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Solving Problems in Surveying

Second Edition
Other titles in the Series
Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics Volume 1, J.F. Douglas
Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics Volume 2, J.F. Douglas

Solving Problems in Soil Mechanics, Second Edition, B.H.C. Sutton
Solving Problems in Structures Volume 1, P.C.L. Croxton and

L.H. Martin
Solving Problems in Structures Volume 2, P.C.L. Croxton and

L.H. Martin
Solving Problems in Electrical Power and Power Electronics,
H.F.G. Gwyther
Solving Problems in Control, R.J. Richards

Solving Problems in Fluid Dynamics, G.J. Sharpe
Solving Problems in
Surveying
Second Edition
A. Bannister mc Bsc MSc CEng FICE

Formerly Reader in Civil Engineering,
University of Salford
R. Baker ssc Msc PhD CEng MICE MIWEM

Lecturer in the Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Salford
3 LONGMAN
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate, Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE, England
and Associated Companies throughout the world
© Longman Group UK Limited 1989

This edition © Longman Group Limited 1994
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be Z

reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise without either the prior
written permission of the Publishers or a licence permitting
restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the
Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90, Tottenham Court Road,
London, W1P 9HE. yl lo
First published 1989

Second edition 1994 OL yi
Second impression 1999 \
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue entry for this title is available from the British Library.
Bannister, A. (Arthur)
Solving problems in surveying / A. Bannister, R. Baker. — 2nd ed.
Pacino:
Includes index.
ISBN 0-470-23424-5 (Wiley)
1. Surveying—Problems, exercises, etc. I. Baker, R. (Raymond),
1956- . II. Title.
TA537.B36 1994 yo
526.9—dc20 UNIVERSITY 94-8938

cir
ISBN 0-582-23644-4 ,
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog entry for this title is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 0-470-23424-5 (USA only)
Printed in Malaysia, CLP

Contents
Preface vii
Levelling 1
Distance measurement 32
Theodolite and traverse surveying 70
Triangulation and the National Grid 103
Areas and volumes 143
Curve ranging 190
Setting out and point location 242
WW Observations
WH
Oth
Gh
aon and adjustments 288
The computer programs 342
Index 344
Preface
This book, first published in 1989, was written to assist students who are
preparing for examinations in surveying. The same intention applies to this
revised edition in which some changes have been made to reflect advances
in modern instrumentation and techniques, and to take advantage of the
comments fed back by various lecturers using the book. The overall format
has been retained in that, although the book is devoted primarily to the solution
of problems typically encountered in such examinations, each chapter
commences with some basic theory. Frequently, the solutions themselves are
introduced with mention to the salient features involved, before being developed
in accordance with the theoretical principles, and are supported in some cases
by simple computer programs in BASIC.
An appreciable number of the worked examples and problems have been
taken from past examination papers, and their sources have been duly indicated.
It must be emphasized that, although permission has been given for the
reproduction of questions as set, the solutions are ours and responsibility for
their validity rests entirely on our shoulders. Thanks are due to the Senates
of the University of London, University of Bradford and University of Salford,
to Professor Cusens of the University of Leeds, the Council of Engineering
Institutions and the Engineering Council and Councils of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Structural Engineers and the Royal Institution of Chartered
Surveyors for their kind permission to reprint questions set in their examination
papers.
A. Bannister
R. Baker November 1993
|
Levelling
Datum Levelling is a means by which a comparison of the heights of points on the

earth’s surface may be made. A datum is required and in the United Kingdom
the normal adopted is mean sea level, as measured at Newlyn between 1915
and 1921. The Ordnance Survey have established a network of marks (bench
marks) on permanent features at close intervals over the country. The height
(reduced level) of each mark above Ordnance Datum has been determined and
is available to the engineer on certain Ordnance sheets. It is of course quite
feasible to set up one’s own temporary bench mark on a site, which can be
levelled in to a nearby Ordnance Survey bench mark or which can have a ‘site
datum’ assigned to it.
Equipment The basic items of equipment are the optical level and a graduated staff,
although when long sight distances are involved a theodolite and target can
be used. This latter method is termed trigonometrical levelling.
Surveyor’s telescope A telescope is an essential feature of both the level and theodolite since its
overall magnification facilitates the pointing on to a distant target under
satisfactory atmospheric conditions. The optics include a diaphragm or reticule,
often referred to as the crosshairs, which gives an internally fixed aiming mark.
The line of sight of the telescope is given by the line containing the intersection
of the vertical and horizontal crosshairs and the optical centre of the object
lens of the telescope. The image of the target has to lie in the plane of the
crosshairs, and in modern instruments this is effected by means of a movable
lens (Fig. 1.1).
Object lens Internal

Focusing lens Diaphragm
Figure 1.1
LEVELLING 1
Level line : A level in proper adjustment, and correctly set up, will produce a horizontal
sight line which is at right angles to the direction of gravity. The sight line
is tangential to the level line at instrument height; this line follows a constant
height above mean sea level and hence is a curved line, as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Over short distances, such as those met in civil engineering work, the two
lines can be taken to coincide.
Staff held
i vertically
Horizontal line
Level line
*
P| ao rede: tere, _Mean sea level
\ |
Figure 1.2
Long sight lines Over long distances, a correction is required to reduce staff readings given
by the horizontal sight line to the level line equivalent. Refraction of the sight
line has also to be taken into account. The technique of reciprocal levelling
can be adopted to eliminate the need for the corrections when long sights are
being used.
1.1 Booking and A properly adjusted tilting level was set up at a point P and the
reducing levels following consecutive readings were taken on a staff positioned at points
A, B and C, respectively: 0.663, —0.841, 0.939.
The level was then moved to point Q and further readings at C and
D, respectively, were taken as follows: 1.198, 1.100.
Use this example to explain what is meant by the terms backsight,
foresight, intersight and change point. Book, reduce and check the levels
using both standard methods, given that the reduced level of A was
94.115 m AOD. (Note that the reading at B was taken on an inverted
staff and has therefore been recorded with a negative sign.)
What are the advantages and disadvantages that you would associate
with each method of booking? [Salford]
Solution Figure 1.3 shows the readings listed in the question and illustrates
the fact that the levelling involves the interconnection of separate groups, i.e.
AC and CD.
Backsight The first reading when the level has been set up (at P) is known as a backsight
(BS). The staff is held vertically at a point (A) of known reduced level; this
could be a bench mark but it need not be. When the instrument position has
to be changed, the first sight taken in the next section is also a backsight.
2 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SURVEYING

Backsight Foresight
B — — — —
0.841 1.100
0.663---— -—:-+-— -—: »----—-—: —}1.198 QO
f 0.939 D
A P C a
Inverted Change
staff point
Figure 1.3
Foresight The last staff reading from a level station on to a staff held vertically at a point
is termed a foresight (FS). It is thus the last reading taken within a section
of levels before moving the instrument, and also is the last sighting made over
the whole series of levels. It is good practice to finish at a point of known
reduced level or to return to the start point so that an appraisal of the overall
accuracy of the work can be assessed from any misclosure.
Intersight The term ‘intersight’ covers all sightings and consequent staff readings made
between the backsight and foresight within each section. In Fig. 1.3 the inverted
staff reading is an intersight.
Change point To allow the levelling to cover an appreciable distance or to cater for difficult
terrain, the level position may have to be changed frequently. In order to relate
the various sections it is essential that a foresight and backsight be made on
a staff held at a change point. Point C in Fig. 1.3 fulfils this purpose. Change
points need to be firm features so that there is no relative displacement of the
staff when its face is turned towards the new position of the instrument. When
selecting such points it is good practice to try to arrange the lengths of the
backsight and foresight to be equal in order to eliminate collimation error and
any error due to curvature and refraction. Although modern levels allow
estimation of the staff reading to 1 mm over distances upwards from 100 m,
it is commonplace to have maximum sight distances of the order of 50 m.
Booking and reducing The level book will have columns headed ‘Backsight’, ‘Intersight’ and
‘Foresight’, together with others covering “Reduced Level’, ‘Distance’ and
‘Remarks’. It will also have provision for one of the two possible systems by
which the levels of specific points are calculated, namely the rise and fall
method and the height of collimation method.
Rise and fall method Note that, except for the change point, each staff reading is written on a separate
line so that each staff position has its unique reduced level. This remains true
at the change point since the staff does not move and the backsight from Q
is thereby related to the reduced level derived from the foresight from P. Hence
LEVELLING 3
Table 1.1
Backsight | Intersight | Foresight Fall Reduced | Distance

level
0.663 94.115 Station A

— 0.841 1.504 95.619 B
1.198 0.939 1.780 93.839 Change Point C
1.100 0.098 _ 93.
1.780
1.602
0.178
the two readings are entered on the same line. Successive staff readings are
used in calculating rise or fall between the points. From the booking we have:
A to B 0.663._— (—0.841) = + 1.504, 1. a.Fise,
B to C —0.841 — 0.939 = —1.780, i.e. a fall,
C to D 1.198 — 1.100 = +0.098, i.e. a rise.
Notice that a decrease in staff reading implies a rise from the first point to
the second, i.e. C to D.
The arithmetic involved in the reduction of the levels can be checked using
the following rule:
(ZFS — LBS) = (Lfall — Lrise) = (final level — first level).
Height of collimation —_Inso far as the booking of backsights, etc., is concerned the two systems are
method identical but the method of the reduction of levels is different. First, the height
of the collimation of the instrument for each of its positions is determined,
i.e. for the setting at P:
Table 1.2
Height Reduced Distance Remarks

of collimation level
0.663 94.778 Station A

— 0.841 B
1.198 95.037 Change point C
D

The height of collimation = reduced level of A + staff reading
(backsight) on A
= 94.115 + 0.663
= 94.778 m above datum.
All reduced levels for this set up are obtained from the expression
Height of collimation — Staff reading,
Le. for B 94.778 — (—0.841) = 95.619 m
for C 94.778 — 0.939 = 93.839 m.
When the instrument is transferred to Q,
the height of collimation = reduced level of C + staff reading

(backsight) on C
= 93.839 + 1.198 = 95.037 m.
Therefore the reduced level of D = 95.037 — 1.100 = 93.937 m.
Comparison of Less arithmetic is required in the reduction of levels with the collimation method
methods than with the rise and fall method, in particular when large numbers of
intermediate sights are involved. Moreover, the rule quoted for the rise and
fall method gives an arithmetical check on all the levels reduced, whereas only
change points are checked under the collimation method. However, a rule can
be established to give an arithmetic check for all reduced levels obtained by
the collimation method. Consider the levelling between stations A and B shown
in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3
Backsight Foresight Height of Reduced Remarks

collimation level
b+x Station A
f Station B
The sum of all reduced levels except the known level at station A
=(b+x-f)+L0+x —- i)
=(n+1)60+2%)
—li -—f
in which n is the number of intermediate sights between A and B, and (b+ x)
is the height of collimation of the level.
This analysis can be readily extended to cover a number of consecutive
sections to produce the general rule:
LEVELLING 5
LD All reduced levels except the first = £ (Each height of collimation
times the number of intermediate and foresights related thereto) — LIS
— LFS.
In this example, in which there is one change point, we have

