaborately
explored with their key characteristics and applications. A summary of comparative analysis to find the
appropriate ESS for power system applications and an analysis of the practical implementation of different ESS
worldwide have been presented briefly, reflecting the suitability of ESS for power system applications. The
comparative analysis further demonstrates the nature of various ESS, including their advantages and limitations
in specific applications. The major challenges from these analyses are identified to be the capacity of ESS, RE
integration, high maintenance and implementation cost of ESS, ESS degradation, waste management and asso­
ciated environmental pollution. Moreover, the review finds out that there are still numerous challenges in terms
of technology and economy that need to be addressed to make the practical applications of ESS viable for power
industries. The reviews also identify recent key researches that can effectively address those issues and explore
the future directions researchers can undertake to improve various characteristics of ESS. Finally, the transition
pathway to promote ESS for power systems applications with and without integration of RE systems is discussed
to demonstrate the possibility and potentiality of large-scale ESS deployment for a sustainable climate-friendly
future.

Abbreviations: ESS, Energy Storage System; RE, Renewable Energy; EMS, Energy management strategy; HESS, Hybrid Energy Storage System; MES, Mechanical
Energy Storage; PHS, Pump Hydro Storage; CAS, Compressed Air Storage; FS, Flywheel Storage; LTES, Long-term Energy Storage; LDES, Long-duration Energy
Storage; CES, Chemical Energy Storage; FC, Fuel Cell; HFC, Hydrogen Fuel Cell; MCFC, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell; SOFC, Solid-oxide Fuel Cell; SC, Super-capacitor;
EES, Electrical Energy Storage; SMES, Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage; BESS, Battery Energy Storage System; EcES, Electro-chemical Energy Storage; TES,
Thermal Energy Storage; SHS, Sensible Heat Storage; LHS, Latent Heat Storage; TCSS, Thermo-chemical Sorption Storage; GA, Genetic Algorithm; DR, Distributed
Resource; T&D, Transmission and Distribution; EV, Electric Vehicle; UC, Unit Commitment; MG, Microgrid; DER, Distributed Energy Resource; BMS, Battery
Management Strategy; LSM, Lanthanum Strontium Manganite; LSC, Lanthanum Strontium Cobaltite; Zn, Zinc Metal; SoC, State of Charge; DoD, Depth of Discharge;
SoH, State of Health; e− , Charge of Electron; CO2 , Carbon-dioxide Molecule; BSCF, Bax Sr1− x Fe1− y O3 .
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: emdmasudrana@gmail.com (M.M. Rana).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.107811
Received 5 January 2023; Received in revised form 27 April 2023; Accepted 21 May 2023
Available online 31 May 2023
2352-152X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

1. Introduction Many research works exist on various types of energy storage tech­
nologies with their key characteristics and major applications in power
Nowadays, the modern world is becoming more contemporary day grids with and without RE systems. The main contributions of this
by day. Electrical energy is the main driving force in every step of life, research are summarized as follows:
consuming almost every sector from residential houses to large in­
dustries. The generation of electricity mainly depends on the conven­ a. This paper critically analyses existing research on energy storage
tional energy generation system like gas− fired generators, diesel technologies and highlights their significant applications with and
generators, coal-fired generators and so on. Recently, the industries of without RE-integrated systems.
developed and developing countries are consuming most of the electric b. Research communities and industries are investigating the chal­
energy. Large industries are consuming almost one-third of the total lenges with possible mitigation measures for ESS deployment in
generation and it is increasing day by day [1]. By consuming this large practical applications worldwide. Accordingly, this study demon­
amount of energy, global issues are appearing alarmingly. Due to the strated the current scenario and research trends on practical ESS
generation of non-renewable energy, the climate is changing and if it applications.
continues to change, the earth will be in danger [1]. c. This study also presented a summary of current and past commercial
The conventional energy generation system mainly uses natural gas, projects on ESS worldwide from relevant research articles/reports.
coal, diesel, and so on, which is primarily responsible for carbon emis­ d. There are many research available that investigate the technical and
sions and other greenhouse gasses. The emission of carbon and other economic advantages and challenges of large-scale ESS deployment.
greenhouse gasses results in increases in global temperature day by day Therefore, in addition to summarizing the benefits and challenges of
[2]. Low carbon emission, prevention of the temperature of the earth, ESS applications, this study proposes a transition pathway to pro­
lower cost of installation, maintenance cost reduction, power quality mote ESS to facilitate large-scale ESS integration into the power grid
improvement and so on can be achieved by using RE generation in the for a sustainable clime-friendly energy system.
state of conventional energy generation [3]. Solar, wind, hydro, and
geo-thermal energy are some examples of RE sources used in the power Therefore, demonstrating ESS technologies and their application,
sector to mitigate the shortage of fossil fuels and environmental con­ selecting appropriate ESS in power systems, the status of commercial
cerns as they are free from greenhouse gas emissions [4]. The main projects, advantages and challenges of ESS deployment, and the di­
challenge in transitioning towards RE is the variable and intermittent rections to promote ESS for future research are the main contributions of
nature of these resources which requires technical adaptation, particu­ this study.
larly relating to balancing variable supply and demand for energy [5]. The organization of this paper is as follows:
Energy storage significantly facilitates large-scale RE integration by
supporting peak load demand and peak shaving, improving voltage • A brief overview of different ESSs with key information has been
stability and power quality. Hence, large-scale energy storage systems presented (Section 2).
will need to decouple supply and demand. The appropriate choice of ESS • Applications of different ESSs in power grids with and without
can significantly advance the power system and reduce the uncertainty integration of RE systems as well as the potentiality of ESS for
of RE generation. microgrid applications are extensively discussed (Section 3).
Various types of ESS are used to ensure optimal power system • A summary of a comparative analysis of different ESSs and the
operation [6]. Based on the operation, applications, raw materials and practical implementation of different ESSs worldwide is presented
structure, ESS can be classified into five categories such as mechanical (Section 4).
energy storage (MES), chemical energy storage (CES), electrical energy • Technical advantages and possible challenges of ESS applications in
storage (ESS), electro-chemical energy storage (EcES), and thermal en­ power grids are discussed (Section 5).
ergy storage (TES) [7]. The flexible power storing and delivery opera­ • The transition pathway to promote ESS for power grid applications is
tion makes ESS more popular in the power sector. ESS is an enduring demonstrated (Section 6).
technology for its recent advancement, which is a suitable solution for • Finally, this review paper is concluded by summarizing the recent
power systems and RE resources to mitigate several limitations [8]. trends, challenges and opportunities of ESS in power systems appli­
Supply-demand balancing, power smoothing, load levelling, and power cations (Section 7).
quality improvement are some major ESS applications in power systems.
Moreover, mitigation of RE generation uncertainty, frequency regula­ 2. Classification of energy storage systems
tion, and voltage control are some notable ESS services [9].
Significant research and developments are undertaken by research An energy storage system can store electrical energy in different
communities, industries, and various agencies across the globe to inte­ forms. Based on the energy-storing modes, ESS can be classified into five
grate large-scale ESS into the power systems to ensure reliable and un­ categories: mechanical, chemical, electrical, electro-chemical, and
interrupted power supply. A few recent review articles related to the ESS thermal energy storage systems. Fig. 1 demonstrates the classification
applications are recorded in Table 1 to highlight the significance and and some examples of ESS.
contributions of the proposed study.

Table 1
Recent review articles on energy storage systems applications.
Reference MES CES EES EcES TES ESS Analysis on ESS Practical Advantages and Challenges of ESS Transitions Pathway to
Applications Implementation Applications promote ESS

[6] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[10] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[11] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[12] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[13] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[14] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
This ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
research

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

Fig. 1. Energy storage system classification.

2.1. Mechanical energy storage [7,19]. The available area for installation of PHS, high capital invest­
ment and safety are some constraints of the PHS system for practical
Mechanical energy storage (MES) is the simplest and most flexible implementation [20].
energy storage system. According to the working principle, this storage
system can be classified into three major categories: pump hydro stor­ 2.1.2. Compressed air storage
age, compressed air storage, and flywheel storage [15,16]. The generated surplus electrical power can be stored as a form of
compressed air energy. During off-peak times, electrical power can be
2.1.1. Pump hydro storage used to drive an electric motor to compress air and store it in an un­
A pump hydro storage (PHS) system stores the electrical energy derground air container. The stored compressed air is burnt along with
within the sort of water reservation. Surplus power is used during lower natural gas to generate electricity like the conventional gas-fired power
demand periods to operate the hydraulic water pump to store water plant. The storage losses of the compressed air storage (CAS) system are
from the lower elevation water reservoir to the upper elevation water comparatively low [21,22]. CAS is not being widely used for the modern
reservoir. During the higher demand periods, the stored water releases power system, but some power plants are under construction with CAS
towards the turbines to generate electricity in the same phenomenon as systems [23]. Three CAS plants are established worldwide, two in Ger­
the hydro-electric power generation system. The top five countries many and another in the USA. Three vast-size CAS systems are under
worldwide in terms of the highest installed capacity of PHS [17,18] are construction in the USA and one in the UK [17]. The flexible operation
recorded in Table 2. Though the PHS system has significant power and prominent efficiency are the advantages of CAS. On the contrary,
conversion losses, around 70 % to 85 % of stored energy can be regained capital investment [24], environmental concern, and topological
complexity [25,26] are some limitations of CAS. A simplified block di­
agram of a CAS system is shown in Fig. 2.
Table 2
Top five countries around the world in terms of PHS installed capacity [18,19].
2.1.3. Flywheel storage
Installed Country Capacity (GW) Proportion of the total installed capacity (%)
The electrical energy can be stored as a form of kinetic energy using a
China 32.1 1.9 flywheel storage (FS) system. The whole structure of an FS is prepared
Japan 28.5 8.7 with very low friction to maintain a constant rotating speed of the rotor
USA 24.2 1.8
Spain 8.0 7.37
and low power conversion losses [28]. The stored energy can be
Italy 7.1 5.9 regained by restoring the kinetic energy to the motor where the motor

