Particulate Systems EMR5203

Assignment 2
Manyuka Raphael J
G0190345J
 1. Mode of operation of different types of filters using metallurgical engineering
examples:

i. Pressure Filter (plate and frame press)

Metallurgical application – pressure filters are used in the clarification of tailings dam water
for reuse in the milling plant.

Mode of operation
The tailings water is introduced into the pressure filter through the feed pipe. Pressure is
applied to the fluid to help the fluid overcome any resistance or clogging in the filtration
process allowing for a faster and efficient separation of the liquid and suspended solid
particles. The fluid flows through the filter medium, which is a porous material designed to
capture and retain the solid particles or impurities present in the fluid. As the fluid passes
through the filter medium, the solid particles or impurities are retained on or within the filter
medium, forming a filter cake. The filter cake gradually builds up, reducing the effective
filtration area but increasing the filtration efficiency. Pressure filters require periodic cleaning
to remove the filter cake and enhance filtration rate.
 ii. Vacuum filtration (rotary drum filter)

Metallurgical application – rotary drum filters can be used to separate the valuable
concentrate from the slurry or pulp.

Mode of operation
Vacuum filters operate on the principle of negative pressure differential to separate solids
from a liquid mixture. A vacuum pump extracts gas molecules from a chamber beneath the
filter media, creating a negative pressure (vacuum) in that space. A liquid suspension
containing the desired solid particles (the slurry) is introduced onto the filter media. The
negative pressure in the chamber below the filter media draws the liquid portion of the slurry
(filtrate) through the filter media. The negative pressure in the chamber below the filter media
draws the liquid portion of the slurry (filtrate) through the filter media. As the liquid is
removed, the solid particles accumulate on the filter media, forming a layer a filter cake.
Lastly, pressure is given beneath the cloth to help the cake come off.

iii. Gravity filtration

Metallurgical application – gravity filtration is commonly employed to dewater mineral

concentrates obtained from processes such as flotation or dense media separation.

Mode of operation
One important factor in the filtration process is gravity. Gravity pulls the liquid combination
down as it passes through the filter media, enabling it to enter the receiving flask. The
porosity of the filter medium is selected in accordance with the required degree of filtration
and the distribution of particle sizes in the mixture; this forms a barrier that permits the
passage of liquid while trapping the solid particles. A filter cake is created when the particles
build up on the filter medium's surface. The filtrate is moved to the following step after
collecting in the container under the gravity filter.
iv. Centrifugal filtration

Cross section of a horizontal centrifugal filter

Metallurgical application – centrifugal filtration can be employed in thickening operations to

separate excess liquid from thickened slurries, resulting in higher concentrations of solids.
Mode of operation
A centrifugal filter is made up of a basket that is filled with a mixture of liquid and solid or
two liquids that is spun quickly to allow centrifugal force to separate the mixture into its
component parts. A conical funnel placed in the centre of the basket is used to inject the feed,
and the cake is formed in the gap between the flange and the vertical base of the basket. The
created cake is moved around the basket's surface by a reciprocating pusher disk, clearing up
space for more cake deposition. The pusher moves forward and backward in one stroke,
building up another layer of solids with each subsequent stroke, and so on. The filtrate is
collected by appropriate pipework after passing through the basket's perforations.

Comparing and contrasting between vacuum filtration and gravity filtration:

Gravity filtration Vacuum filtration

 Principle -the liquid mixture flows through - operate on the principle of negative
the filter medium due to the force pressure differential to separate
of gravity solids from a liquid mixture
Speed of -slower filtration rates compared -offers a faster filtration rate
filtration to vacuum filter
Equipment - requires the use of specialized - can be achieved using simpler
equipment, such as a vacuum equipment
pump
2. Using metallurgical processes, explain the concept of filtration with cake formation;
Filtration involves the use of a filter medium through which a mixture of solids and liquids is
passed. As the mixture passes through the filter medium, the filtrate passes through while
solid particles accumulate and form a cake layer. In metallurgy, filtration with cake formation
can be explained in terms of extracting valuable ore particles from a mineral slurry.