© (Each height of collimation x Relevant number of intersights and
foresights) = (94.778 xX 2) + (95.037 x 1)
= 284.593 m.
LIS = —0.841 m.
LFS = 2.039 m.
Whence 284.593 — (—0.841) — 2.039 = 283.395
Y All reduced levels
except the first.
1.2 Apportioning Reduce the levels below by the collimation method, apply appropriate
closing errors and checks. I is an OBM of specified level 56.174 m AOD. Adjust the
calculating gradients calculated levels so that the results at I agree with the specified level.
If the distance from A to H is 220 m calculate the mean gradient between
those points. Outline the practical precautions which must be taken for
accurate levelling.
Table 1.4
Remarks
OBM 58.031 m AOD

A
B
Cc
D
E
F
G
H
|
[Bradford]
E G
Figure 1.4

Solution Evaluate the reduced levels of the stations as shown in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5
Backsight Foresight Height of Reduced Remarks

collimation level
The next task is to determine the corrections to be applied. It will be noted

that in the table there is agreement between (LBS — LFS) and (final reduced
level — first reduced level). In addition, LIS = 8.224 m, and so as a further
check, we have
(58.630 X 1)+(58.085 x 4) +(58.807 x 2) +(58.156 x 2) = 524.896 m

Therefore 524.896 —8.224—8.641 = 508.031
Y all reduced levels except
the first.
However, the observations have been such that an error of —0.020 m has
arisen during the levelling since the level of I should be 56.174 m. Thus an
overall correction of +0.020 m has to be applied. In this example there have
been four instrument stations and it is reasonable to assume that similar errors
have arisen in each section, so we can apply a correction of +0.005 m for
each instrument station progressively from A to I as in Table 1.6.
As an alternative, +10 mm could be applied to the backsights and — 10 mm
to the foresights, being shared out to individual readings as either 3 mm or
2 mm, to give the total of 20 mm.
We now find the gradient of line AH. The corrected, reduced levels of
stations A and H are 55.503 m and 57.575 m, respectively, giving a rise of
2.072 m over a distance of 220 m. Hence the gradient is 1 in 220/2.072 or
1 in 106.2.
LEVELLING 7
Table 1.6
Observed Correction Corrected

reduced level reduced level
Oo <<
—-IrOoO7nmMoooaworD
1.3 Two-peg test (a) Explain how you would check a level for adjustment using the
‘classical’ two-peg test.
(b) Four stations P, Q, R and S were set out in a straight line such
that PQ = QR = RS = 30 m. A tilting level was set up at P and readings
of 2.148 m and 1.836 m were observed on a staff held vertically at Q
and R, respectively. The level was then set up at S and readings of
2.013 mand 1.755 m were observed on the staff held vertically in turn
at stations Q and R. The bubble was adjusted to be at the centre of its
run for each reading.
Check the overall adjustment of the level.
Solution (a) Figure 1.5 shows the method of conducting the two-peg test for
checking the adjustment of a level. Two rigid points A and B are marked on
the ground (the pegs) and the instrument is set up exactly between them at
point C. Readings are taken on to the staff held at A and B, and the difference
between them gives the difference in level of the pegs. The equality in length
of the backsights and foresights ensures that any instrumental error is equal
on both readings. The instrument is then moved so that it is outside the line
of the pegs and close to one peg. Readings are again taken on to the staff held
at points A and B, any discrepancy between the level difference given by the
first readings compared to that from the second readings is due to the instrument
being out of adjustment.
Error equal on
[= +}. ---| fase
both readings
—..
Figure 1 13

eee ee liek /
Nella im.
Q R Ss
30m 30m 30m
Figure 1.6
(b) This example shows an alternative method of carrying out the test. First
determine the apparent differences in level between Q and R. From Fig. 1.6,
(a) 2.148 — 1.836 = 0.312 m
(b) 2.013 — 1.755 = 0.258 m.
Since the two differences do not agree the horizonal axis of the telescope, called
its line of collimation, is not parallel to the bubble tube axis. To determine
the inclination of the line of collimation it is assumed that the line of collimation
is directed upwards, by 6, from the horizontal so for a horizontal sight line
the corrected staff readings are given in Table 1.7.
The two corrected differences in level are therefore
(2:148 — 300) — (1.836 — 600)

and (2.013"— 60@) — (1.755 — 300).
These must be equal
.. 0.312 + 300 II= 0.258 — 306
6 = —0.0009 radian.
Thus the line of collimation is pointed downwards rather than upwards, as

assumed in Fig. 1.6.
We now adjust the level. With the level at S the corrected staff readings are:
Staff at Q 2.013 + 0.054 = 2.067 m
Staff at R L755 +7 0027" —" 1.782 m
True difference 0.285 m
which is half the sum of the apparent differences.
Table 1.7
Instrument Staff position
2.148-—300 1.836—606
2.013—606 1.755—300
LEVELLING 9
The horizontal crosshair must be positioned by means of the tilting screw
to give readings of 2.067 m and 1.782 m, respectively, on the staff when held
in turn at Q and R. Actuating the tilting screw will displace the bubble which
must now be returned to its central position by means of the relevant adjusting
screws. The test would be repeated to ensure that readings conform to say
0.002 m.
1.4 Adjustment of Points A, B, C and D define a rectangle with AB = DC = 20 m and

an optical level AD = BC = 48 m. Point E lies on AD, such that AE = 15 m and ED
= 33 m. A level is set up at E and staff readings of 1.735 mand 0.688 m
are obtained at A and B respectively. The level is then moved to D and
staff readings of 2.307 m, 1.248 m and 1.546 m are obtained at A, B
and C respectively. Assuming the height of A to be 100 m, calculate
the heights of B and C. [London]
1.735 *688
she
4=
PG RES. # ley Corrected
staff reading
Figure 1.7
Solution Determine error in line of sight of level.

With the instrument established at E the measured difference in level between
A and B is 1.735 m — 0.688 m = 1.047 m (B is higher than A). When the
instrument is moved to D the rise from A to B is found to be (2.307 — 1.248) =
1.059 m (B is higher than A). The two values should be equal and hence the
line of sight does not appear to be horizontal.
Now, EB = 25 mand DB = 52 m. If the line of sight is inclined upwards
by @ radians,
Instrument at E, the corrected staff reading on

A = 1.735 m — 150
B = 0.688 m — 256
Instrument at D, the corrected staff reading on
A = 2.307 m — 486
B = 1.248 m — 520
Whence
(1.735 —150) — (0.688 —250) = (2.307 — 486) (1.248

— 526)
1.047+106 = 1.059+46
@ = 0.002 radian.
The corrected staff readings are given in Table 1.8.

Table 1.8
1.735 —0.030 2.307—0.096

0.688 — 0.050 ' 1.248 —0.104
Difference
Therefore corrected level difference = 1.067 m

Reduced level of B 100.000 + 1.067
= 101.067 m.
With respect to C the sighting distance was 20 m,

Therefore the corrected staff reading = 1.546 — 200
= 1.506 m,
and the difference in level between A and C is
2.211—1.506 = 0.705 m,
giving
Reduced level of C = 100.705 m.
1.5 Corrections for (a) What corrections should be applied to staff readings when level-
long sights ling over long distances? Derive an expression giving the combined
correction and determine the distance for which its value is 5 mm.
(b) In levelling across a wide river reciprocal observations gave the
following results for staffs held vertically at points P and Q from level
stations A and B respectively. A and P were near to each other on one
bank, whilst B and Q were similarly situated on the other bank.
Reading of staff at P from A = 1.495 m.

Reading of staff at P from B = 1.730 m.
Reading of staff at Q from A = 1.180 m.
Reading of staff at Q from B = 1.405 m. |
If the reduced level of P is 40.74 m above datum obtain that of Q.
(I. Struct. E.]
Solution (a) In Figure 1.8 the level has been set up at MSL and sighted
towards a staff held vertically at a distance IH away. IH is the line containing
the instrument axis, but the line of sight has been refracted to give J as the
staff reading. The two corrections which have to be combined to give the
required correction, JK, are the correction for curvature, HK, and the correction
for refraction of the line of sight, HJ.
LEVELLING 11
Figure 1.8 .
Using Pythagoras’s theorem in triangle IOH

IH? = HO?—I0?
(HK + KO)? —I0?
HK*+2HK x IO (since KO = IO)
= HK (HK + KL).
Now KL = (2R + 2h), and R, the radius of the earth, is approximately
6.37 km, whilst h will be of the order of 1.4 m. When using a typical 4 m
staff HK will not exceed 2.6 m, and so we can write (HK + KL) = 2R for
all practical purposes.
IH?
Therefore the correction for curvature = HK =
2R-
The line of sight is taken to be refracted downwards to meet the staff at J,
and if we assume this line to be of radius R,, using the same argument as
previously we can write
IH
HJ = —
2R,
2 2 2
Combined correction JK = gbtsoed «Es = ae Pa Rg
2R 2R, 2R R,
IH? IH? 1000
Now = (km) = ——— IH? (m)
2R 12 740 12 740
= 0.078 IH? (m) with IH expressed in
kilometres.
If HS is taken to be of the order of >

1
JK = 0.078 IH* x $
= 0.067 IH? (m)
= 0.067 d* (m)
where d IH (km).
If JK =5mm = 0.005m
0.005 = 0.067d?
Therefore
d = 0.273 km = 273 m.
Refracted
line of sight Level line
Figure 1.9
(b) Figure 1.9 shows the level stations and staff stations on each bank. The
line of sight and the level line can be considered the same between A and P,
B and Q, respectively, since the points are close together. Assuming no change
in refraction conditions when observing from A and then from B with the same
level, the level lines will give staff readings y below the actual staff readings
at Q and P, respectively.
The apparent differences in level are (1.495—1.180) m and
(1.730 —1.405) m, respectively. The corrected differences (H) in level are:
[1.495 — (1.180 —y)] and [1.730 —(1.405+y)], respectively. These differences
must be equal, and so
H = 1.495—1.180+y = 1.730—1.405—y.
Therefore 2H = (1.495 —1.180)+(1.730— 1.405)
or
Sum of apparent differences