3
M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

Fig. 2. Block diagram of a compressed air storage system (reproduced based on [27]).

functions as a generator [13,29]. The power density, long lifetime, little 2.2.1. Hydrogen fuel cell
maintenance cost, and high efficiency are some advantages of the FS Hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) is the increasing interest for power systems
system [30]. The main disadvantages of flywheel storage lie in very high as a CES system. The main raw materials for HFC are hydrogen and
capital cost, a short operational period, and noticeable internal losses oxygen. The chemical reaction between these two gases generates
[31,32]. The key points of different MES systems are recorded in Table 3. electricity and water. The reversal reaction between water and elec­
tricity can generate hydrogen and oxygen. HFC consists of high energy
2.2. Chemical energy storage density (0.6-1.2 kWh/kg). The efficiency of HFC shows a relatively poor
result (20 %-50 %). Large-scale power support, satisfiable storage ca­
Chemical energy storage (CES) system can store electrical energy pacity, self-charging ability, and simple construction are some advan­
based on the chemical bond of atoms and molecules for a longer dura­ tages of the HFC. On the contrary, low efficiency, cost inefficiency, and
tion. The electron transfer reaction can produce the stored power for gas generation engine complexity are some noticeable disadvantages of
further usage [7]. The popular CES system is fuel cell (FC) which is HFC [33,34].
classified into several categories. FC consists of anode and cathode
electrodes that feed with hydrogen/metal and air. In-circuit chemical 2.2.2. Metal-air fuel cell
bonding, the electron passes through the transmission line and generates Metal-air fuel cell (MFC) uses metal and air as raw materials, where
electricity [33]. A few well-known FC systems are discussed in this metal is the main fuel at the anode electrode, and air is an oxidant at the
section. cathode electrode. It is also a self-rechargeable storage technology
where rechargeable metal FC are under development for power system
applications. The efficiency of the rechargeable metal FC is not in the
Table 3
Key points of different mechanical energy storage systems [30,31,32,33]. satisfiable range (˂50 %) and its lifetime is also minimal. Aluminium
and Zinc are commonly used as metal fuel at the anode side for gener­
Consideration PHS System CAS System FS System
ating electricity. Low-cost, high energy density, and great potentiality
Capacity Up to 3 GW 25-350 MW kW range make MFC more attractive for power system applications. Besides, MFC
Lifetime Around 50 ˂ 50 10-20
is not still rechargeable technology, making it inefficient though the
(Years)
Cost ($/kWh) 5-100 2-50 1000-5000 rechargeable metal FC is under development [34]. The chemical re­
Electrical 70-85 Around 70 Around 95 actions of MFC for Zinc metal are as follows:
Efficiency
(%) For Anode : Zn + 4OH − →Zn(OH)−4 2 + 2e− .

Response Time 1-2 1-2 1-2

(Mins)
For Cathode : Zn(OH)−4 2 →ZnO + H2 O + 2OH −
Applications Energy arbitration, Energy Voltage support,
Load levelling and arbitration, Load Oscillation
smoothing, Spinning levelling and damping, 2.2.3. Molten carbonate fuel cell
reserve. smoothing Frequency The molten carbonate fuel cell for commercial application (MCFC) is
regulation
the earliest developed fuel cell. The MCFC has a high-temperature
Limitations 1. Required large 1. Emission of 1. Required very
installation area and greenhouse gas high capital
orientation with quality efficiency and environment-friendliness char­
high capital cost. from investment. acteristics. The MCFC operates at a high temperature of 600 ◦ C-650 ◦ C,
2. Comparatively high combustion. 2. Density of making this FC technology more attractive. The high temperature en­
payback period. 2. High capital energy is very sures that this FC can perform well without catalyst metals. Since this FC
3. Concern for the cost. small.
can operate without catalyst metal, the storage cost and operating
Environment. 3. Topological 3. Very short
complexity. operational sensitivity become reduced and allow operation flexibility. This FC can
period. increase the system efficiency and reduce the cooling system cost

4
M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

because of the reformation of hydrogen inside the stack of FC. This FC current through the superconducting coils at a very low temperature
technology is the best for baseband power generation systems in primary [13]. SMES can be classified into two categories, namely low-
grids [35,36]. The chemical reactions of MCFC are as follows: temperature SMES and high-temperature SMES. Low-temperature
SMES operates at –268 ◦ C to –270 ◦ C whereas high-temperature oper­
For Anode : CO2−3 + H2 →H2 O + CO2 + 2e−
ates at –163 ◦ C [17]. The DC current increases during charging periods
and decreases during discharging periods to control the input-output
For Cathode : CO2 + 0.5O2 + 2e− →CO2−3
based on the power system requirement. Very high electrical effi­
ciency, long lifetime, flexible operation are some advantages of SMES
2.2.4. Solid oxide fuel cell system [7]. Table 5 shows the key information of various EES. The
A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is manufactured with zirconium oxide structure of a SMES is shown in Fig. 3.
without liquid materials. It can operate at a high temperature of 800 ◦ C-
1100 ◦ C. The high operating temperature restricts chemical poisoning,
which can be occurred the chemical reaction and transformations. This 2.4. Electro-chemical energy storage
fuel cell is feed-up with oxygen and hydrogen. The transformation of
oxygen ions from the cathode electrolyte to the anode electrode gener­ A battery energy storage system (BESS) is an example of electro-
ates electrical energy. The highest tolerance of chemical reactions and chemical energy storage (EcES) system. BESS is one of the major and
the better stability among the other FCs are the main advantages of basic electrical components of the power system. BESS can be classified
SOFC. The raw material of this FC is very expensive [7], and the effi­ into various categories based on raw materials and applications. A detail
ciency [37,38] is not satisfiable which are the limitations of this fuel cell. explanation of different types of BESS can be found in
A comparative analysis of SOFC with MCFC is shown in Table 4. The [12,40,41,42,43,44].
chemical reactions of SOFC are as follows:
2.4.1. Nickel‑cadmium battery storage
For Anode : H2 + O2− →H2 O + 2e− and CO + O2− →CO2 + 2e− A nickel‑cadmium battery is a solid and reliable battery that can deal
with any rigorous condition. Compared to lead-acid batteries, nick­
For Cathode : O2 + 4e− →2O2− el‑cadmium batteries have several advantages: however, the compo­
nents of nickel‑cadmium batteries are expensive. For the last few
2.3. Electrical energy storage decades, the nickel‑cadmium battery was the preferred battery for
emergency medical equipment, professional video cameras, duplex
The electrical energy storage (EES) system can store electrical energy control radios etc. The nickel‑cadmium battery is being phased out in
in the form of electricity or a magnetic field. This type of storage system favour of newer batteries with higher energy concentrations and less
can store a significant amount of energy for short-term usage. Super- toxic metals.
capacitor and superconducting magnetic energy storage are examples
of EES systems. 2.4.2. Nickel-metal hydride battery storage
Nickel metal hydride battery storage is bulky in size and holds high-
2.3.1. Super-capacitor pressure steel canisters. The key benefits of the nickel-metal hydride
The super-capacitor (SC), also known as an ultra-capacitor, consists battery include its high-power density and environmentally sustainable
of higher energy capacitance than the regular conventional capacitor. raw materials. The modern nickel-metal hydride battery offers 40 %
The SC has two electrodes, like a general capacitor but can store energy higher energy density compared to a nickel‑cadmium battery, but the
10 to 100 times higher than the regular capacitor [13]. The charge- lifetime of this battery is less than the nickel‑cadmium battery. Nickel-
discharge life cycle of battery storage is limited, whereas the SC con­ metal hydride battery is generally accepted as an intermediate phase
sists of >1 million charge-discharge life cycles. The SC storage system in lithium battery technology.
has some advantages: a reliable lifetime, fast charging operation, and
weather fortitude. 2.4.3. Lead-acid battery storage
Driven by the different applications, lead-acid battery is categorized
2.3.2. Superconducting magnetic energy storage into two designations: small-sealed lead-acid (SLA) battery and large
The energy storage capacity and efficiency make superconducting valve-regulated lead-acid (VLA) battery. SLA and VLA have a low over-
magnetic energy storage (SMES) an attractive storage technology. SMES voltage efficiency, preventing the battery from exceeding its gas-
stores electrical energy as a form of a magnetic field by flowing dc generating potential while charging. SLA is inexpensive, but the oper­
ating costs can be very high. The foremost performance temperature for
Table 4
Key information of molten carbonate fuel cell and solid oxide fuel cell. Table 5
Key points of different electrical energy storage systems [7,14,18].
Consideration MCFC SOFC
Consideration/ Super-capacitor SMES
Operating 600 ◦ C - 650 ◦ C 800 ◦ C-1100 ◦ C
Storage system
Temperature
Electrolyte Liquid molten carbonate LSM, LSC, BSCF Capacity Up to 300 kW 10 kW to 10 MW
in LiAlO2 Lifetime (Years) ≥ 20 ≥ 20
Electrode (Anode) Nickel and nickel oxide Zirconium, Calcium, Cost ($/kWh) 300-2000 1000-10,000
Gadolinium-doped ceria Electrical Around 95 90-95
Fuel Hydrogen and Hydrogen Efficiency (%)
hydrocarbons Response Time ms range ms range
Oxidant Carbon dioxide, Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Oxygen, Air Applications Voltage quality improvement, Frequency and voltage
Air Time shifting, Short-term support, Spinning reserve,
Advantages 1. Flexibility of fuel 1. Very high reliability power backup, Peak shaving Power quality improvement
2. Low investment 2. Very high chemical reaction Limitations 1. Comparatively high capital 1. Very high capital cost.
catalyst tolerance cost. 2. Temperature influences
Limitations 1. High operating 1. Very high operating 2. Low power density. on performance.
temperature temperature 3. Low storage capacity. 3. Environment concern due
2. Erosive electrolyte 2. Very expensive raw material to strong magnetic field.

