Internet

• We need a model/specification that

describes what are the different
components of the network software
and hardware and their functions
OSI reference model
Layer

• OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model numbering

• Developed by the International Organization for Standardization

(ISO) in Europe in 1974.
• The OSI reference model is best seen as an idealized model of the
logical connections that must occur in order for network
communication to take place
• Most protocol suites used in the real world, such as TCP/IP,
DECnet, and Systems Network Architecture (SNA), map somewhat
loosely to the OSI reference model
• OSI model is a good starting point for understanding how various
protocols within a protocol suite function and interact

• It is not a standard that networking protocols must follow

• Each layer has specific functions it is responsible for
• All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a
network
OSI reference model – Physical layer
• Important characteristics/functions:
• Mechanical: Relates to the physical properties of the interface to a transmission medium. Typically,
the specification is of a pluggable connector that joins one or more signal conductors, called
circuits/links.

• Electrical: Relates to the representation of bits (e.g., in terms of voltage levels) and the data
transmission rate of bits.
• It defines the voltage, current, modulation, bit synchronization, connection activation and
deactivation, and various electrical characteristics for the transmission media (such as
unshielded or shielded twisted-pair cabling, coaxial cabling, and fiber-optic cabling).

• Functional: Specifies the functions performed by individual circuits of the physical interface between
a system and the transmission medium.

• Procedural: Specifies the sequence of events by which bit streams are exchanged across the physical
medium.
OSI reference model – Data link layer
• The data-link layer has two sublayers:
• The logical link control (LLC) layer, the upper of the two layers, which is responsible for flow control, error correction,
and resequencing functions for connection-oriented communication, but which also supports connectionless
communication
• The media access control (MAC) layer, the lower of the two layers, which is responsible for providing a method for
stations to gain access to the medium

• Main functions:
• Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data units
called frames.
• Physical addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a
header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the
sender's network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.
• Flow control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which data are produced
in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit
damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved
through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
• Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to
determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
OSI reference model – Network layer
• Main functions:
• Logical addressing (E.g. using IP address) and routing of packets over the network
• Establishing and releasing connections and paths between two nodes on a network
• Transferring data, generating and confirming receipts, and resetting connections

• Supplies connectionless and connection-oriented services to the transport layer above it.
• The network layer functions closely with the physical layer (layer 1) and data-link layer (layer 2) in most
real world network protocol implementations.
OSI reference model – Transport layer
• Responsible for providing reliable transport services to the upper-layer protocols.
• Main functions:
• Flow control to ensure that the transmitting device does not send more data than the receiving
device can handle.
• Packet sequencing for segmentation of data packets and remote reassembly.
• Error handling and acknowledgments to ensure that data is retransmitted when required.
• Multiplexing for combining data from several sources for transmission over one data path.
• Virtual circuits for establishing sessions between communicating stations. The Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) of the TCP/IP protocol suite resides at the transport layer.
OSI reference model – Session layer
• Enables sessions between computers on a network to be established and terminated.
• Session layer does not concern itself with issues such as the reliability and efficiency of data transfer
between stations
• these functions are provided by the first four layers of the OSI reference model.
• Main functions:
• Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half- duplex (one way at a time) or full-
duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
• Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to
a stream of data.
• For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after
every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged independently.
In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to
be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.
OSI reference model – Presentation layer
• Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems
• Main functions:
• Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information in
the form of character strings, numbers, and so on.
• The information must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different
computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between these different encoding methods.
• The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format
into a common format.
• The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver-
dependent format.
• Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
• Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and
sends the resulting message out over the network.
• Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
• Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
• Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as
text, audio, and video.
OSI reference model – Application layer
• Network-aware, user-controlled software is implemented—for example, e-mail, file transfer utilities, and
terminal access.
• Application layer represents the window between the user and the network.
• Examples of protocols that run at the application layer include File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP), telnet, and similar protocols that can be implemented as utilities the user can
interface with .
• Some example applications at the application layer:
• File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in a remote host
(to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local
computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
• Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
• Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.
Interaction between layers in the OSI model
Intermediate node – switch/router