2
= 105320) m.
Therefore the reduced level of Q = 40.74 + 0.32

= 41.06 m.
The reader should check that taking readings from level stations A and B
on to staffs held at P and Q will also eliminate instrument error. It is good
practice to read from A, then from B, and finally from A again to check the
refraction conditions.
If two levels be used for just one pair of observations they must be in good
adjustment.
LEVELLING 13
1.6 Trigonometrical Define a.
levelling (i) The coefficient of refraction (K,) in terms of the angle of
refraction and the angle subtended at the centre of the spheroid by the
arc joining the two survey stations.
(ii) The coefficient of refraction (Kz) in terms of the local radius of
the earth and the radius of curvature of the ray path. Prove from first
principles that K, = 2K, and quote an average value for the coefficient
of refraction.
Simultaneous reciprocal vertical angles have been observed, and the
recorded mean values are +06° 30’ 59.7” and —06° 31’ 37.5”, the
horizontal distance between the two observation stations being
1389.396 m. Assuming the local mean radius of the earth to be
6383.393 km, compute the coefficient of refraction, the corrections to
be applied for earth curvature and refraction and the corrected mean
vertical angle. [CEI]
Introduction The theory of trigonometrical levelling is as follows. Figure 1.10

shows two stations A and B whose height is to be established by reciprocal
observations from A and from B on to signals at B and A, respectively. Vertical
angles of a'(elevation) and 6 (depression) are therefore measured. The line
of sight will have been refracted and in Fig. 1.10 the tangent to the line of
sight makes an angle of r (the angle of refraction) with the direct line AB.
The vertical angle a@ is measured with respect to this tangent and to the
horizontal at A. Similarly from B the angle of depression 6 is measured from
the horizontal to the tangent to the line of sight.
To compare the difference in height between A and B triangle ABC needs
to be solved for BC. It will be noted that C lies on the arc through A, which
Horizontal
at B
Vertical __,
at A
Vertical
ia di a WEP Be eal =/C atB
Horizontal
at A
Figure 1.10
a

is parallel to the mean sea level surface. d is the geodetic or spheroidal distance
between A and B and could be deduced from National Grid coordinates. Angle
BAC between AB and chord AC is related to the angle c between the two
verticals at A and B which meet at the earth’s centre, since AC makes an angle
of c/2 with the horizontal at A.
Thus in triangle ABC
sin (a+c/2—r)
BC
= AC
sin [180 —(90 +c/2) —(a+c/2—r)]
sin (a+c/2—r)
AC
cos (a+c—r)
As will be seen from Fig. 1.10 the correction for curvature and refraction
at A and B is (c/2 —r) and this refers angles a and 8 to chords AC and BD,
respectively.
Thus elevation angle BAC = at+c/2—r
and depression angle DBA = B—c/2+r
but BAC = DBA since AC and BD are parallel.
a“
Therefore BAC = =ac B= Dita.
A
This is the corrected vertical angle of elevation at A (or depression at B) and

is the mean of the two measurements. In addition, since c and r are not usually
very large we can write
BC = AC tan (a+c/2—r)
= AC tan sesalal
2
+
Theretre honors Shee Kc wae.
Note that it is assumed that a is elevation and 6 is depression in the term

(a+ )/2. In practice, only magnitudes need to be considered, not signs,
providing one angle is elevation and the other is depression.
Solution. Calculate the refraction correction.
i
Put K, aes
c
R
and K, =
R,
in which r is the angle of refraction, R is the mean radius of the earth, R;
is the mean radius of the sight line, and c is the angle contained between the
two verticals.
LEVELLING 15
In Example 1.5 the combined correction JK was evaluated as
pO2R GeeoRR 2
d2
eae
aR Kk2)
in which IH = d. Now from Fig. 1.8 in which JK = JJ x JiK, in which JiK
is the angle between the level line and the refracted line of sight.
A d
Then JIK = atl Ks) ‘
2R
From above c/2—r = c/2—K,c
= c/2 (1—2K))
d
—— (1-—2K,) since c = d/R.
2R
Therefore K, = 2K,.
K, depends upon temperature gradients, and in certain cases the line of sight
can curve upwards rather than downwards; an average value is 0.07 overland.
It is the coefficient used in practice, i.e. the coefficient of refraction is defined
as the ratio between the angle of refraction and the angle at the centre of the
earth.
Now determine the mean vertical angle.
Observed angle of elevation a = 06° 30’ 59.7”

angle of depression B = 06° 31’ 37.5”.
Therefore m6 = 13°02 "-37.2°
and the corrected vertical angle = es

+B = 06° 31’ 18.6”.
Also chord AC = 2(R+AH4) sin c/2 in triangle ABC (Fig. 1.10). But for
practical purposes we can say
R+
chord AG: = arc AC = d BODINE
and unless H, is appreciable, chord AC virtually equals d.

It is possible to compensate further by assuming AC to lie at the mean height
of A and B, and to use that height in lieu of H, in the above expression. This
is a matter of judgement, but in this example the horizontal distance between
the stations has been specified and we shall write
c |_ 1389,396 1
n— = ——— x —____
2 2 6 383 393
ie. <= 39,4",
2

at+pB
but (a+c/2—r)
2
= 06° 31’ 18.6”
and so 2 =n = 18.9"
and r = 3.5”,
3.5
SO heya ).078,
ae ANS
The difference in height between the stations
= 1389.396 tan 06° 31’ 18.6”
158.84 m.
This value is given also when using the rigorous relationship for triangle ABC.
This example can be solved by the following computer program. The program
has been written for the general case, e.g. Problems 13 and 14. For this worked
example the heights of instrument, target and level at A should be entered as
0. This version of the program uses the horizontal distance between the stations,
but it can easily be converted to use the MSL distance by inserting:
135 L1 = L1*(R+V1)/R
If both observed angles are depressions, e.g. Problem 16, then the three angular
components of Al should be input negative.
Variables
Al = Elevation angle at A H1 = Height of instrument at A
A2 = Depression angle at B H2 = Height of instrument at B
A3 = Angle subtended at the H3 = Height of signal at A
centre of the earth H4 = Height of signal at B
A4 = Mean corrected angle L1 = Horizontal distance AB
Cl = Correction to angle Al M_ = Input/output, minutes
C2 = Correction to angle A2 R = Radius of the earth
C3 = Correction for curvature S = Input/output, seconds
C4 = Correction for refraction V1 = Ground level at A
C5 = Coefficient of refraction V2 = Ground level at B
D = Input/output, degrees
10 REM TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELLING
20 INPUT"HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT AT A (M) ";H1
30 INPUT"HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT AT B (M) ";H2
40 INPUT"HEIGHT OF SIGNAL AT A (M) "5H3
50 INPUT"HEIGHT OF SIGNAL AT B (M) ";H4
60 INPUT"ELEVATION ANGLE RECORDED AT A (D,M,S) ";D,M,S
70 Al=((3600*D) +(60*M) +S) /206264.8
80 INPUT"DEPRESSION ANGLE RECORDED AT B (D,M,S) ";D,M,S
90 A2=((3600*D) +(60*M) +S) /206264.8
100 INPUT"LEVEL OF GROUND AT A ABOVE MSL. (M) ";V1
110 INPUT"MEAN RADIUS OF THE EARTH (KM) ";R
120 R=R*1000
130 INPUT"HORIZONTAL DISTANCE AB (M) ";L1
140 A3=L1/(R+V1)
150 C1l=(H4-H1)/L1
160 C2=(H3-H2)/L1
170 A1l=A1-Cl
180 A2=A2+C2
190 A4=(A1+A2)/2
LEVELLING 17
200 V2=V1+INT((L1*TAN(A4) )*1000)/1000
210 C3=INT(A3*2062648!/2)/10 si:
220 C4=INT((A1+A3/2-A4) *206264.8%*10) /10
230 C5=ABS (INT (C4*1000/(2*C3)) /1000)
240 A4=A4*206264.8
250 D=INT(A4/3600)
260 M=INT((A4-(D*3600) ) /60)
270 S=INT((A4-(D*3600) -(M*60) ) *10) /10
280 PRINT"LEVEL AT B ="3V2;"M"
290 PRINT"MEAN OBSERVED ANGLE =";D;M;S
300 PRINT"CORRECTION FOR CURVATURE =";C3;"SEC"
310 PRINT"CORRECTION FOR REFRACTION =";C4;"SEC"
320 PRINT"COEFFICIENT OF REFRACTION =";C5
330 END
1.7 Levelling over Two survey stations A and B have been established on opposite sides
long distances of a large lake. The level of the station marker at A above water level
in the lake is 49.652 m and at B is 176.268 m. The distance between
A and B measured at water level is 67 256.4 m.
A theodolite with its trunnion axis 1.475 m above the station at A is
used to observe a target mounted 6.237 m above the station at B.
Determine the minimum clearance of the line of sight above water level.
How far from A does this occur?
Calculate the anticipated vertical angle at A. Will this be elevation
or depression?
Take the radius of the earth to be 6.382 48 x 10°m and the
coefficient of atmospheric refraction to be 0.082. [Bradford]
Vertical
at B
Vertical _ Horizontal
\ at A at A /
i Tangent to /
\ ae / refracted
i n|o line of sight
ee
67 256.4
ers tae. ee”
clearance /
\
Figure 1.11
Solution
Height of instrument at A above water level
= 1.475 + 49.652 = 51.127 m.
Height of target at B above water level
= 6.237 + 176.268 = 182.505 m.

Rise of line of sight from A to B
= 131.378 m
Equivalent vertical angle to sight B from A
131.378
= -————— radian
67 256.4
131.378
Sean 206,265
67 256.4
ll 402.9”
; ee
Over distance x from A curvature correction
2
x | 206 265
2 ~ 6 382 480
= 0.016 159 x x”.
Refraction correction (r)
= 0.082 X c,
Il 0.082 x 2 x 0.016 159 x x
= 0.002 650 x x”.
Therefore combined correction
= 0.01351 x x”.
When x 67 256.4 m
cil2—r = 908.6”.
If a is the vertical angle anticipated on the theodolite at A when sighting the

target at B
a + (c/2—r) = 402.9
a + 908.6 = 402.9.
Therefore a = —505.7”
—08’ 25.7” (i.e. depression).
(—505.7+0.013 51 Xx)x
Elevation of line of sight x from A =
206 265
For a minimum (by differentiation)
505.7 = 0.02702 x x
Therefore x = 18 716 m.
Over this distance

(—505.7+252.9)
the elevation of the line of sight = 18 716
206 265
— 22.938 m.
Therefore height above water level at lowest point (minimum clearance)
= 1 LAs 22,938
= 28.189 m.
Note that in this example the vertical angle a set off to sight the distant target
LEVELLING 19
at B is a depression. Such an eventuality can occur when the height of B above
A is small relative to distance AB. The expression
+
Hg — Hy =d X tan ote
was derived on the assumption that a was elevation and 6 was depression,
so in this case it is essential that a negative sign is given to a to acknowledge
that both measured vertical angles are depressions.
The expression for height difference in this case is
Hy — Hy = d x tan (F%)
*
a + (c/2—r) will be positive because c/2 is larger than a. In this example

if observations had been taken from both A and B then
a + (c/2—r) = 402.9”
= B — (c/2-n)
= B — 908.6”.
Therefore @ = 1311.5”.
So the two vertical angles recorded would be —505.7” and —1311.5”,

provided that the instrument heights and target heights are the same. Then
S05tat soli.” )
Hy
= Hy 67 256.4 tan eC 5
131.372 m.
The very small discrepancy between the given height difference and that
calculated is due to rounding off during the whole calculation.
1.8 Eye and object Two survey stations A and B are 5126.1 m apart. During the course
correction of taking reciprocal trigonometrical levels between these stations the
readings in Table 1.9 have been recorded.
Table 1.9
Height of Target Height of Mean observed

instr. at target vertical angle
A 1.5 B 1° 14’ 24”

B 1.4 A —
Assuming that the earth is a sphere with a circumference of 40 x

10° m and that the coefficient of refraction is 0.071 during both sets
of observations, compute the value of the missing angle. If the subsequent
observations confirm this value what is the difference in level between
A and B? (CEI)

(Z3—Na)
Figure 1.12
Solution Determine the ‘eye and object corrections’. It will be noted that the
height of the instrument at A is not the same as the height of the signal at
B. Thus the observed angle of elevation does not refer to the ground levels
at A and B. This difference in height causes the observed vertical angle to
be larger than that which would be noted if one could observe directly from
those points. A correction (e), termed the ‘eye and object’ correction, is applied
to reduce the observed value to the required value. In its simplest form it can
be written as (Zg—h,)/d radian. (See Fig. 1.12.)
Hence:
Height of target at B = 5.00 Height of target at A = 2.00
Height of instrument at A = 1.50 Height of instrument at B = 1.40
Therefore Zg—ha, = 3.50 Therefore Za, —hpz = 0.60
The eye and object correction to be applied to observation at A is

3.50
Correction = x 206 265 = 140.8”
26.1
= 02’ 20.8”.
The eye and object correction to be applied to observation at B is
Correction = atl X 206 265 = 24.1”.