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

Fig. 3. Structure of a superconducting magnetic energy storage system (reproduced based on [39]).

SLA batteries and VLA batteries is 25 ◦ C. 2.4.6. Vanadium redox flow battery storage
A redox flow battery is known as a secondary battery because of its
2.4.4. Sodium‑sulfur battery storage rechargeable application. An electrochemical reaction is the principle of
Sodium‑sulfur allowed for the developing of a high-temperature energy conversion among two redox couples. A redox reaction is a
battery with liquid sodium as the negative active material. The oper­ mechanism in which electrons are exchanged between two different
ating temperature is 300 ◦ C and it utilizes a solid electrolyte making this organisms. A change in the oxidation state of an element occurs when an
battery supreme among the commonly used secondary cells. The life­ electron is gained or lost. The vanadium redox flow battery has merits
time of this battery is claimed to be up to 15 years, and the efficiency is over other battery technologies, such as long lifetime, high energy
up to 85 %. The sodium-sulfur battery has one of the quickest functional conversion efficiency, active thermal management, safety and environ­
response times, reporting a start-up time of 1 ms. mental protection features, and high performance. The key information
of different battery storage systems is recorded in Table 6.
2.4.5. Lithium-ion battery storage
The Li-ion battery is the most promising and fastest-rising battery. It 2.5. Thermal energy storage
is brittle and requires a protection circuit for safe operation. This battery
consists of a relatively low lifetime which is a major concern. The Electrical energy can be stored as thermal heating or cooling for
research on the ageing problem of this battery is improving a lot. On the further use when required. Industrial and residential places use almost
subject of cost-to-energy proportion, this battery is the most-costly 50 % of electrical energy mostly for heating or cooling services [45]. The
battery among other BESS. thermal energy storage (TES) system is a growing storage technology
where the application of TES can be increased by up to 11 % from 2017

Table 6
Key information of different battery energy storage systems [13,42,43,44,45,46].
Name of battery Capacity Lifetime Cost Efficiency Applications Limitations
(MWh) (Years) ($/kWh) (%)

Lead-acid battery 0.25-50 ≤ 20 200-400 85-90 Peak Shaving, Load levelling, Spinning reserve 1. It shows a poor weight-to-energy ratio.
2. It is not environmentally friendly.
3. Thermal runway can occur when it
charges improperly.
Nickel‑cadmium – Around 10 800-1500 70-90 Frequency regulation, Isolated grid operation 1. Lower specific energy relative to other
battery battery storage system
2. It is used as a toxic metal, cadmium
which cannot be disposed of on the land.
Nickel metal hydride – Around 5 – 65-85 Peak shaving, Isolated grid operation 1. It requires a complex discharge
battery algorithm.
2. During fast charging time it produces a
high amount of heat.
Lithium-ion battery 0.25-25 ≤ 15 600-2500 87-92 Peak Shaving, Power quality improvement, 1. Very high capital cost.
Frequency regulation, Large-storage 2. Deep charge requires a long time.
implementation
Sodium sulfur battery ≤ 300 ≤ 15 300-500 75-85 Peak Shaving, Power quality improvement, 1. It requires a high operating
Renewable energy source integration temperature.
2. Operating at a high required
temperature.
Vanadium redox flow ≤ 250 ≤ 20 150-1000 75-80 Peak Shaving, Time Shifting, Frequency 1. It shows a lower weight-to-energy
battery regulation, Power quality improvement etc. ratio.
2. Manufacture of this battery is very
complicated.

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

to 2022 [46]. TES can store electrical energy as a form of thermal energy discussion of ESS application in power grids.
at a temperature from –40 ◦ C to 400 ◦ C [14].
3.1.1. Generation side applications without RE systems
2.5.1. Sensible heat storage ESS can perform a crucial role in optimum power system operation
Sensible heat storage (SHS) is a simple and effective technology to from the generation side. The generation side of a power grid mainly
store electrical energy as a form of thermal energy. Sensible liquid or operates with high-voltage electricity across a long distance. Generally,
solid mediums are used to store thermal heating or cooling energy. the RE systems are utilized as a distributed energy resource (DER) sys­
Polymers, marble stone, natural clay, and ceramics are also can be used tem at the distribution side, whereas the usage of RE systems at the
to store thermal energy [47,48]. SHS materials are cost-effective, effi­ generation side is rarely found with ESS-integrated power grids. The
cient (efficiency is 50 % to 90 %) and environment friendly [49,50]. major applications of the ESS for the generation side without integration
Energy density and storage efficiency can be improved further by of ESS are discussed in the following section.
improving thermal insulation [14]. Lower capital investment, flexible
operation and environmental friendliness are some advantages of the 3.1.1.1. Output smoothing. Due to the variation in rotor speed, field
sensible heat storage system. supply, load changes etc. the output of the conventional primary
generator may vary from its nominated value. ESS can support the
2.5.2. Latent heat storage system by providing reactive power to control the output. Sometimes,
Latent heat storage (LHS) technology is the updated version of a the ESS can support the power grids at the generation side by absorbing
sensible heat storage system. The stored energy density is relatively the overplus energy to prevent output spikes. ESS can also deliver the
higher than that of sensible heat storage. Phase change materials (PCM) stored energy to recover the output drop. This application of ESS can
such as fatty acid and paraffin are used to improve LHS performance greatly reduce the power quality issue from the distribution side [6,51].
[48]. The PCM can change the phase from solid to liquid or from solid to
solid. The energy storage capacity of LHS is higher than the sensible heat 3.1.1.2. Time shifting. Mainly the primary grid has the generation
storage system. The storage efficiency is experienced from 75 % to 90 % dispatch service to maintain the power production based on the demand
[50]. This storage technology can be used both for short and long-term profile. Most small-scale power systems do not have the power genera­
applications which is an advantage of this technology [14,47]. tion dispatch technique where ESS can play a role, namely time-shifting.
Time shifting is almost similar to load levelling from the generation side.
2.5.3. Thermo-chemical sorption storage The ESS unit will absorb the surplus energy during off-peak hours and
Thermo-chemical sorption storage (TCSS) system has the highest inject the stored energy during peak hours. The energy gap between
energy stored capacity among the other TES system. This technology peak and off-peak loads will be reduced significantly for time-shifting
stored electrical energy as a form of heating or cooling using a reversible applications. The major requirements are the longer period of opera­
thermo-chemical procedure [48]. TCSS is not being commercially used tion and storage efficiency of ESS. The high installed capacity of the
because it is still under development for availability in the commercial power system is also a key factor for time-shifting [6].
market. This storage system has very high storage efficiency, which is
from 75 % to 100 %. TCSS can be used for industrial heating (175 ◦ C), 3.1.2. Distribution side applications with RE systems
cooling (̶ 18 ◦ C) and residential heating (25 ◦ C to 50 ◦ C) and cooling The distribution side of a power grid belongs to the electrical energy
(0 ◦ C to 12 ◦ C) purpose when it will be available for commercial usage consumers and connected loads where the DER systems are mainly
[47,50]. The waste heat can be recovered which is an advantage of this placed to provide ancillary services. The possible applications of the ESS
storage system. The key information of different TES is recorded in unit on the distribution side with the integration of RE systems are
Table 7. presented in this section.