- Firstly, the mineral slurry is introduced onto the filter medium and flows under gravity
or with the help of pressure.
- As the slurry passes through the filter medium the liquid component which consists of
water and other soluble elements penetrates pores of the medium and emerges as the
filtrate, which is collected separately for further processing or disposal.
- The solids particles that cannot pass through the due to their larger size begin to
accumulate on the surface of the medium forming a layer known as the cake layer.
This cake acts as an additional filtration layer, aiding in the removal of smaller
particles from the liquid stream.
- The filter cake serves several purposes. Firstly, it acts as a physical barrier, preventing
fine particles from passing through the filter medium. Secondly, it helps increase the
effective filtration area, as the cake itself becomes part of the filtration process.
Moreover, the filter cake enhances the overall efficiency of the filtration by creating a
more favourable environment for further solid particle retention.
- In cake filtration the liquid passes through two resistances, which are cake resistance
and filter resistance. The cake resistance is zero at the start and increases with time as
filtration proceeds.
- The cake layer continues to grow and thicken as more slurry is introduced. The
thickness of the cake depends on various factors such as particle size, concentration,
and the applied pressure or vacuum.
- Once filtration is complete, the cake layer is removed from the filter medium and
further processed by drying or washing to recover the valuable mineral trapped
within.
Image showing filter cake formation

3. Four factors to consider when selecting a filtration process

i. Desired flowrate – the flowrate is the amount of liquid that can pass through the
filter per unit time. Higher flowrate requires more sophisticated filtration
processes like vacuum, pressure and centrifugal filtration whereas in processes
where flowrate is not a concern gravity filtration can be employed.
ii. Filtration efficiency – some applications may require highly efficient filtrations
compared to others in order to achieve specific purity levels, thereby requiring
high-end filtration processes whereas some may have more lenient requirements.
iii. Particle size distribution – the PSD of particles to be removed will determine
which type of filtration mechanism such as depth filtration, surface filtration or
membrane filtration. In addition, the size of filter media also will determine the
size of particles it can trap, for example a micron filter and a sand filter.
iv. Pressure drops – this is the difference between the inlet pressure and the outlet
pressure of the filter. A higher-pressure drop will require a more powerful pump to
overcome the resistance of the filter.

4. Importance of determining the Reynolds number and drag coefficient of a

particle
Reynolds number

- we can determine whether the flow surrounding the particle is turbulent or laminar
based on the Reynolds number. This distinction is critical because the drag force
acting on the particle, which influences its movement and separation from other
minerals, behaves differently in each flow regime.
 - by knowing the Re, engineers can predict how efficiently particles will settle, float, or
be sheared in the processing equipment. For instance, flotation processes heavily
depend on controlling bubble-particle interactions, which are influenced by the flow
regime around the particle.
- the Reynolds number helps engineers choose the most appropriate equipment and
operating conditions for a specific mineral processing task. For example, thicker
slurries (mixtures of particles and fluids) with higher Re might require different
grinding equipment or flow rates compared to thinner slurries.
- By understanding the flow behaviour around particles, mineral processing plants can
be optimized for efficiency and recovery. This can involve adjusting factors like slurry
viscosity, particle size distribution, and flow velocities to achieve better separation of
valuable minerals
Drag coefficient

- Drag coefficient is vital for predicting the settling velocity of particles in a fluid
medium. This directly affects separation processes like sedimentation, classification,
and thickening
- Knowing drag allows engineers to calculate the forces acting on particles in various
unit operations like flotation, cyclones, and grinding mills.
- Drag coefficient helps predict particle movement and residence time within
processing equipment. This allows for optimizing flow rates, feed concentrations, and
detention times to maximize recovery of valuable minerals while minimizing
processing time and energy consumption.
- Drag coefficient is a key parameter used in computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
models that simulate mineral processing operations.
Three regimes of fluid flow
i. Laminar flow
Laminar flow, also known as streamline flow or viscous flow, is a regime characterized by
smooth, orderly movement of fluid particles in layers. This type of flow typically occurs at
low velocities and for fluids with high viscosity. Fluid particles move in well-defined paths
with minimal lateral movement between layers. The flow is free from chaotic fluctuations
and maintains a smooth, predictable pattern. Viscous forces (internal friction within the
fluid) are dominant compared to inertial forces (forces due to the mass of the fluid).
Equations that govern laminar flow include the Continuity Equation and Navier-Stokes
Equations. Laminar flow generally occurs at low Reynolds numbers (typically below 2000
for flow in pipes).
Turbulent flow
Fluid particles exhibit unpredictable, random movements due to the formation of eddies
(whirlpools) of various sizes within the flow. High mixing occurs between different fluid
layers due to the eddies, leading to rapid homogenization of the fluid. The chaotic nature of
the flow creates high shear forces that can deform or break fragile particles suspended in the
fluid. Turbulent flow is characterized by a cascade of energy transfer from larger eddies to
smaller ones, ultimately dissipating as heat due to viscous effects.
Factors affecting turbulent flow
Reynolds Number (Re) – Re plays a crucial role. Higher Re values (generally above 2300 for
flow in pipes) indicate a greater likelihood of turbulence.
Fluid Properties – Viscosity and density of the fluid influence its resistance to flow
disturbances. Lower viscosity fluids are more prone to turbulence.
Surface Roughness – Rough surfaces can introduce disturbances that trigger turbulence at
lower velocities compared to smooth surfaces.