126.1
Length subtended by 1” of arc at mean sea level
6
360 x 60 x 60
Therefore angle c subtended at earth’s centre by AB
= a =" 1665162
30.86
Refraction
r=—00nM < 166,. = 11.8".
€
Therefore, Sor —r yp Bege
LEVELLING 21
Angle of elevation (a,) from A (corrected for eye and object)
1° 14’ 24” — 2’ 20.8”

II lah S30"
Therefore angle corrected for curvature and refraction
=a, F cde — Fr
Matis 3.2” + 1 112" 1” 1s" 4.
If 6 is the angle of depression at B, the relevant eye and object correction
must be added to it to give the equivalent ground to ground measurement since
(Z, — hg) is positive.
Since a, + cl2—r = B, — (cl2—n)
= 1° 13’ 14.4”.
Therefore 6, = 6+24.1 = 1° 13’ 14.4” + 1’ 11.2”
= 1 )4°,25.6"
and thus B= 1° 14’ 1.5”.
+
Now Hy—H, = AB tan ote

where a, = 1° 12’ 3” and B, = 1° 14’ 26”.
(ie 12 et l* 14” 26")

Therefore Hy—A,y = 5126.1 tan
= 109.2 m.
Had the slant distance between A and B been measured (as in Problem 15)
it should be reduced to its equivalent chord length at the mean height of the
stations.
1.9 Parallel plate Precise levels are normally fitted with a parallel plate micrometer.
micrometer Derive an expression relating the displacement of the line of sight d,
the thickness of the glass plate ¢, the angle of rotation of the plate i and
the refractive index of the glass n.
Calculate the thickness of a parallel plate micrometer made of glass
having a refractive index of 1.7 if it is specified that a 30° rotation of
the plate causes a 5.00 mm displacement of the line of sight. State clearly
any assumptions made. Check the answer from first principles in order
to determine whether or not the assumptions are justified. [Bradford]
Introduction In Fig. 1.13 the parallel plate, fitted in front of the objective
lens, is shown rotated through angle i from its vertical position. When vertical,
the line of sight to the staff will not be displaced vertically, but when the parallel
plate is rotated by means of a micrometer ‘knob’ that line can be directed
upwards or downwards. By adjusting the line to the nearest graduation of the
levelling staff the micrometer effectively allows readings to 0.01 mm.
Solution The derivation of the formula is as follows.
'
|
position
j Displaced
ia line of sight
ll
position
Figure 1.13
In triangle PQR
PQ = t/cos 0
RQ = d.
Therefore d = : sin (i — @)
cos 0
ae : 6
=f (sn — cosi where sin i = n sin 6
Cos
sin i
cos i n
=tsini| 1 —
sin 1 sin2i
1 —- ae
n
pean cos 1
ll feSitbob: |) me eee
Vn?
—sini
fue 1 —sin‘i
tsini{l — Ss YS:
n=sint
If we assume that 7 is small
a = mynioats
n
(in which 7 is expressed in radians).

To determine t, we have
—1
d=txi & iy
n
We are given
n = 1.7, d = 5 mm andi = 30° = 0.5236 radian.
.7-1.0
Hence 5.0 =t X 0.5236 Jie naee
Therefore ft = 23.2 mm.
LEVELLING 23
Using the rigorous formula
ane V1i- sin2i
t X
et Vn sini
— Ss
d=
V1—-0.5?
5.0 x05 (1-
V1.77-0.57 ]
Therefore ¢ = 21.41 mm.
Problems
1 Book and reduce the following levels and carry out the necessary
checks on the arithmetic. A pair of numbers indicate a change point,
the first number being the backsight.
Staff Reading (m)
1.263 OBM, reduced level 26.294 m.
3.279, 0.796 Change point.
0.376 —_— Road level under bridge.
—2.162 Soffit of bridge arch.
2.014 TBM, reduced level 27.42 m.
Could a lorry 4.1 m high pass under the bridge? [Salford]
Answer No, clearance under bridge = 3.874 m.
2 Levels are taken to determine the height of two pegs a and b, and
to determine the soffit level of an overbridge. Using the values of levels
indicated in Table 1.10, and given that the first backsight is taken on
a BM at a church (RL 60.270 m), and the final foresight is on a BM
at a school (RL 59.960 m), determine the closing error and the height
between the underside of the bridge and the ground immediately below
it. Use both the collimation level and the rise and fall methods and apply
the usual checks. [Salford]
Answer 4mm; 5.473 m.
Table 1.10
Level (m) Remarks
Backsight to BM on church 60.270 m OD

Foresight. Change Point 1
Backsight. Change Point 1
Inverted staff to soffit of bridge
Ground level beneath centre of bridge
Foresight. Change Point 2
Backsight. Change Point 2
Peg a
Peg b
Foresight to BM on school 59.960 m OD

3. The rail levels of an existing railway were to be checked and raised
as necessary. Points A, B, C, D, E, F and G were marked on the rails
at regular 20 m intervals and the following levels were taken (all
measurements in metres).
Backsight 2.80 m on OBM 25.10 m.
Intermediate sights on A, B and C: 0.94, 0.76 and 0.57, respectively.
Foresight and backsight at change point D: 0.37 and 1.17, respectively.
Intermediate sights on E and F: 0.96 and 0.75, respectively.
Foresight on G: 0.54.
Book and reduce these readings using the rise and fall method and carry
out appropriate checks.
Assuming the levels at A and G were correct, calculate the amount
by which the rails would have to be lifted at the intermediate points to
give a uniform gradient throughout. [Salford]
Answer 0.02, 0.03, 0.03, 0.02, 0.01.
4 Complete the extract in Table 1.11 from a level book, applying the
usual arithmetic checks. [Leeds]
Table 1.11
Backsight Intersight Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Remarks

level
2.160 220.64 OBM
2.316
—0.874 Inverted staff
225.05 OBM
Answer RL at inverted staff = 226.978 m.
5 A levelling exercise was performed as the first stage of an

improvement scheme along a short section of road. The engineer reduced
the levels by the height of collimation method whilst on site, and then
carelessly dropped his field book in a puddle, obliterating some of the
figures. Table 1.12 shows the level book, determine the missing entries
and insert them in their appropriate place.
Table 1.12
Backsight | Intersight | Foresight Height of Distance Remarks

collimation
88.41
Last RL — First RL
= 8.80
LEVELLING 25
The proposed improvement involves regrading the road to a 1 in 20
gradient, rising from chainage 0 to 300, afd passing through the existing
surface at chainage 180 m. Determine the maximum depths of required
excavation and fill. [Salford]
Answer Cut 1.17 m; Fill 5.17 m.
6 Reduce the levels in Table 1.13 by the rise and fall method, applying
appropriate checks.
Calculate the headroom of the bridge at A + 80 m and the mean
gradient of the ground between the points A and A + 120 m.
[Bradford]
Answer 5.093 m, 1 in 35.2. .
Table 1.13
Satan Intersight Foresight esd ge Reduced Remarks
——— =
level
2.919 27.113 TBM

3.022 0.461 A
1.508 A+ 20m
2.553 A+ 40m
2.298 0.277 A + 60m
1.602 A + 80m
—3.491 Bridge soffit at A + 80m
1.782 1.422 A + 100m
| 1.998 A + 120m
7 The values indicated in Table 1.14 refer to levels taken along the
centre line of a proposed road at 30 metre intervals.
Determine the reduced levels, and the depth of the earthworks at each
point, given that the reduced level at chainage 100 metres is 46.400 metres
and formation level is to-rise at a gradient of 1 in 50 from a reduced
level of 45.000 m at chainage 100 metres.
Answer 1.4, 2.16, 3.77, 1.72. -
Table 1.14
100 RL 46.400 m
130
160
Foresight at change point
Backsight at change point
190
8 A straight section of road XY is to be reconstructed such that it has

a constant gradient of 1 in 40, falling from X to Y. The level of the
road at X is to remain unaltered. The levels in Table 1.15 were recorded
along the centre line of the existing road.
(() Draw up and complete the level book for these readings applying
the usual arithmetical checks.
(i) Determine the height of the underside of the bridge above the
centre line level when the road has been reconstructed.

(iii) Calculate the depth of cut or fill at Y when the road has been
reconstructed. [Leeds]
Answer (ii) 5.654 m; (iii) 17 mm fill.
Table 1.15
Backsight | Intermediate sight | Foresight |Remarks
BM 112.309 AOD
Point X
30 m from X
60 m from X
Change point
90 m from X
120 m from X
Inverted staff on underside
of bridge 126.8 m from X
Change point
150 m from X
Point Y (170 m from X)
BM 107.895 AOD
9 A level is set up at point X and readings of 0.219 and 1.674 are taken
on to two bench marks A and B respectively. The height of A is 166.84 m
above datum and of B is 165.37 m above datum. If the distances XA
and XB are 87.6 m and 33.8 m respectively, calculate the collimation
error per 100 m. If a further reading of 2.121 is taken from X on to
a point Y, 71.6 m from X, calculate the height of Y. [Leeds]
Answer 27.9 mm; 164.934 m.
10 The readings in Table 1.16 were obtained during a levelling

operation in which the backsights and foresights were 25 m and 35 m
long respectively.
All stations and the positions of the level were collinear.
Determine (i) the instrument error, and (ii) the reduced level of station
E given that the reduced levels of A and G were 45.710 m and 39.078 m
respectively.
Answer 0.0009 radians; 40.654 m.
Table 1.16
0.654
Te [| oe
0.356
11 A series of flying levels was taken up a slope 750 m long, the

backsights being half as long again as the foresights. The apparent height
of the station at the top of the slope was 89.732 m. Since this did not
agree with a previous measurement the level was checked against two
pegs X and Y which were 40 m apart, Y being 0.292 m above X. When
the level was set up 40 m from X and 80 m from Y, staff readings of
LEVELLING 27
1.826 m on X and 1.493 m on Y were recorded. Determine the true
level of the top station. al
Answer 89.886 m.
12 Four points A, B, C and D are pegged out on fairly level ground

in a straight line so that the distance AB = BC = CD = 20 m. Readings
taken with a level at B gave values of 2.75 m and 1.51 mon staves held
vertically at stations A and C, respectively. Readings from station D
to stations A and C gave values of 2.27 m and 1.15 m, respectively.
State whether the instrument is in or out of adjustment, and if out of
adjustment, what staff readings would have been recorded from station
D with a correctly adjusted instrument. bs [Eng. Council]
Answer 2.45 m; 1.21 m.
13. Reciprocal vertical angles were observed between stations A and

B as follows:
Mean observed angle A to B +1° 48’ 15”
B to. A = —1° 48’ 02’.
Height of instrument atA = = 1.35m
B = 1.36 m.
Height of signal at A = 3.10m
B = 4.50 m.
Reduced level of A = 185.40 m.
Geodetic distance AB = 5800 m.
Radius of the earth = 6370 km.
Calculate (i) the reduced level of B

(ii) the refraction correction.
Answer (i) 367.21 m; (ii) 13.4”.
14 The horizontal distance between two stations P and Q is 5951.30 m.