3. Energy storage system applications 3.1.2.1. Frequency regulation. Frequency regulation is an essential term
for a modern power system. The variation of power demand from time-
The energy storage system applications are classified into two major to-time results in the instability of system frequency [52]. ESS may
categories: applications in power grids with and without RE systems and provide an effective solution for the frequency deviation problem,
applications in detached electrification support. This section presents an restoring the system frequency within a permissible level [53,54]. The
extensive discussion of the applications of various ESS. Besides, this controller with ESS for active power control and a drop control loop can
section discusses the technical scopes of ESS applications on microgrid facilitate the power system as a frequency regulator. Three different
(MG) systems. frequency regulations, namely primary regulator, secondary regulator,
and tertiary regulator, can mitigate the supply-demand imbalance and
3.1. ESS applications in power grids with and without integration of RE compensate for the frequency deviation problem [55,56]. Researchers
systems have proposed various strategies to minimize the frequency deviation
problem. A centralized, decentralized, and distributed control system is
ESS applications in power grids with and without RE systems lay on presented in ref. [57]. These three control systems are proposed for RE-
both the generation and the distribution side. This section presents the connected small-scale power systems to mitigate the power supply
imbalance, voltage and frequency variation. A distributed secondary
Table 7 controlling technique based on MPC with a state approach [58] has been
Key points of different thermal energy storage systems. proposed for load frequency regulation service. The proposed technique
Consideration/ Sensible heat Latent Heat Thermo-chemical
can slowly increase the load frequency from the deviated value to its
Storage system Storage System Storage System Sorption Storage nominal value.
System

Storage capacity 10-25 50-150 120-250 3.1.2.2. Voltage control support. The stability of the power system re­
(kWh/m3) quires voltage control support. The system voltage needs to be main­
Lifetime (Years) – ≤ 20 ≤ 20 tained within a permissible level as per the power system requirement.
Cost ($/kWh) 0.12-12 12-60 10-121
ESS can provide reactive power support as a voltage control source. ESS
Efficiency (%) 50-90 75-90 75-100
Energy density Low Medium High is mainly used as a distributed resource (DR), also called local power

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

resources. Reactive power support cannot be initiated from a long dis­ photovoltaic and wind systems depends on natural behaviour. The PV
tance where local components can support this to achieve the voltage generation interrupts during the cloudy day and the wind generation
control operation. Two-consensus algorithms, namely weighted during the stormy condition. The inclusion of ESS in PV and wind sys­
consensus control (WCC) and dynamic consensus control (DCC) for tems help supply power unboundedly to the loads [82,83]. The excess
voltage control support, are discussed in Ref [59,60]. A distributed generation from PV and wind systems will be absorbed by ESS and can
control system and a coordinated control system have been proposed in inject the stored energy during the low RE generation periods. The in­
Ref [61] to manage the voltage level within the system’s required range clusion of ESS in PV and wind system can significantly bring economic
and to minimize the voltage deviation. benefits to the end-users [84].

3.1.2.3. Spinning reserve. The reserve generation capacity of a power 3.1.2.7. RE output smoothing. Implementation of ESS with the RE sys­
system which is occasionally used to compensate for energy shortfall, is tem is the best solution to minimize the uncertainty of RE generation.
known as a spinning reserve [62]. Energy shortfall can force the power Variations of natural behaviour can cause variation in RE generation,
system to shut down its operation. ESS is the appropriate solution to which means the generation of RE can fluctuate to the uncertainty of
fulfil the energy shortage. ESS can store the surplus energy and during natural behaviour. The output fluctuation, voltage variation, reverse
the period of an energy shortage, the stored energy in ESS can be current flow, frequency deviation, etc. can be mitigated by connecting
delivered to the grids to fulfil the demand [63,64]. the ESS unit with the RE system. A model predicted control (MPC)
strategy [85], an adaptive projection command filtered with back
3.1.2.4. Power quality improvement. The supply-demand imbalance, stepping controller [86], a centralized control system for the hybrid
fluctuation in generation power, etc., lead a power system to decrease energy storage system (HESS) [87] have been found in the existing
the power quality. ESS can be a suitable solution to minimize the power literature to mitigate RE generation output fluctuation. Similar works on
quality problem and improve the power quality. The application of ESS RE output smoothing can be found in [88–90].
can help the power system operate optimally and prevent the electrical
component from rapid degradation. A unit commitment (UC) and nu­ 3.1.2.8. RE system firming and time-shifting. Currently, the environ­
merical simulation [65] for improving the power quality, a control mental concern is associated mainly due to the emission of greenhouse
technique for mitigating the harmonic power fluctuation [66], a discrete gases where the large RE firm can compensate for the environmental
Kalman filter (DKF) for the improvement of the output power quality issues. RE systems such as - wind and PV generation systems are mostly
[67] are found in the existing literature. Similar works on power quality integrated with ESS. The ESS can operate as an alternative to a reserve
improvement can be found in [68,69]. generator for the large RE generation plant during energy generation
and management costs [83,84]. Research on RE systems firming with
3.1.2.5. Peak shaving, energy management and energy arbitrage. The load energy storage systems can be found in [91,92,93]. The small-scale
profile can change from time to time in a power system and the load power system with RE sources can also perform time-shifting applica­
curve can exhibit the changes in loads. By increasing the electrical tions using ESS. Time-shifting operations in RE-connected power sys­
equipment, the peak demand also increases. Meeting the peak demand is tems can also perform energy-smoothing services. During sunny days,
a key challenge for all types of power systems [70]. The cost of opera­ the generation from PV becomes higher and during sufficient wind flow,
tion, maintenance and fuel are becoming high day by day [71]. There­ the generation from the wind generator becomes satisfactory. RE gen­
fore, peak load reduction is the primary concern of the power provider eration can fulfil the demand of the low-capacity power system and
and end-users. ESS is a suitable solution to mitigate the peak problem. some surplus power can be available during these conditions. RE system-
ESS can store energy during off-peak periods for peak shaving applica­ integrated ESS can store the surplus power generated from RE units and
tions and can deliver the stored energy during peak periods. Several perform the time-shifting operation [83,84]. Usually, the time-shifting
strategies are found to minimize the peak load using ESS technologies in operation can be applied for a low-capacity small-scale power system
the existing literature. A nested multi-objective optimizing method [3], like the residential RE system. The time-shifting application of the RE-
a genetic algorithm (GA) with a linear programming method [72], a integrated ESS unit considers not only the shifting operation from one
non-linear programming method [73], and an ESS charge-discharge period to another in a day but also from the working day to the weekend
control technique [74] have been found in existing literature for peak and vice versa. Time-shifting properties can reduce transmission losses
load shaving application. More research on peak load shaving can be by reducing the flow of current over a long distance [94,95].
found in [75]. Besides, energy management could be an appropriate
technique to reduce the wastage of electrical energy and the operational 3.1.2.9. RE system oscillation damping. High penetration of RE systems
cost of a power system and to optimize the operation of all electrical can violate the flexibility of a power system operation. Increased
components in a power system, etc. ESS could be used as a back-up penetration of the RE system can decrease operational stability and can
power source to achieve the outcomes of energy management. In the cause an oscillation issue in the power supply. High penetration of RE is
existing literature, several pieces of research are found on energy also reliable for reverse current flow through the transmission line.
management for different purposes. EMS and its application are widely Operating with a frequency of 0.5 to 1 Hz, the ESS unit can absorb and
discussed in the current research, including; reducing energy con­ inject real power to the system damping the power oscillation. The fleet
sumption costs with BESS [76], ensuring techno-economic benefits on response and modularity are the most attractive characteristics of the
the power grid with hybrid grid-BESS [77], controlling the flow of en­ ESS. To trigger the power-sharing operation, most of the ESS units can
ergy of smart home-EV [78] and mathematical model to reduce different start operating within seconds. The power oscillation due to the high
types of cost with integration of ESS [79]. On the contrary, electrical penetration of the RE system can be compensated by implementing ESS
energy can be purchased from the main grid at off-peak times when the significantly. BESS, SMES, FS and SC, can be suitable ESS for this
per-unit electricity cost is comparatively low and can store the energy application [96,97].
using ESS. Generally, the cost of electricity is very high during peak
hours. The stored energy can be used to deal with excessive demand or
can be sold to the main grid. For energy arbitrage applications, ESS is a 3.2. ESS applications in detached electrification support
perfect electrical component to make an economic profit [80,81].
Nowadays, ESS shows momentous possibilities for detached electri­
3.1.2.6. Storage in photovoltaic and wind system. The generation of fication support. Detached electrification directs the electrification
support of small-scale isolated systems which require electrical energy