Transient flow
The defining feature is the variation in flow properties with time. This can be a sudden
change (like opening a valve) or a gradual change (like a pump slowly increasing speed). The
flow is constantly adjusting to reach a new equilibrium state (steady-state flow) after the
initial change. This adjustment period can involve pressure fluctuations and wave
propagation within the fluid. Transient flow analysis can be more challenging compared to
steady-state flow due to the time-dependent nature.
Causes of transient flow

- Sudden Changes in Boundary Conditions – Opening or closing valves, starting or

stopping pumps, or rapid changes in pressure at system boundaries are common
causes.
- Flow Rate Variations: Fluctuations in flow rate due to pumps or external factors can
lead to transient behavior.
- Changes in Geometry – Pipe diameter changes or obstructions within the flow path
can induce transient effects

Regime Characteristics Example

Laminar Flow Smooth, orderly, layered Honey flowing slowly
Turbulent Flow Chaotic, irregular, swirling Rapidly flowing river
Transitional Flow Mixed characteristics of Flow transitioning from
laminar and turbulent laminar to turbulent in a
pipe

5. Four factors affecting filtration;

i. Cake properties – the characteristics of the cake solids on the filter media impact
filtration. A more permeable cake with narrow particle size distribution allows liquid
to pass through more easily.
 ii. Slurry properties – slurries with a higher solids concentration lead to a slower
filtration rate as there are more solids to be separated from the liquid. Also, more
viscous slurries flow slower compared to less viscous slurries.
iii. Filtration media – the type of filter media chosen significantly impacts filtration
performance with finer pore sized media having an ability to capture smaller particles
(improved filtrate clarity). The media’s surface properties can also influence cake
formation and release with some media showing adsorption characteristics to the filter
cake thereby leading to difficult cake release.
iv. Particle size and distribution – larger particles generally filter faster than finer ones
because they offer less resistance to the flow of liquid through the filter media. A
wider range of particles can lead to voids between larger particles where finer
particles get trapped hindering overall flow rate.

6. Processes where the principle of fluidization is applied in metallurgy;

a) Roasting – in roasting, metal sulphide ores are exposed to air at elevated temperatures
to remove volatile impurities like sulphur in the form of sulphur dioxide. A bed of
solid particles, typically ores and minerals are placed in a chamber or reactor. A
mixture of hot gases is introduced from the bottom of the chamber at a controlled
velocity. As a gas flows throw the bed it exerts an upward force on the solid particles
causing them to become suspended in the gas stream balancing the weight of the
particles, resulting in a fluidized state. Fluidized bed roasting offers good control over
temperature, uniformity, and efficient solid-gas contact, improving roasting efficiency.
Equations for fluidized bed roasting of chalcocite and sphalerite:
2Cu2S + 3O2 = 2Cu2O + 2SO2
2ZnS + 3O2 = 2ZnO + 2SO2

b) Ore drying and calcination

Fluidized beds are excellent for this purpose due to their efficient heat transfer and ability to
handle fine particles. In drying moisture is removed from the material while calcination
involved driving off volatile components like water or carbon dioxide. Fluidized temperature
for clinker calcination is 1200oC. Chemical equations for calcination:
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Four factors affecting this process

 i. Gas velocity and distribution – the gas velocity flowing through the fluidized bed
affects the degree of fluidization and mixing. Higher gas velocity enhances heat
transfer and improves particle suspension but very high velocity can cause particle
entrainment and elutriation.
ii. Residence time – the duration of solid particles in a fluidized state influences the
extent of roasting. Sufficient residence time is required to allow for complete or
desired conversion of the particles.
iii. Bed height and geometry – appropriate bed height needs to be determined based
on gas velocity, particle size, and desired gas-solid contact as it can impact
fluidization behavior and the contacting efficiency.
iv. Particle size and distribution – smaller particle sizes can enhance gas-solid contact
and promote better heat and mass transfer. If the particles are too fine, it results in
excessive pressure drop and reduced fluidization efficiency.

7. Sprouted and bubbling fluidization

Sprouted fluidization Bubbling fluidization

Gas-solid contact Highly efficient due to intense Moderate gas-solid contact as
mixing and recirculation of particles move randomly and
particles in central sprout collide with each other.
Solid circulation Exhibit a distinct solid Does not exhibit a well-defined
circulation pattern due to upward solid circulation.
gas flow in the central sprout
and downward flow of solids
among the annular region.
Particle residence Provides longer particle Generally, offers shorter particle
time residence due to the recirculation residence since particles tend to
of particles in bed. move more freely.
Application Employed in processes requiring Used in various industrial
high heat and mass transfer applications including
rates, such as drying granulation combustion, gasification,
and coating. pyrolysis, and particle coating.