A theodolite at P is sighted on to a beacon adjacent to station Q at the
same time as a theodolite at Q sights on to a beacon adjacent to station
P. The following measurements are obtained:
Angle of elevation atP = 1° 19’ 38”.
Angle of depression atQ = 1° 21’ O01”.
Height of beacon at P = 2.85 m
at Q = 2.36 m.
Height of instrument at P = 1.36m
atQ = 1.47 m.
Determine the difference in level between the two stations and the
coefficient of atmospheric refraction. Assume that the radius of the earth
is 6.37 X 10°m. [ICE]
Answer 139.27 m; 0.071
15 Vertical angle observations were made between two stations, Aga

and Beetle, whilst a third station, Citation, was also observed from Aga.

The results in Table 1.17 were obtained.
Table 1.17
At station Mean vertical angle EDM slant Inst. ht

range
Aga —01° 22’ 09” to Beetle 6126.45 m

—02° 19’ 45” to Citation 4321.22 m
Beetle +01° 20’ 20” to Aga
If the height of Aga is 521.46 m AOD and the radius of the earth is
6380 km, calculate the heights of Beetle and Citation. [Leeds]
Answer 376.24 m; 346.34 m.
16 As part of a hydrographic survey of an estuary across the mouth

of which a barrage is to be constructed, a height was transferred by
simultaneous reciprocal vertical angles.
Table 1.18
At station Inst. ht Target ht Mean VA Slant range
is 1.83 2.13 01’ 04”

—00° 00’ 16" | 1524.92 m
B 1.72 2.09 00°
If the height of A is 5.117 m AOD, calculate the height of B.

[Leeds]
Answer 5.014 m.
17. The following simultaneous measurements of zenith distances were

made between two stations A and B:
Corrected slope length AB. 8804.8 metres.
ZD A to B. 90° 01’ 22”.
ZD'B to A. OO O02 °187.
Height of theodolite at A 1.17 m; target at A 0.89 m.
Height of theodolite at B 1.33 m; target at B 2.58 m.
Find the difference in height between A and B and the coefficient of
terrestrial refraction, and explain why both observations are depressions.
[London]
Answer 0.3 m; 0.074.
18 Simultaneous vertical angles are observed between two stations A

and B which are 21.8 km apart. The height of station A is 299.65 m
above datum. The following observations are recorded:
Instrument at A
Height of instrument above ground = 1.45 m
Height of target at B above ground = 3.10 m
Vertical angle + 00° 11’ 12”
LEVELLING 29
Instrument at B
Height of instrument above ground = 1.52 m
Height of target at A above ground = 3.86 m
Vertical angle — 00° 20’ 52”
If the mean radius of the earth is 6375 km, calculate the coefficient of
atmospheric refraction and the height of station B above datum.
[Leeds]
Answer 0.062; 401.67 m.
19 The heights of two stations X and Y above datum are 311.02 m

and 315.48 m respectively. There is an intervening hill on the line XY
at a height of 310.41 m above datum. A theodolite is set up at the height
of 1.44 m above station X, which is 12.6 km from the hill and 17.4 km
from Y. If the coefficient of atmospheric refraction is 0.068 and the mean
radius of the earth is 6375 km, calculate the minimum height at which
a target must be erected above the ground at Y in order that it may be
observed from the instrument at X. (Assume that the line of sight must
clear the hill by at least 3 m.) [Leeds]
Answer 4m.
20 A lighthouse is to be constructed on a cliff top site overlooking the

sea. The ground level at this point is 35.260 m above datum. There is
an existing illuminated buoy 33.4 km from the lighthouse, the illuminated
target on the buoy being 2.4 m above the water level. The highest and
lowest tides normally expected are 4.700 m above datum and 0.460 m
below datum respectively and the coefficient of atmospheric refraction
is found to vary between 0.062 and 0.075. If the mean radius of the
earth is 6375 km, calculate the minimum height of the observation point
in the lighthouse above the ground such that the buoy is always visible.
i [Leeds]
Answer 21.36 m.
21 Discuss the effect of the earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction

on the determination of levels and heights, and derive from first principles
an expression for the correction of long levelling sights.
In levelling across a wide river, two survey stations A and B have
been established on opposite banks. The following readings were
observed to vertical staves positioned at stations A and B by two levelling
instruments. Instrument 1 was set near to station A and Instrument 2
near to.station B.
Instrument Staff reading at A Staff reading at B
1 1.823 2.481
2 2.499 ac182
If the reduced level of A is 31.282 m above datum, what is the reduced

level of B? What error would be incurred by ignoring the curvature and
refraction correction? [Eng. Council]
Answer 30.612 m; +0.012 m.
22 Two survey stations A and B have reduced levels 193.5 m and

314.0 m respectively; the distance AB is 15940 m. There is an
intervening ridge 238 m high across the line, 5700 m from A. Show
that a target 3 m above ground level at B would not be visible from a
theodolite 1.5 m above the ground at A.
If the ridge were covered with scrub 10 m high, how high a tower
would be required at A in order to observe a signal 5 m high at B, with
a clearance of 5 m above the scrub? Assume a value of 0.07 for k and
take the radius of the earth as 6380 km. [London]
Answer 27.39 m.
23 Reciprocal vertical angles were observed between two stations A

and B as follows:
Mean observed angle A to B = —1’ 02”
Bto A = —2’ 59”
Height of instrument at A == 1.35m
atB = 1.33m
Height of signal at A = 3.10 m
at B = 4.50 m
Reduced level of A = 175.4m
Distance AB = 11 600m
Estimate the reduced level of B. What would be the error in that level
if only the observation from B to A had been taken and the assumption
made that the refraction coefficient was 0.071? A length of 30.95 m at
mean sea level may be taken to subtend an angle of 1” at the centre
of the earth. [Salford]
Answer 178.0 m; 0.2 m.
24 Given that the refractive index from air to glass is 1.6 determine
the angular rotation of a parallel plate, of thickness 10 mm, to give a
vertical displacement of the image of the staff through 0.1 mm.
Answer 01° 31’ 40”
25 A parallel-plate micrometer attached to a level is to provide a

displacement of 2.5 mm when rotated through an angle of 15° on either
side of the vertical. Using both the precise and approximate equations,
calculate the thickness of the plate required if the refractive index of
the glass is assumed to be 1.6. [Eng. Council]
Answer 24.88 mm.
LEVELLING 31
2
Distance measurement
Three methods of distance measurement are reviewed in this chapter, namely

by tape, by electromagnetic distance measuring equipment (EDM) and by
optical methods.
By tape (or wire) For many years the very accurate measurement of distance depended upon
the careful use of steel tapes or wires. Nowadays, EDM is used almost
exclusively for accurate work but the steel tape still is of value for measuring
limited lengths and for setting out purposes.
Up to seven corrections may be applied to the measured length, to give the
true length, dependent upon the circumstances of the measurement.
Correction for A steel tape will normally be provided with standardizing data, for example
standard it may be designated as 30 m long under a tension of 5 kgf at a temperature
of 20 °C when laid on the flat. With use the tape may stretch and it is imperative
that the tape is regularly checked against a reference tape kept specifically for
this purpose.
Correction for tension _ If the tape is of correct length under a standard tension and it is used under
a different tension the correction which should be applied is
(P—P,)L
AE °
where P is the tension applied in the field, P, is the standard tension, A is
the cross-sectional area of the tape, E is Young’s modulus for the tape material,
and L is the observed length.
The sign of the correction takes that of quantity (P—P,). Obviously, when
P is made equal to P, the correction is zero and the arithmetic is simplified
but the proviso#mentioned in the correction for sag should be borne in mind.
Correction for sag For very accurate work the tape can be allowed to hang in catenary, free of
the ground, between suitable supports. In the case of a long tape intermediate
supports can be used to reduce the magnitude of the correction (see Fig. 2.1).
If the tape has been standardized on the flat the correction which should
be applied to reduce the curved length to the chord length is

Measuring
Chord rd |length des head
ee
Figure 2.1
w-L3
24 p*’
where w is the weight of the tape per unit length (P should be larger than 20wZ).
If such a tape is used on a plane surface which can be considered flat then
no correction is applicable.
If the tape has been standardized in catenary the equivalent chord length
is given by the graduations, provided that the standardizing tension is applied.
If such a tape is used on the flat then the correction is added to the tape length.
Correction for slope In surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths are determined. Thus length
L measured on the slope must be reduced to its equivalent plan length L cos
6 (see Fig. 2.2). The correction to be applied is
L
h
L cos @
Figure 2.2
(L cos 6 — L) = —L (1—cos 98).
2 94 s
Now cos 6 = 1— — + — + ..., which is nearly equal to 1 — rat
2! 4! 2L
h einer bass h?
where 6 = ra, Thus a simplified form of the correction is — Sap pro-
vided that h is small. Alternatively, Pythagoras’s theorem can be used to