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

to operate for a certain period. Few applications of ESS are discussed in innovation, it is well suited to energy-intensive RE transition and
this section. massive MG power stockpiling [100,101].
For an isolated power system, remote area, short-term residential The MG, consisting of wind, solar, and ESS, is a viable alternative to
tent, place for an occasion or festival etc., a diesel generator serves as a RE’s unpredictable and inconsistent characteristics. Within the case of
back-up power source for uninterrupted electricity supply. Power gen­ MG, ESS improves power qualities, stack stability, and transient power
eration using a diesel generator is not usually cost-effective. ESS, espe­ support in addition to smoothing out power turbulence. The preceding
cially BESS (portable) may offer as a replacement for diesel generators formula (1) must be validated for MG’s effective execution [102,103].
for these types of detached power systems [82,98]. For the under-
(Psolar + Pwind + Pothers ) + PESS ≥ PL (1)
developing and developing countries, many rural villages are not
under the scheme of electrification from the national electric grid. A where, Psolar indicates the solar power, Pwind indicates the wind power,
large number of citizens are deprived of electricity service. Small-scale PESS indicates the power of the ESS, and PL indicates the total load power
power systems like nano-grid or microgrids can be established for in the MG.
rural electrification with ESS and RE systems [98,99]. For example, the The essential elements of the MG and ESS are shown in Fig. 4. This
Indian government is trying to launch Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Gram figure depicts the AC/DC, DC/AC and DC/DC converters, which trans­
Jyoti Yojna (DDUGJY) project to serve the electricity services for some form DC into DC (boost converter), AC into DC (converter), and
rural villages with ESS and RE systems [82]. conversely. The boost converter is required to raise the voltage to the
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and electric vehicles (EV) are exam­ suitable DC bus bar operating voltage. The AC/DC converter is required
ples of ESS applications in the transportation sector. Electric motorbikes, to transform AC, which is not always at a uniform frequency, into DC
electric mini-bus, and electric rickshaws are encouraged to use ESS, with a DC bus bar voltage. To connect to the grid, a DC/AC converter is
especially BESS all over the world. Lead-acid batteries and Lithium-ion required to convert DC into AC at a steady frequency [104]. The ESS
batteries are widely being installed in EVs and HEVs. The tendency to requires a DC circuit battery control unit, or DC circuit battery man­
use ESS in HEV and EV is also increasing rapidly [82,98]. The telecom agement strategy (BMS), which is an embedded supplementary electric
towers and telecommunication modules are mostly established in iso­ circuit that allows for tracking, analyzing, and presenting qualitative
lated areas to serve people with uninterrupted communication. The data and safeguarding and managing the ambient. The ability to get
telecom towers may suffer in the power supply crisis mostly for devel­ pertinent data such as, overall voltage, battery-operated current, mean
oping and underdeveloped countries. The RE resources along with the cell temperature, state of charge (SoC) or depth of discharge (DoD), and
ESS unit can be a suitable solution for the power supply crisis in the state of health (SoH) is an evaluation of the general status of the battery
telecommunication sectors. Most of the telecom towers are established [105].
with a diesel generator as a back power supply, which is not cost- The electric grid functionality serves as a gateway across the ESS and
effective and responsible for environmental concerns. Therefore, the the utility company, allowing for on-demand charging and discharging
hybrid ESS unit can replace the backup diesel generator and a suitable of the battery. The architecture of an electric grid gateway should
solution for the power supply issues in detached telecommunication typically adhere to a number of limitations and criteria: a few of which
systems [82,98]. are also particular to the architecture of the power source powering the
network gateway converter. In the case of an ESS, it is required to
evaluate technological limitations to prevent breakage and deteriora­
3.3. ESS applications for microgrid scenario
tion, supply the appropriate capabilities, and define electrical graded
and spanned characteristics to meet projected needs. Li-ion, lead-acid,
Renewable energy’s growth and utilization have been greatly limited
and flow batteries are among the most common battery systems now in
owing to its intermittent, unreliable, and unregulated electrical output.
the application for energy storage [106].
Within that case, an ESS may be used to balance out the functioning of
MG makes grid linkage and island function possible by using point of
renewable energy sources while simultaneously serving as a secondary
common coupling (PCC) switching, a key of the smart grid component. A
power supply. ESSs have a wide range of applications, and their
typical MG comprises decentralized sustainable energy, ESS devices,
importance in MGs cannot be overstated. With the maturation of ESS

Fig. 4. Practical implementation of ESS for various consumers levels.

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

energy regulation equipment, and loads, as illustrated in Fig. 4. It’s a capacity. In 2017, the implemented capacity of ESS for both China and
tiny power allocation, stockpiling, and utilization system that converts Germany was 200 MW, consisting of 10.5 % (each country) of the total
intermittent and unpredictable sustainable energy inputs into a regu­ installed ESS capacity around the globe. Korea and the USA imple­
lated power unit [107,108]. The MG may be classified into three types mented 400 MW and 300 MW ESS, respectively which was 21 % and 16
based on its various power delivery forms: DC, AC, and AC/DC hybrid % of the total installed capacity. 800 MW ESS was adopted by other
[44]. Even though constant current MG is unsophisticated to regulate, it countries around the world, which covered 42 % of the total installed
is unable to fulfil the power demands of various load cases, resulting in capacity.
MG instability. Hybrid MGs have a more complicated construction, Korea adopted the highest capacity of ESS among the other countries
which makes it more challenging to handle its operation. While in 2018. The installed capacity was 1 GW, covering 31 % of the total
dispersed forms of energy and loads are incorporated further into the installed ESS around the globe. China was the second county after Korea
grid, it may deliver electricity to both AC and DC loads, eliminating the according to the installed capacity of ESS. The implemented capacity
issues created by sequential synchronization [109]. was 600 MW which was 18 % of the total installed capacity. Germany
and the USA implemented 400 MW ESS, which covered 12 % of each
4. ESS for practical implementation country’s total installed capacity. Other countries around the world
implemented 900 MW which was 27 % of the total installed capacity.
This section presents a comparative analysis of different ESSs for The implemented capacity of ESS in China and Germany was 1.8 GW
practical implementation and the recent deployment of ESS around the and 1.5 GW, consisting of 23 % and 19 %, accordingly, of the total
world for practical applications. installed ESS capacity around the globe in 2019. USA and Korea
implemented 1.4 GW and 900 MW which were 18 % and 11 % of total
4.1. Appropriate choice of ESS installed capacity, respectively. Other countries around the world
adopted 2.2 GW, covering around 28 % of the total installed capacity
A summary of a comparative analysis among different ESSs is pre­ worldwide.
sented in this section in a tabular form to determine their feasibility and In 2020, the installed capacity of ESS in China was the highest, which
potentiality in the power grids with and without RE systems. The table covered 17 % of the total installed capacity of ESS around the globe.
directs the appropriate selection of an ESS for a particular application in Germany was the second country in terms of ESS installed capacity,
power grids. For example, if a power grid project with ESS is under consisting of 16 % of the total installed capacity of ESS. USA and Korea
development and an improved lifetime of ESS is the main requirement, adopted 11 % and 9 % of total installed ESS worldwide, respectively.
SMES and SC will be the best ESS for this project as per the project The other countries installed 47 % of the total installed capacity of ESS
requirement since they have a long service lifetime. Table 8 demon­ around the globe [116,117,118]. The rapid growth of renewable energy
strates the summary of the comparative analysis based on references generation sources and the development of modern power systems result
[12,82,110,111] to find the suitable ESS based on various characteris­ in the utilization of ESS increasingly [119,120,121]. Fig. 5 shows the
tics. Table 9 shows a technical comparison of various energy storage recent annual deployment (2016-2020) of ESS around the world for
systems based on reference [7,112,113,114,115] to find the technical power grid applications with and without integration of RE systems.
viability of a power system application. The implementation of ESS is rapidly growing in modern power
systems. The ESS will be the first choice for power providers to facilitate
ancillary services in the near future. Fig. 6 shows the projected annual
4.2. ESS deployment for practical applications worldwide deployment of different ESS worldwide for practical applications. The
figure demonstrates the expected annual installation of ESS from 2022
Energy storage is a promising electrical equipment for a power sys­ to 2030 [120,121]. The installation of ESS is kept growing in China and
tem and day by day, the practical implementation of ESS around the USA. In 2022, the projected ESS installation was 15 % of the total
world is increasing significantly. This section presents the recent installed ESS around the world, increasing up to 19 % in 2030. Similarly,
deployment of ESS worldwide. the installed capacity for the USA will be raised from 22 % to 24 % for
In 2016, Korea established 300 MW ESS for the power system the same time duration. On the contrary, for Korea and Germany, this
application, which covered 23 % of the total installed ESS around the rate will be decreased from 20 % to 5 % (for Korea) and from 15 % to 13
globe. Germany maintained the same capacity as Korea. China and the % (for Germany) accordingly. Besides it, the other countries worldwide,
USA implemented 100 MW and 200 MW ESS, respectively which is 8 % this proportion will be raised dramatically from 28 % to around 39 %.
and 15 % of the total installed capacity. Other countries around the This investigation reveals the increasing interest of ESS in power systems
world implemented 400 MW which covered 31 % of the total installed applications.
The ESS applications in global energy architecture are distributed
Table 8 among all perspectives in the power system. As in 2015, the approximate
Suitable energy storage for different power system applications based on various ESS utilizations in the power grid and RE system applications is shown in
characteristics [13,84,113,114].
Fig. 7. A projected approximate installed capacity of ESS for power grids
Consideration for Appropriate choice of Remarks with and without RE systems applications around the globe for 2025 and
comparison ESS 2030 is shown in Fig. 8. According to the usages, most applications of
Power density SMES, SC, FS, BESS In terms of the volume of ESS ESS are in grid-connected RE systems. The cumulative installed capacity
Power rating PHS, CAS, TES In terms of the storage is estimated at around 43 % [120,121]. The second highest usages of ESS
capacity
in power quality improvement applications include frequency regula­
Lifetime SMES, SC In terms of the service year and
cycle tion, voltage control, peak shifting and shaving, ancillary service, etc.
Response time FS, SC, SMES In terms of the fastest response The approximate installed capacity is around 23 %. The ESS is used
Self-discharge time PHS, FC, CAS, TES In terms of the discharge significantly in power transmission and distribution, and the cumulative
duration capacity covers around 21 %. For supporting a microgrid system, ESS
Efficiency PHS, FS, BESS, SMES, In terms of the cycle efficiency
SC
also performs momentous roles. The ESS operates as a DR unit to ensure
Capital investment PHS, CAS, TES In terms of the power and smooth and optimum power system operation. In microgrids and as DR
energy cost units, the approximate installed capacity of ESS covers around 13 %
Environment TES, FS, SMES In terms of the environmental [122,123].
friendliness impact
Near future, the applications of ESS will mainly be standing with