calculate the horizontal distance directly from \(L? —h”) whatever the relative
magnitude of h.
It is usual to calculate the corrections for sag and slope separately and then
add them together. The change in shape of the catenary has to be considered
when h is large, but if it remains below, say, 2 m there should be little loss
of accuracy for a tape 30 m long.
Correction for If a tape is used at a field temperature different from the standardization
temperature temperature then the correction is
iveaeea)
where «a is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material, T is the
DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 33
field temperature, and Ts is the standardization temperature. The sign of the
correction takes the sign of (T— Ts). :
Correction to mean In the case of long lines in triangulation surveys the relationship between the
sea level length measured on the ground and the equivalent length at mean sea level
has to be considered. This is also the case when any distance measurements
are being related to National Grid co-ordinates (see Ch. 4). If the measured
length is L,, and the height of the line above datum is H then, since both
lengths subtend the same angle at the earth’s centre (see Fig. 2.3),
Figure 2.3
pS Ur Oe 4
and
Lnsi = RO,
where R is the radius of the earth. Now,
f= Digs = |
R H+R
and so
R
Lnsi = Lm War
The correction to be applied is
R H
| OY Skee 1)RO hE) Ee apn
mst — Lm 0 a NE es Race
pase
H
ay
when H is small compared to R.
Electromagnetic Two main types of EDM are encountered in land surveying, namely the
distance electronic or microwave systems and electro-optical instruments. The principle
measurement (EDM) of operation is that a transmitter at the master station sends a modulated

continuous wave (carrier wave) to a receiver at the remote station, from which
it is returned. The instruments measure slope distance between transmitter and
receiver by modulating the continuous carrier wave at different frequencies,
and then measuring the phase difference at the master between the outgoing
and the incoming signals. Thus an element of double distance is introduced.
If } is the measured phase difference and’) the modulation wavelength, the
expression for the distance (D) traversed by the wave is
2D = nv + spi. d\ + a constant,
2a
where n is the number of complete wavelengths contained within the double
distance and will be unknown. The purpose of deploying different modulation
frequencies is to evaluate this number by comparing the phase differences of
the various outgoing and measuring signals. Note that
. ae >
nf
where Cg is the velocity of the electromagnetic wave in a vacuum, f is the
frequency, and n is the refractive index of the medium through which the wave
passes.
Nowadays, most local survey work and setting out for civil engineering works
will be carried out using infrared based EDM, which falls within the electro-
optical group. The infrared carrier wave is transmitted to a passive reflector,
usually a retrodioptive prism, from which it is returned to the master at the
other end of the line. Ranges of the order of 1—3 km are attainable by standard
instruments with an accuracy of +5 mm and many include slope reduction
and calculation functions as part of the electronics.
Electronic or microwave instruments are mainly used over long ranges (up
to 100 km). The remote instrument needs an operator acting to instructions
from the master at the other end of the line because the signal is transmitted
from the master station, received by the remote station and retransmitted to
the master station. Lengths of 100 km can be measured to an accuracy of
+50 mm.
There are some instruments available that send modulation pulses along the
carrier wave and measure the transit time, but this is not the typical mode
cf measurement.
Optical distance Tacheometry or tachymetry is the method of surveying by which distance and
measurement heighting information can be determined from theodolite observations on either
(tacheometry or a levelling staff (stadia system) or a horizontally mounted bar (subtense system).
tachymetry) In practice, measurement by EDM is replacing measurements by optical
methods but they are still useful techniques when only conventional equipment
is available.
Stadia tacheometry For stadia tacheometry vertical angles need to be measured when the
theodolite’s line of sight is inclined. Stadia marks on the instrument diaphragm
relate the staff intercept to the slope distance.
Subtense For subtense tacheometry the horizontal angle subtended by targets on a special
tacheometry horizontal bar (subtense bar) has to be measured. For heighting, a vertical
angle is also required. In Fig. 2.4,
Subtense bar
length b
fs Keeressernney) B
b -
2
pe ye
H
Figure 2.4
b/2 b eat’,
H= = =
tan 6/2 2 tan 6/2 6
when 6 is very small. Example 8.6 illustrates the use of a horizontal subtense
bar.
An alternative to the horizontal bar is a vertical bar carrying two targets;
in this case vertical angles are measured and the method is termed the tangential
system.
2.1 Basic tape A survey line was measured with a tape, .believed to be 20 m long,
measurements and a length of 284.62 m resulted. On checking, the tape was found to
measure 19.95 m long:
(a) What was the correct length of the line?
(b) If the line lay on a slope of 1 in 20 what would be the reduced
horizontal length used in the plotting of the survey?
(c) What reading is required to produce a horizontal distance of
15.08 m between two site pegs, one being 0.66 m above the other?
Solution. (a) Each time the tape is tensioned under its standardized value
a length of 20 m would be booked overall. But actually only a length of 19.95 m
has been covered. Hence the tape is reading ‘high’, the error is positive and
any subsequent correction must have a negative effect.
19.95
Correct length of line xX 284.62
20.00
= 283.91 m.
(b) A slope of 1 in 20 implies that there is a change in height of 1 m over
each 20 m in length horizontally.
In Fig. 2.5(a) angle 6 = tan~! 1/20
22 S2iby avg

Slope
' a length
1
Cc 20 B
Figure 2.5(a)
Alternatively, for small angles, @ = 1/20 radian, which gives the same value
for 0.
Thus the required length AC = AB cos 2° 52’
283.91 x 0.998 75
= 283.56 m.
Note that horizontal distances are required when plotting surveys.
5.08 m
15. Q
R 0.66 m
Site pegs R
Figure 2.5(b)
(c) In Fig. 2.5(b) rather than estimating the position of Q above R by eye
or by spirit level, it is preferable to set out the equivalent slope length be-
tween points P and R on top of the site pegs.
Let the slope length required be r.
0.66
Now tana = :
15.08
Therefore a = 2° 30’
thus r= 15.08 sec 2° 30”
= 15.09 m
Required tape reading = 15.09 x = 15.13 m.
2.2 Tape corrections The information in Table 2.1 was obtained when measuring the length
of a line by tape suspended in catenary under a pull of 134 N, the mean
temperature being 16°C.
Table 2.1
Bay Length (m) Difference in level (m
If the tape was standardized on the flat under a pull of 89 N at 20°C
how long is the line?
Cross-sectional area of tape = 3.24 mm?
Mass of tape = 0.026 kg/m
Coefficient of linear expansion = 0.000 0009 /°C
Young’s modulus = 155 000 MN/m?
Mean height of line above mean sea level = 53.78 m
Radius of earth = 6367 km
[Salford]
Introduction. Assuming that the four bays are collinear, five corrections,
sag, pull, slope, temperature and mean sea level, will have to be evaluated
to obtain the actual length of the line.
Solution. It is convenient to tabulate the field measurements as shown in
Table 2.2.
Table 2.2
26 725.54
26 865.22
26 685.33
w2 L?
Sag correction =—-
24 P?
_ (0.026 x 9.806)? x 107 009.67
24 x 134?
—0.0161 m
(P=P)L
Pull correction =
AE
(134—89) 119.632
3.24 x 15.5 x 104
0.0107 m
In this example the simplified slope correction equation is used. A more
rigorous method is presented in Examples‘2.1 and 2.3.

2
Slope correction =- = = —0.0046 m
Temperature correction = a(T—T,)L

= 0.000 000 9 (16—20) x 119.632
= —0.0004 m
Mean sea level correction = — =
Sak. 119652 53.78

6 367 000
= —0.0010 m
Sum of all corrections = —0.0161+0.0107

—0.0046 — 0.0004 —0.0010
= —0.011 m
Actual length of line = 119.632 — 0.011

= 119.621 m
The following computer program can be used to solve this problem. Take
care that the data is entered in the correct units.
Variables
A = Cross-sectional area of tape L Length of any bay
C = Coefficient of thermal L1 = Total length of line
expansion L2 = Corrected length of line
Cl = Correction for tension L3 = Sum of L?
Cz = Correction for sag M = Tape mass
C3 = Correction for temperature N Number of bays
C4 = Correction for slope r Standard pull
= Correction for sea level Pl = Pull used at time of survey
E = Young’s modulus for the S = Height above sea level
tape T = Standard temperature
H = Level differences across any Tl = Temperature at time of
bay survey
= Counter W = Weight of tape
10 REM TAPE CORRECTIONS

20 INPUT "INPUT NUMBER OF BAYS ", N
30 FOR I = 1 TON
40 PRINT "BAY"; I
50 INPUT "INPUT LENGTH, LEVEL DIFFERENCE ", L, H
Ll = Ll +L
70 L3 = L3 + (L * 3)
80 C4 = C4 - (H * H / (2 * L))
90 NEXT I
100 INPUT "TEMPERATURE AT TIME OF SURVEY ", T1
110 INPUT "PULL USED TO TENSION TAPE INN ", Pl
120 INPUT "INPUT HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL aS
130 PRINT "TAPE DETAILS"
140 INPUT "INPUT CROSS SECTIONAL AREA IN MM ", A
150 INPUT "COEF. OF THERMAL EXPANSION Le
160 INPUT "MASS IN KG/M "OM
170 INPUT "YOUNG’S MODULUS IN N/MM2 ",—E
180 INPUT "STANDARD TEMPERATURE ", 7
190 INPUT "STANDARD PULL ", P
200 W=M * 9.806
210 Cl = INT(((P1 - P) * L1 / (A * E)) * 100000! + .5) / 100
220 C2 = INT((L3 * W * W * (-1) / (24 * Pl **P1)) * 100000! + .5) / 100
230 C3 = INT((L1 * C * (T1 - T)) * 100000! + .5) / 100
240 C4 = INT(C4 * 100000! + .5) / 100
250 C5 = INT((L1 * S * (-1) / (6367000! + S)) * 100000! + .5) / 100
260 L2 = L1 + (C1 + C2 + C3 + C5 + C5) / 1000
270 PRINT "APPARENT LENGTH OF BASE LINE ="; L1; "M"
280 PRINT "CORRECTION FOR TENSION ="; Cl; "MM"
290 PRINT "CORRECTION FOR SAG ="; C2; "MM"
300 PRINT "CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE ="; C3; "MM"
310 PRINT "CORRECTION FOR SLOPE ="; C4; "MM"
320 PRINT "CORRECTION FOR SEA LEVEL ="; C5; "MM"
330 PRINT "ACTUAL LENGTH OF BASE LINE ="; L2; "M"
340 END
2.3 Slope correction As part of a motorway widening contract it is proposed to increase

for steep gradients the gradient of the sideslope of an existing embankment to 1 vertical
by 1.5 horizontal. At a critical section the difference in level between
the toe of the embankment and the road surface was found to be
14.346 m. The length of the existing embankment slope was measured
along its surface using a steel tape under a pull of 147 N to be 29.271 m
at an air temperature of 25°C. If the tape was standardized on the flat
at 20°C under a pull of 49 N what is the gradient of the existing sideslope
and how much additional road width can be obtained with the new slope?
Cross-sectional area of tape = 6mm
Young’s modulus 207 000 MN/m?
Coefficient of linear expansion 0.000 011/°C
Introduction. The embankment has been measured along its slope and this
distance needs to be reduced to the horizontal after first correcting for the effect
of pull and temperature. The tape was used on the flat and so there is no sag
correction, and adjustment to mean sea level is not necessary in this case.
Solution. First correct the measured length.
Pull correction = Bah);