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

Table 9
Technical comparison of various energy storage systems [7,112–115].
Storage type Density of Power (Volumetric, kW/ Efficiency of Cycle Density of Energy (Mass, Wh/ Capital Investment (Power Based, Lifetime (Cycle
m3) (%) kg) $/kW) Based)

Supercapacitor 40,000–120,000 85–98 1–15 100–300 104–105

Flywheel 5000 80–90 5–30 250–350 2 × 104–107
Compressed air 0.2–0.6 41–75 30–60 400–800 >104
Pumped hydro 0.1–0.2 70–80 0.2–2 600–2000 >0.5 × 104
Fuel Cell, >500 20–50 800–10,000 500–10,000 >1000
Hydrogen
Thermal, Latent – 30–60 80–250 200–300 –
Battery, Li-ion 1300–10,000 85–98 60–200 1200–4000 500–104
Battery, Lead acid 90–700 75–90 30–45 300–600 250–1500

Fig. 5. Annual deployment of ESS around the world for practical applications [122,123,124].

grid-connected RE systems. Re resources are appropriate for the modern applications of ESS can be found in references [17,32,124–128].
power system to protect the environment and the creatures. Drastically
growing utilization of RE resources opens up the door to the use of more 5. Technical advantages and challenges of ESS applications
and more ESSs for the prominent operation of a power system. In 2025,
the installed ESS for grid-connected RE systems will be approximately Implementing ESS in power systems applications is undoubtedly
53 % and around 48 % in 2030. The approximate ESS utilization in advantageous; however, there are a few challenges. The following sec­
power quality improvement applications is around 17 %, increasing up tion showcases the technical advantages as well as notable technical and
to 21 % in 2030. ESS applications on power transmissions and distri­ non-technical challenges. Proper energy management, manufacturing,
butions are estimated at around 16 % in 2025 worldwide, which can be and construction of ESS are the main challenges for practical applica­
reduced to around 14 % in 2030. For optimal power system operation, tion. The challenges are classified into three groups: technological,
energy storage systems can be utilized as a DR unit for microgrid sys­ economic, and social.
tems. The estimated installed capacity of ESS will be 14 % for microgrid
support as DR unit in 2025, which will be increased up to 17 % in 2030
[120,121]. 5.1. Technical advantages

Some of the mentionable technical advantages of applying various

4.3. Summary of the past ESS projects types of ESS are reviewed as follows [102,129].

A summary of the past major commercial projects with ESS world­ 5.1.1. Enhancement of the grid’s robust characteristics
wide for practical implementation and commercial manufacturing for Conventional frequency control units have poor latency and a poor
power grids and RE systems applications are presented in Table 10. A ramp ratio. As a result, it is unable to completely fulfil the demands of
details explanation of the past commercial projects for practical emerging frequency consistency issues arising from the grid’s fast

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

Fig. 6. Projected annual deployment of ESS around the world for power grids applications with and without RE systems in future [122,123,124].

Fig. 7. Approximate installed capacity of ESS in global energy application as in 2015.

expansion in conjunction with massive sustainable energy. Additional 5.1.2. Improved grid compatibility of sustainable energy production
advantages may be realized by dynamic regulation of ESS to engage in Power variations of sustainable production (such as wind and solar
electric grid frequency management by utilizing the qualities of simul­ power generation) over varying intervals have significantly impacted
taneous quick reaction and high short-term power managing capability system backup requirements, production timing, security functions, and
of ESS. This will increase electrical grid reliability and integrity by other factors. As a result, China’s national requirements for grid-
keeping the system frequency within the prescribed limit. connected wind energy necessitate that wind farms’ peak power varia­
tions on various period levels fulfil distinct technical parameters. Wind/

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

Fig. 8. Approximate projected installed capacity of ESS in global energy application for future.

PV/ESS, composite power production can assist in strengthening wind cost with high capacity, which is currently a big challenge for ESS
power variations, lessening the effect of wind and solar power variations implementation. Besides, low-capacity ESS cannot be implemented for
on the grid, increasing grid resilience, and providing favourable condi­ higher energy support applications because the power system equip­
tions for grid plug-ins of massive wind farms and solar power stations. ment is presently increasing rapidly due to electricity demand. ESS ca­
pacity is a challenging factor for power system applications [11].
5.1.3. Requiring reactive power correction
Wind and solar power production may readily create bus voltage 5.2.2. Lifetime
fluctuations, exceeding the voltage range. If the variation is severe The lifetime of ESS is the most important factor for power system
enough, it will impact the electrical grid’s voltage consistency. The ESS applications, where currently, most of ESS technologies have a limited
used in the pilot scheme may offer reactive power assistance based on a lifetime. To get economic benefit, the ESS should have to serve the
reactive power deployment strategy. Consequently, the ESS may help power system in the long run. The manufacturing process, raw material
additional reactive power adjustment apparatus keep the bus voltage selection, and improper energy management are some possible reasons
stable and eliminate voltage variations and flickers, assuring the grid’s to decrease the life cycle of ESS. A large number of researches have been
voltage regulation. conducted to improve the lifetime of ESS devices. However, the lifetime
is still a big challenge for ESS applications. Novel topologies for the ESS
5.1.4. Power factor enhancement [130], forecast-based strategies [131], and battery storage energy
Power factor correction is mainly required by industrial clients that management (BSEM) systems [132] have been found in existing litera­
consume a large quantity of reactive power in their everyday operations. ture for improving the lifetime of the ESS. Similar works can be found in
If the power factor falls under a pre-determined threshold, they are [133,134].
usually fined a cost by the utility that serves them. If those clients have
such an ESS implemented at their sites, they will profit substantially. 5.2.3. Safety
Safety is another challenge in developing and integrating ESS for
5.1.5. Restriction of wind energy power system applications. Several unexpected incidents have occurred
Wind energy restriction will have an impact not only on wind energy during ESS implementation, which can commercially reduce the interest
growth and sustainable energy use but also on wind farm capital reve­ in ESS implementation. For safety purposes, the ESS technology should
nue. An ESS can be used to manage a grid so that wind energy can be have manufactured according to industrial and commercial standards
used to its full potential. Moreover, during the “off-peak” demand phase, [11,17].
an ESS device can absorb sustainable power and undertake peak shaving
during the “peak” load period. This will not only improve the amount of 5.2.4. Impact on the environment
wind energy that can be accommodated in the system but also minimize Mainly ESS are constructed as environment-friendly technology. Due
wind energy restrictions. to the manufacturing issue, raw material, energy-storing process and
reactions, and complexity of the power system, ESS can negatively
impact the environment. The most adopted ESS, namely PHS for a high
5.2. Technological challenges
range of energy storage support, negatively impacts the environment
because of the installation site. Due to making the storage containers,
The possible technological challenges of energy storage system
deforestation occurs over a large area, which can destroy the ecological
application for practical implementation are discussed in this section.
balance. Toxic chemicals can be associated with BESS, which may
pollute water and land. The heavy magnetic field from SMES can harm
5.2.1. Capacity
the environment and health. Moreover, environmental concern is a
The ESS development requires low capital investment, higher ca­
critical challenge for ESS applications [11,17].
pacity for practical use, high efficiency, long lifetime, high security etc.
Currently, low capital investment results in low-capacity ESS. On the
contrary, high-capacity ESS results in increased capital investment and a
high operation and maintenance risk. Practically, ESS should be low-

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

Table 10 Table 10 (continued )

Summary of the different ESS commercial manufacturing and practical imple­ Name of ESS Location/ Capacity Year Remarks
mentation around the world [18,33,134,135,136,137,138]. Manufacturing
Name of ESS Location/ Capacity Year Remarks country
Manufacturing California, USA 2 MW 2011 For peak load
country shaving, voltage
Pump hydro Bath Country, USA 3.003 1985 World’s largest control and grid
storage GW power-rated PHS support
Rocky River, USA 32 MW 1929 World’s first Hawaii, USA 1 MW 2013 For peak load
commercial PHS shaving, voltage
Okinawa Yanbaru, 30 MW 1999 World’s first control and grid
Japan commercial sea water support
PHS Joplin, Missouri 1 MW 2012 For peak load shaving
Ikaria Island, 2.655 1993 Integrated with and frequency
Greece MW renewable energy regulation
system Osaka, Japan 1 MW 2001 For peak load shaving
Compressed Huntorf, Germany 290 MW 1978 World’s first and voltage control
air storage commercial CAS Monrovia 500 kW 2014 For peak load shaving
McIntosh, USA 110 MW 1991 Able to deliver full California, USA and grid support
power up to 26 h Thermal Friedrichshafen, 4.1 1996 Integrated with solar
Sachsen-Anhalt, 90 MW 2010 Integrated with energy Germany MWh system
Germany renewable energy storage Marstal, Denmark 19 GWh 2012 Integrated with solar
system and conventional
Norton, USA 2.7 GW – Proposed for generation system
implementation Chemnitz, 573 2000 Integrated with solar
Texas, USA 540 MW – Proposed for Germany MWh system
implementation Nevada, USA 105 – Integrated with solar
Utah, USA 1.2 GW – Proposed for MWh system
implementation
Larne, UK 268 MW – Proposed for
implementation 5.3. Economic challenges
Flywheel Stephentown, USA 20 MW 2011 For frequency
storage regulation Energy storage system for practical application in the power grid and
Hazle Township, 20 MW 2014 For frequency
USA regulation
renewable energy system shows the following economic challenges.
Clear Creek, 5 MW 2016 For voltage support
Canada 5.3.1. Cost-effectiveness
Minto, Canada 2 MW 2014 For frequency The most challenging factor for ESS applications is the cost-
regulation
effectiveness of the storage technology. Commonly used ESS technol­
Lanzarote, Spain 1.6 MW 2014 For frequency
regulation and ogy such as, BESS, flywheel, and SC is expensive to install, whereas the
voltage support device requires only 30 % to 40 % of overall expenses. Cost-benefit
Coral Bay, 500 kW 2007 For frequency analysis reveals that the ESS is still expensive for practical imple­
Australia regulation and mentation. The researcher should pay more attention to reducing the
voltage support
Marble Bar, 500 kW 2010 For frequency
overall cost of ESS for practical application. In the existing literature,
Australia regulation and several strategies have been proposed to reduce the overall cost of ESS,
voltage support but this challenge is still visible for practical applications. A ruled-based
Graciosa, Portugal 500 kW 2006 For frequency algorithm and a linear ruled-based algorithm [135], a robust mixed-
regulation
integer linear programming (RMILP) [136], and three multi-criteria
Fuel cell Japan 0.70 2013 Marketed by
storage kWe Japanese company approaches [137] have been proposed by the researchers for mini­
Aisin Seiki mizing the overall cost of ESS for power system applications.
Adopted by UK,
Germany, France, 5.3.2. Industries acceptance
Netherlands
Japan 0.75 2014 Marketed by
For commercialization of different ESS technologies need industry
kWe Japanese company involvement. Power systems mainly adopt the ESS technology from
Viessmann and recognized companies because of the reliance. The insecurity and un­
Panasonic expected performance of ESS can be the primary constraint marketed
Adopted by European
the ESS technology for commercial purposes. Industrial acceptance also
country
Italy 2 kWe 2015 Marketed by Italian shows a possible challenge for ESS application [122].
company
SOLIDpower SpA 5.3.3. Government and market policies
Adopted by European Few countries worldwide have imposed some rules on the imple­
country
Germany 0.3 kWe 2017 Marketed by German
mentation of ESS for power system applications. These policies some­
company E.ON and times distort the end-level interest in running a project with ESS.
Elcore Besides, the ESS’s market level interest can be decreased drastically, and
Adopted by German the giant companies would be chasing away investment from the
residential sector
marketplace. Italy imposed a high grid-operational charge on ESS,
Battery Leighton Buzzard, 6 MW – For peak load shaving
energy UK and grid support which can discourage implementing a new project with ESS. Currently,
storage Osaka, Japan 3 MW 2000 For peak load shaving the power grid projects with battery storage seem to be slow because of
and frequency the unavailability of supporting policies for BESS in Italy. Some other
regulation European countries, including the UK, Spain, Germany etc., have their
own government and market policies for ESS integration into the power

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grids, which are the major barriers to ESS applications. On the contrary, operational challenges, which in turn pose a challenge to achieving
Australian Clean Energy Council has proposed multiple (thirteen) mar­ sustainable development goals (specifically UN SDG 7) [142]. In this
ket policies to increase ESS deployment and encourage the use of ESS for regard, ESS can aid in the transition from fossil fuels to RE sources. The
practical applications in Australia. They ensure the equality of all ESS technical contribution from large to small-sized ESS in integrating RE
end-users, provide support and establish a standard level of the con­ resources either in a large grid or small microgrid is already recognized.
sumers, remove unwanted barriers from ESS projects etc., which The role of ESS in the path to a net-zero emission system has been widely
enhance interest in establishing ESS projects in Australia [138,139]. discussed in the literature [143]. This section portrays the transition
pathway to promote the ESS in light of the transition towards a digita­
5.4. Social challenges lized modern energy system comprising RE technologies and EVs.
ESS has the capacity to counteract the unpredictability of power
Social acceptance is a crucial factor for the seamless and timely generation from renewable resources; hence, storage systems have been
implementation of storage technologies in the power grid around the highlighted as a crucial facilitator of the paradigm shift. As an enabler of
world. Thomas et al. revealed that attitudes towards ESS are ambivalent, grid reliability and stability, storage systems take part in energy storage
and that acceptance is likely to be conditional on whether ESS can be and enable the options for redistributing energy from assets to assets,
designed, regulated, and governed in ways that address technical con­ including electric vehicles. As a reason, the market operators and reg­
cerns about safety, environmental impacts, and reliability while also ulators are more than ever interested in the application of residential
addressing societal goals of equity and protection of vulnerable groups and commercial storage systems to transform the conventional system
[140]. into a dynamic one involving dispersed prosumers. A research initiative
The environmental and safety risks associated with several types of by the Renewable & Appropriate Energy Laboratory in collaboration
ESSs, such as batteries, could be one of the crucial factors regarding the with the University of California – Berkeley revealed that for reaching a
social acceptability of the massive uptake of ESS. Hence, consumers net-zero emission scenario in the Western Electricity Coordinating
need to be well informed about potential mitigation measures such as Council region in the US, the most effective pathway is not only to
recycling and safety certification. The policymakers should consider integrate high penetration of RE resources but also to significantly
how users can trust the safety, dependability, and long-term viability of integrate ESS in the system. The recommended scenario portrayed the
ESS they uptake either for their homes or businesses. The ESS promo­ necessity of a substantial amount of storage, equating to around 131 GW
tional activities should also include the vulnerable group of users and for [143].
such an energy system, flexibility and market change mechanisms need The temporal mismatch between low carbon RE generation and load
to address these challenges. demand patterns may result in low dispatchable generation utilization
The level of several ESS features might be significant across all types factors. Due to supply-demand imbalances, RE-integrated systems may
of users; however, the relative application and importance vary across need to curtail renewable generation in the absence of energy storage
consumers depending on the biographical, social, and material contexts technology. This limitation offers many possibilities for energy storage.
in which they are proposed and deployed [141]. Many people in many However, innovation is required to push forward longer-term storage
parts of the world are still uninformed of ESS technologies and the solutions [144]. This paves the way for using Hydrogen fuel cells as a
benefits they provide in terms of energy flexibility. As a result, wide­ long-term sustainable energy storage option. A more comprehensive
spread awareness is necessary to increase ESS adoption outside of urban range of pilot projects, full-scale systems, and industry and community
areas. Even if some storage technologies are operational in conjunction integration activities are required to enable performance, cost, climate,
with renewable energy systems in many places, direct users are unaware and a fair assessment of storage technologies for stationary energy
of how to operate them or whether they have any control over opera­ storage and transportation.
tional processes. As a consequence, users may not fully recognize the Teng et al. [145] have revealed that the energy storage option is able
benefits of ESS. to provide opportunities for temporal arbitrage, due to the volatility of
When installing the ESS in a specific area, regulators and users must day-ahead and real-time energy prices, with a value of between £100/
assess if an ESS is suitable for the local weather. If extreme weather kWh and £650/kWh in the UK. The research also revealed that the
conditions, such as high humidity or extremely hot or low temperatures, storage worth in ancillary services, such as frequency response, is £200/
exist in a given area for the maximum time of the year, ESS technology kWh. Even considering losses, when the storage is charged during low-
selections should be made accordingly. The effectiveness of ESS appli­ emission times and discharged during high-emission ones, the carbon
cations for a certain purpose is determined by how well the system is footprint is reduced by roughly 10 % [145]. Ashish Gulagi et al. [146]
operated and maintained. Users should be aware of the system’s capa­ have identified the role of storage technologies in energy transition
bilities and not expect too much or too little from it. Users should be pathways towards achieving a fully sustainable energy system for India.
provided with the relevant technical knowledge by system operators and It has been revealed that a 100 % renewable energy system in India can
regulators. be built by 2050 with the massive uptake of energy storage options and
The servicing and routine maintenance issues are critical for the simulation studies showed that the levelized cost of electricity to be
ESS’s durability. Maintaining the healthy features of the ESS service will reduced from 58 €/MWhe now to 52 €/MWhe in 2050, under the power
be challenging if the installation area is far away from the customer scenario. The demand for various storage solutions will increase
support area or locally available resources. As a consequence, the user significantly from now to 2050 as the system incorporates large-scale
area’s remoteness is a critical factor. Failure to address these challenges variable RE sources [146]. Maroufmashat et al. have reviewed the
prior to the widespread roll-out of ESS technology could result in un­ transition of future energy system infrastructure through Power-to-Gas
desired scenarios and a negative perception of the technology among pathways for Ontario, Canada [147]. They have revealed that
less technically savvy users. hydrogen produced from RE sources and baseload nuclear power would
offer crucial energy storage and clean, emissions-free transportation
6. Transitions pathway to promote ESS fuels for future energy needs.
The potential of energy storage can only be truly realized by ensuring
Sustainable use and application of energy resources, energy transi­ that electricity and energy market regulations do not obstruct and,
tion, and climate change endorses the uptake of RE resources, electric ideally promote energy storage. Market regulators and system operators
vehicles and consequently decreases fossil fuel usage. Worldwide, the must collaborate with utilities, regulators, and both the public and pri­
transition to a low-carbon future is favourably underway. The rapid vate sectors to hasten the deployment of energy storage solutions to
development of RE technologies introduces additional technical and accelerate the deployment of RE [143]. To achieve the target of zero