AE
(147
— 49) 29.271
6 xX 207 000
0.0023 m
Temperature correction alot NL
0.000 011 (25-20) 29.271
= 0.0016 m
Slope length, s = 29.271+0.0023+0.0016
= 29.275 m
In Example 2.2 the approximate slope correction £ h?/2L was used. This can
be used for small values of h but would induce a very significant error (236 mm)
on the steep slope that occurs here. The exact reduced horizontal distance can

be obtained using Pythagoras’s theorem.
L. = (s7—h?)
= V(29.275?— 14.346)
= 25.519 m
Existing gradient = 25.519/14.346
= 1 in 1.78
The final stage is to calculate the horizontal length that will occur with the
new 1:1.5 gradient.
In = 14.346 X 1.5
= 21.519
Additional road width = 25.519—21.519
= 4.0m
2.4 Incorrect Derive expressions giving the errors in the pull and sag corrections
measurement of field due to an error of +6P in the value of the applied tension P.
pull The length of a baseline was deduced as 1319.774 m when measured
by a tape of length 30 m suspended in catenary. Determine the corrected
length of the line if the actual field tension was 170 N instead of the
intended value of 178 N.
The tape, which was standardized in the flat under a pull of 89 N,
had a mass of 0.026 kg/m and a cross-sectional area of 3.25 mm”. Take
Young’s modulus as 155 000 MN/m? and the acceleration due to
gravity as 9.806 m/s?. [Salford]
Solution. Consider the effects of the error in field pull. Let the error in
the nominal applied tension P be +6P. In the case of the pull correction
P+6P—P,)L
—PJL
actual pull correction = (so
AE
‘ (P=—P)L
nominal pull correction = —————
AE
error = actual correction
— nominal correction
(P+dP—P)L (P—PL
AE AE
'p
= +6P xX ——
AE
L nominal pull correction

but es,
AE P—P,
6P X nominal correction
Therefore the error in = + b
pull correction Par,
i.e. an increase in P implies that the pull correction increases.

In respect of the sag correction
—w-L3 -wJ?
actual sag correction = RAP 2ePy? ~ me
24P? (1 a
FP
w7L3
nominal sag correction = — ———~ '
24 P
error in sag correction = actual correction — nominal correction
w2L? 6P \~-2 w2L3

epligriecreee
24 P el BRSa.
P 8 WES 24 P 2
wL3 ( | w?L3
24 P? P ) 24 P?
6P
neglecting all other terms in gre
: 6P 4 :
Therefore error in sag = * —— X nominal sag correction,
correction P
i.e. an increase in P reduces the sag correction.

Next, determine the individual nominal corrections.
P, = 89 N, P = 178 N and 6P = —8N.

E
Nominal pull correction P-P) ——
P-F) a
_ (178 —89)30
3.25 x 155 000
0.0053 m per 30 m, say.
w2L?
Nominal sag correction =-
24 P?
_ 9.806)?
0.026 x 307
24 x 1783
= —0.0023 m per 30 m, say.
Finally compute the errors in the total nominal corrections. Any change to
the deduced length of the line will depend‘upon changes in just the pull and

Sag corrections since these are the corrections which involve the field pull.
The deduced length of 1319.744 m implies that there were 44 bays measured
by the 30 m tape.
Now 6P = —8N.
—6P ;
Error due to —6P = X nominal correction
P-P,
= ———— x 00,0053 x 44 for the whole fine

178 —89
= —0.0210 m.
Thus the total pull correction was overestimated by 0.0210 m.

26P
Error due to —6P = + pr x nominal correction
= 2x 8 (0.0023)
—0, m per b ba
178 P Y
I ats 3
= x —0.0023 x 44 for the whole line
178
= —0.0091 m.
Thus the total sag correction was too small by 0.0091 m.

The length of the line has therefore been overestimated because the pull
correction (too large) would have been added to the measured length, since
P>P,, whilst the sag correction (too small) would have been subtracted.
Overestimation = 0.0210 + 0.0091
= 0.0301 m.
Therefore length of line = 1319.744—0.030
= 1319.714 m.
2.5 Measuring Prove the following equation for the elongation of a steel measuring
depths down a shaft tape when used for measurements in a vertical plane:
( + 4m (21—x) — *)
g
is the elongation.
is the gravitational acceleration.
the length of suspended tape.
the cross-sectional area of the tape.
the modulus of elasticity.
the attached mass.
&Sym
Ho
3 the mass of the tape per unit length.
1 the total length of the tape.
P, the standard tension.
A 1000m mine shaft measuring tape has cross-sectional area of

10 mm?, a mass of 0.07 kg/m and a modulus of elasticity of 2 x 10°
N/mm. It is standardized as 1000.000 m at 180 N tension. Assuming
gravitational acceleration to be 9.807 m/s* compute the correct depth
of the mine shaft recorded as 750.52 m. Neglect the effects of
temperature. [Eng. Council]
Introduction. When the shaft has been excavated it is essential that a

temporary bench mark be established so that the construction can be carried
out to correct levels as well as to correct line. Conventionally levels will be
carried down from a known datum, at, say, the side of the shaft at the top,
by means of a steel tape, hanging vertically and free of restrictions. It may
be that, as in this case, a very long tape is available so that the operation is
carried out in a single stage. Otherwise, the separate tape lengths will need
to be marked out in descending order. The use of EDM to measure shaft depths
is covered in Example 2.7.
(
1
'
'
Aa
Figure 2.6
Solution. First derive the equation. Figure 2.6 shows the actual suspended
length x of the tape, which hangs from a fixed point C. (/—x) is the additional
portion of the tape not required in the measurement but still contributing to
the loading of the tape. Alternatively, the tape could be considered to be fully
run out to length / and x to be a specific measurement or reading with respect
to C. The tension sustained by the vertical tape due to self-loading is a maximum
at C and varies with y, being a minimum at the longest point under
consideration. Thus the extensions induced in the small elements of length dy
are greater in magnitude in the upper regions of the hanging tape than in the
lower regions but, naturally, all contribute to the overall elongation.
Consider an element of length dy at a point y from the ‘free end’ A.
Load on that element = mg X y
Therefore extension over length dy = mg y spn

Therefore, extension over length BC = a.S
et
7 -2 x] ae
I $2
(-xyL AE 2
The extension is zero when y = 0, therefore the constant = 0.
Extension over length BC 8

AHLit (l—x)']
_ mgx (21% )
AE 2 oe
A mass may be attached to lower end A to ensure verticality and to minimize
oscillation. It will have a uniform effect over the tape in so far as elongation
is concerned, and in this context is analogous to the load applied to a ‘horizontal’
tape suspended in catenary between supports.
B
Extension due to mass M over length x = Mg x
AE
The tape has been standardized under tension P, and this has to be allowed
for in the same way as the standard tension in the pull correction mentioned
in Example 2.2.
Therefore elongation over length x = an |

me as +Me—P, |
ees E (21—x) +M— A).

AE L2 g
Now the depth of the shaft can be determined. It is stipulated that .P, =
180 N, / = 1000.000, m = 0.07 kg/m, A = 10 mm’, E = 2 x 10° N/mm?
and M = 0. Hence the effective elongation when x = 750.52 m.
_ 9.807 x 750.52 Ee (2000.000 —750.52) +0 18 |
10s% 2. x 10° 9.807
= 0.093 m.
Therefore corrected depth = 750.52 + 0.093
= 750.61 m,
the measured depth being recorded to 0.01 m.
2.6 Principle of EDM Explain carefully the principles involved in measuring distances using
a sinusoidal wave form as the medium of measurement.
A line AB was measured using EDM. The instrument was set up at
O in line with AB and on the side of A remote from B. The wavelength
of frequency 1 is 10 metres exactly. Frequency 2 is 9/10 frequency 1
and frequency 3 is 99/100 frequency 1.
It is known that AB is less than 200 m.
Calculate the accurate length of AB from the phase difference readings
given in metres in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3
Line OA 4.337 7.670 0.600

Line OB 7.386 1.830 9.911
: [Bradford]
Double distance = 2D
Outward Frequency, Wavelength
Reflector
Figure 2.7
Solution. First, discuss the basic principles. Figure 2.7 shows three different
frequencies with their wavelengths enclosed within a distance of 100 m.
1
Since \ « —
we have a peg
ae
Therefore \, = fiNy
f
a HY,
10 f, —

10
— een a Ay.
9
Now \; = 10m, A, = 11.111 m and accordingly there are 10 whole
wavelengths of frequency f, and 9 whole wavelengths of frequency f,
contained within the distance of 100 metres. Note also that one single wave
of frequency (f,—f)) has a length of 100 m, since
Bites oid
Gi-f) f,/l0
At any point within the 100 m length, or stage, the phase of the (ff —/)
frequency wave is equal to the difference in phases of the other two waves.
For example, at the 50 m point the phase of f; is 5 x 27 whilst that of the
jo frequency is 4.5 x 27, giving a difference of 7 which is the phase of the
(f, —fz) frequency. This relationship allows distance to be measured within
100 m stages.
Now, when the third frequency f, is considered we have f; = 99/100f,,
whence \3 = 10.101 m and the wavelength of frequency (f, —f;) = 1000 m.
The same statement in respect of phase differences applies here as well and
further frequencies could be applied to extend the measurements of distance
to cover 10 000 m, etc., without any ambiguity. The term ‘fine’ frequency
can be assigned to f; which will appear in all the frequency difference values
i.e. (f, —f2) whilst the other frequencies needed to make up the stages, or
measurements of distance 100m, 1000 m, etc., are termed ‘coarse’
frequencies. Lengths for 0 m to 10 m are covered by the f, phase difference
measured at the ‘master’ station. In modern EDM the whole procedure is
carried out automatically by the electronics.
Next, we determine the lengths OA and OB. The phase differences have
been measured in metres in this problem and, as shown above, we have
sufficient data to resolve distances from 0 m to 10 m, 0 mto 100 m, and 0 m
to 1000 m.
If n; is the number of whole wavelengths of frequency f;, and n is the
number of frequency f, within OA, then
Any + b; = Agny + op.

o, and > are measured at the master station. Therefore
10n, + 4.337 = 11.11n, + 7.670.
On inspection of Fig. 2.7 it will be seen that two important facts arise.
(a) when ¢, < 9, mn; = np + 1, and
(b) when 1 > ¢2, hy = MN.
These facts are important when evaluating overall phase differences.

Hence 10n, + 4,337 = 11.11(1,—-1) + 7.670
and in Fg
This calculation has removed any ambiguity in the number of complete

wavelengths of frequency f; lying within the 0 to 100 m stage.
Refer now to the f; frequency, which when related to f, gives the 0 to
1000 m stage. a
Let n,’ be the number of complete waves of f, and n3 be that for frequency
fh, then
10n,’ + 4.337 = 10.101n,; + 0.600.

Since the phase difference for f, is greater than that for f,, as measured at the
master, n)’ = n3
10n,;’ + 4.337 = 10.101n,’ + 0.600

Therefore ny’ = 37.
Thus there are 37 complete wavelengths within OA; this value confirms the
previous computation.
Therefore double length OA = 4.337 + 370
374.337 m.
Calculate length OB using the same notation as for OA above within the stages
of 100 m and 1000 m, respectively.
10n, + 7.386 = 11.111n, + 1.830.