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

carbon, the potential of the latest booming energy storage technologies 7. Findings and conclusions
needs to be illuminated.
Digitization of the system facilitates digital solutions in data man­ There is significant global interest in the role of energy storage sys­
agement, application, and analysis. This not only offers data analysis tems (ESSs) in increasing the use of renewable energy sources. Research
and visualization but also opens the opportunity to incorporate complex is being conducted to reduce costs and overcome challenges to improve
solutions and innovative ideas for the future zero-carbon environment. ESS technologies. This study thoroughly reviewed existing literature to
Hence, ESS operators and consumers must be facilitated with digital identify key ESS technologies, their applications and innovations to
solutions containing modern scientific modelling, programs and algo­ address challenges. The study also highlighted the benefits and chal­
rithms such as machine learning and artificial intelligence to develop lenges of ESS deployment, proposed a transition pathway to promote
strategies for advanced analytics, precise forecasting, decision making, large-scale ESS integration into the power grid for a sustainable and
optimal asset management, optimal usage storage options. This would climate-friendly energy system and provided directions for future
turn the dispersed success of ESS deployment into user-specific solu­ research. The major findings of the study are:
tions. The Energy 4.0 revolution requires a greater degree of digitization
reality. The industry, legislators, and regulators need to work collabo­ • This article extensively compared different Energy Storage Systems
ratively to make it happen. And this needs to be accomplished fast so (ESSs) in terms of their technological construction, advantages,
that the limitations do not slow down the speed of RE integration, with limitations, internal properties, operating procedures and an in-
ESS serving as a crucial facilitator. depth understanding of various energy storage technologies,
To summarize, it can be fairly stated that there is no surprise that ESS including Mechanical, Chemical and Electrical ESSs. Mechanical
has gained ample attention in recent years, given its vast potential to energy storage (MES) has been identified as having high efficiency
facilitate the transition to a new energy system for a low-carbon future. and long-life expectancy but with limitations such as high installa­
Transition pathways to promote ESS will differ from region to region. tion, safety, and maintenance costs and environmental pollution as a
Each country needs to investigate and develop its own energy storage simple and flexible energy storage system. Among the MES tech­
transition pathways. Integrating ESS in the conventional power system nologies, the pump hydro storage (PHS) stores electrical energy as
in its current form poses technical and social barriers, necessitating water and has high power conversion losses, but up to 85 % of stored
socio-technical innovation. It is essential to include the political and energy can be regained. Compressed air storage (CAS) stores surplus
ethical issues surrounding the energy transition to the forefront of sci­ electrical power as compressed air with low storage losses, but it has
ence and society. Transitioning to a new energy system comprising a limitations regarding capital investment, environmental concerns,
vast number of various technologies of ESSs is not only a technological and topological complexity. The flywheel storage (FS) stores elec­
transition but also involves transitioning to an innovative, inclusive, and trical energy as kinetic energy with high efficiency but has a short
sustainable economy [148]. Fig. 9 portrays the factors related to ESS operational period and a very high capital cost.
deployment; those need to be understood and taken care of for a smooth
transition towards a zero-emission future. • On the other hand, the Chemical ESSs are known for their high
storage capacity and competitive cost, but with limitations including

Fig. 9. Factors related to smooth transition pathway to promote ESS for a zero-emission future.

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M.M. Rana et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107811

low efficiency and operational complexities. The article provided an modern scientific modelling, machine learning, and artificial intel­
overview of different Fuel Cell (FC) systems, including hydrogen fuel ligence. Hence, market regulations must facilitate energy storage
cells (HFC), metal-air fuel cells (MFC), molten carbonate fuel cells deployment, and each country needs to develop its energy storage
(MCFC), and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). HFC uses hydrogen and transition pathways. For instance, a substantial amount of storage,
oxygen as raw materials and has a high energy density (0.6-1.2 kWh/ equivalent to around 131 GW, would be needed for the US Western
kg) but a relatively poor efficiency (20 %-50 %). In contrast, the MFC Electricity Coordinating Council region to reach net-zero emissions.
uses metal and air as raw materials, with aluminium and zinc The temporal arbitrage and ancillary services’ monetary values
commonly used as metal fuel and having a high energy density and offered by the ESS have been estimated as £100/kWh to £650/kWh
great potential. However, its efficiency is not yet satisfactory and it is in the UK.
not a rechargeable technology. Significant properties of MCFC and
SOFC have also been elaborated on and compared. In conclusion, energy storage systems play a crucial role in modern
power grids, both with and without renewable energy integration, by
• This article discussed the key features and potential applications of addressing the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources,
different electrical energy storage systems (ESSs), battery energy improving grid stability, and enabling efficient energy management.
storage systems (BESS), and thermal energy storage (TES) systems. It The comprehensive review presented in this article provided valuable
highlighted the advantages of electrical ESSs, such as positive envi­ insights for researchers, policymakers, and industry professionals in
ronmental impact, long life expectancy and flexible operation. It also understanding the applications of different energy storage technologies
detailed super-capacitors and superconducting magnetic energy and their benefits and challenges. Further research and development
storage (SMES) systems. Super-capacitors have a lifetime of >1 efforts are needed to overcome the limitations of existing energy storage
million charge-discharge cycles and can store energy 10 to 100 times systems and promote their large-scale integration into power grids to
higher than the regular capacitor. However, they have low power achieve a sustainable and climate-friendly energy future. For example,
density, storage capacity, and high capital costs. On the other hand, this paper has not investigated the hybrid energy storage system (HESS),
SMES stores electrical energy as a magnetic field and has a capacity which is essential and increasing interest in different power system
of 10 kW to 10 MW, a lifetime of ≥20 years, and an electrical effi­ applications.
ciency of 90-95 %.

• Regarding BESS, the researchers found that Lithium-ion batteries are Declaration of competing interest
the most promising and fastest-rising but also the costliest. Vana­
dium redox flow batteries have merits over other battery technolo­ The authors certify that they have NO affiliations with or involve­
gies, such as long lifetime, high energy conversion efficiency, active ment in any organization or entity with any financial interest (such as
thermal management, safety, environmental protection features, and honoraria; educational grants; participation in speakers’ bureaus;
high performance. The article emphasized the need for a trade-off membership, employment, consultancies, stock ownership, or other
while selecting appropriate BESS for relevant application areas. equity interest; and expert testimony or patent-licensing arrangements),
or non-financial interest (such as personal or professional relationships,
• The TES systems are another promising storage technology, and the affiliations, knowledge or beliefs) in the subject matter or materials
article discussed the different TES technologies, including sensible discussed in this manuscript.
heat storage (SHS), latent heat storage (LHS), and thermo-chemical
sorption storage (TCSS). The SHS is cost-effective, efficient, and Data availability
environmentally friendly, with an efficiency ranging from 50 % to
90 %. LHS has a higher energy storage density and storage efficiency No data was used for the research described in the article.
from 75 % to 90 %, and TCSS has the highest energy storage capacity
among other TES systems, with efficiency from 75 % to 100 %, but it References
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