Since ¢; > $2.1, = n
Me i — 5.
Thus there are five whole wavelengths of 10 m length contained within the
0 m to 100 m stage, implying that a distance of 57.386 m is involved. Similarly,
10n,’ + 7.386 = 10.101n3 + 9.911
and nz =n,’ — 1.
Therefore ny) =75)
Thus double length OB = 757.386 m.
757.386 — 374.
Therefore length AB = : = alee)
= 191.525 m.
2.7 Depth Derive the following equation from first principles

measurement
EDM
using
D = NG, o & diy
2fn 2n 2fn
in which: D is the measured distance
N is the number of wavelengths in the distance
f is the modulation frequency
n is the refractive index
@ is the phase angle
k is the zero or additive constant
Co is the velocity of electromagnetic radiation in free
space.
The shaft depth at a mine was recorded by an electromagnetic distance

measuring instrument as 750.000 m, the average air temperature t and
air pressure p in the shaft being 15 °C and 796.50 mmHg, respectively.
The modulation wavelength of the instrument A, was 20.000 m,
corresponding to a frequency of 14.9854 MHz ata specified combination
of air temperature and air pressure of 12 °C and 760 mmHg,
respectively. The carrier wavelength \ was 0.875 yum.
Compute the depth of the shaft corrected for atmospheric conditions.
Aide-memoire: ng = 1+[2876.04+3(16.288)\~?
+5(0.136)A~4]10~7
he — 1+ athe P
t 760
1+
( secre
C
Ce
Jn;
The velocity of electromagnetic radiation in free space =
299 792.5 km/s. [CEI]
Introduction. Review the general problem. The general derivation of the

formula has been discussed previously with reference to Fig. 2.7. Essentially,
double distance is measured but to ‘read’ out the single distance required we
can use an effective wavelength (\,) which is half the true wavelength (A).
This is implied in the formula in which
C,
Na — ea
2fn
whilst \ = ee
fn
It will be noted that \ is inversely proportional to fn, in which n is the refractive
index in the air space. This index is influenced by atmospheric conditions,
i.e. air temperature, humidity and pressure, in both microwave and electro-
optical systems. It is very important in respect of the longer lines usually
measured by the microwave instruments.
In the case of electro-optical instruments the dry-air index is of consequence
and this varies through the spectrum. Accordingly a group refractive index
n, is adopted and is then subjected to correction for atmospheric conditions
to give ng.
Solution. Determine shaft depth. \ has been expressed in pm, i.e. m X

10~° and it is in this form that it is used in the relevant expression.
Modifying the given expression for n,, we have
(n,—1) X 10’ = 2876.04+3(16.288)\ ~>+5(0.136)A~*
Therefore n, = 1.000 294 1 when A = 0.875.
At the combination of t = 12 °C and p = 760 mmHg
0.000 294 1 760
he 1 +. x —
12 760
ee
( as
= 1,000 281 7.
Note that when f = 14.9854 MHz
cies 299 792 500
> 1.000 281 7 x 14 985 400
= 20.000 m.
At the combination of t = 15 °C and p = 796.50 mmHg
0.000 294 1 - 796.50
i= i+
15 760.00
i+
( aaa)
= 1.000 292 2.
C
Now D « \ « —® in which D is a measured distance. Therefore Dfn is a
constant, i.e. nf
D, fn, = Ds fn;,
where D, is the recorded shaft depth and D; is the depth measured. Therefore
750.000 x 1.000 281 7 = D; x 1.000 292 2

‘ Dy = 749.992 m.
2.8 Distance A slope distance measured with an electromagnetic distance measuring

measurement with instrument (EDM) when corrected for meteorological conditions and
EDM instrumental constants is 114.652 m. The EDM and its reflector are
1.750 m and 1.922 m above the ground stations, respectively. The
vertical angle measured with a theodolite, when corrected for earth
curvature and refraction, is +04° 25’ 15” from the horizontal. The
theodolite and theodolite target are 1.650 m and 1.646 m above ground
stations, respectively. Both the EDM instrument and the theodolite were
centred over the lower station. What is the horizontal length of the line?
To what precision must the slope angle be measured
(i) If the relative precision of the reduced horizontal distance is to be
1/100 000.
(ii) If the reduced horizontal distance is to have a standard error of
+ 2 mm. [CEI]
Introduction. Slant distance L between the EDM and the reflector (centred
over their respective stations) has been measured and the reduced horizontal
length, /, is required. To obtain / we require the vertical angle @ which the

Parallel
to AB a
~_ 0.004 m
Figure 2.8
measured length makes with the horizontal. This incorporates measured angle
a together with two corrections 6 and y, defined as ‘eye and object’ corrections,
due to the differences in height above the ground stations of the measuring
devices and their targets. The ‘eye and object’ correction and curvature and
refraction have been covered in detail in Chapter 1.
It was also mentioned therein that the measured slope length L between two
stations can be reduced to its chord length at the mean height of the stations.
Accordingly, the equivalent chord length at mean sea level can be computed
and a correction then added to determine the spheroidal distance between the
stations. Assuming that the slope distance was established by EDM, the relevant
corrections are L3/43 R* and L3/33 R* for microwave and infra-red systems,
respectively. These include corrections for the curvature of the path of the
signal and are of particular importance for long lines. Note that the theoretical
difference between spheroidal distance (Fig. 1.10) and chord length is Rc—2R
sin c/2 = d°/24 R?.
Parallel to AB
Measured length 0.172 m
Figure 2.9
Solution. Calculate horizontal length J. The first step is to determine the

corrections 6 and y. Had the heights of the instruments and their respective
‘targets’ above the ground stations been equal, the corrections would be zero
since the lines of sight would be parallel to AB, and measured angle a would
have given the required slope angle. From Fig. 2.8
1.650 — 1.646
6 = ————— radian
114.652
0.004 x 206 265”
114.652
17%
1.922, — 1.750
From Fig. 2.9 Y= radian
114.652
0/172 * 206 265%

114.652
= 309”.
Therefore slope angle 6 = a+B+y = 04° $9005" 47° +5’ 09"
40 43.
Therefore horizontal length / L cos 6
—mii4a.o52ecos/ 4 50. 51"
114.297 m.
Note the assumption that length CD is equal to the measured length of

114.652 m when calculating 6 and y.
In this case 6 and y are positive corrections, first because the height of the
target at B was less than the theodolite height at A, thereby causing the line
of sight to be depressed with respect to CD: thus a was measured low. Second,
because the EDM height was less than the reflector height the line of sight
was elevated with respect to the parallel to AB.
Next we find the precision of the slope angle.
Since i= "Etcos,
then d/ =~—L sin 6 dé
(an increase dé causes a decrease in /).

; dl 1 L sin 6 dé
Relative ac-uracy Fa enna (neglecting the
l 100 000 L cos 0 negative sign)
= tan 0 dé = tan 4° 30’ 31” dé.
Therefore dé = 0.000 126 8 radian
BOG
If dJ/ = + 2mm
0.002 = L sin 0 dé
114.652 sin 4° 30’ 31” dé.
dé = 0.000 221 9 radian.
Therefore dé = + 46”
for d/ = + 2 mm.
Note that the term standard error is defined in Chapter 8.

2.9 Principles of (a) Derive the basic formula for finding horizontal distances and
tacheometry differences in height from tachymetric observations.
(b) The tachymetric observations given in Table 2.4 were made.
Table 2.4
A 1 94° 37’ 1.479 0.500 0.990

A 2 Mos 25° 1.633 1.000 1.318
The theodolite was 1.57 m above ground level at A. Calculate the

horizontal distances and differences in height A—1, A—2. Assume a
stadia constant of 100. Assuming that the standard error of a stadia
reading is 1.5 mm and of a ZD is 1.5’, calculate the standard errors
of the distances and height differences. {London}
Line of
collimation
Objective
lens
Diaphragm
Figure 2.10
Stadia lines
Horizontal ‘hair’
Vertical ‘hair’
Figure 2.11
Solution. Derive basic formulae. Figure 2.10 shows a simple telescope,
whose objective is of focal length f. The image of a staff has been presented
at the diaphragm in such a way that the staff intercept s is given by the difference
between the upper and lower stadia lines in Fig. 2.11. The staff is normal
to the line of sight of the telescope (given by the centre hair reading).
1 1 1
Thus + = —,
u v ‘i
where u is the distance from the staff to the objective and v is the distance
from the lens to the diaphragm.
u u S
most Sy Ute tem Pe My
“3 v i
Therefore u = f +
Ss
1
Distance D is measured to the instrument axis rather than to the objective,
therefore utd = (f+d)+ fs = D.

i
(f+d) is a constant known as the additive constant and f/i is the multiplying
constant (or stadia constant as in the wording of the example). An important
point is that the expression was derived for a telescope in which either the
objective moves or the eyepiece moves during focusing. It is convenient to
make (f+d) zero and this was effected by an internal lens known as an anallatic
lens. The modern theodolite which also has an internal lens, for focusing
purposes, can be assumed for all practical purposes to have zero additive
constant but it must be emphasized that the internal focusing lens is not an
anallatic lens.
In Fig. 2.12 we have an inclined sight being made on to a vertical staff.
This is the more usual approach to tacheometric measurement; it also shows
the equivalent position of a staff held normal to the line of sight. It is essential
that angle # is measured to determine H and V. ZD (zenith distance) is the
Figure 2.12

Vertical
Pe]
, _ Staff
Figure 2.13
angle measured from a vertical pointing such that (on one face) a reading of
90° is given when the line of sight is horizontal. The reading given by the
stadia lines on the vertical staff is s, and in Fig. 2.13 we have the reading
5; which would arise on a staff which is normal to the line of sight. Note that
S; = scos 0.
Now H = D cos 6
= = 00s6 + (f+d) cos 0
acta pons age ray

i
a fs cos’@ + (f+d) cos 0

i
ang ee) DesiniG
aids os GS a's HULA Sn 8

i
me sin
20
+ (f+d) sin 0.
i
RL of staff station = RL of instrument station + h;—V—h,,, where h; is the

height of the instrument axis and h,, is the centre line reading on the staff.
In this example @ is a depression angle but if @ is an elevation angle V in
the heighting relationship is additive not subtractive.
Note that if the staff is held normal to the line of sight then
H = Ds, cos @ + hy, sin 0,
where s, is the staff intercept and h,, sin 0 is positive or negative depending
upon @ being elevation or depression. Also V = Ds, sin 6 and h,, cos @ is
the corrected centre hair reading when determining height differences.
(b) Determine distances and height differences. Between A and /, given that
f = 100 and (f+d) = 0,

1
fs
H = — cos’ = 100 (1.479—0.500) cos” 4° 37’.
i
Since 6 = 94° 37’ —90° 00’
H = 97.27 m = horizontal distance A—1
i 1.479 —0.500
Pres, Se te ) sin
9°14’
i u 2
= 7.85 m.
Therefore height difference A-—1 = V+h,,—h;, (see Fig. 2.11)
= 7.85+0.990— 1.57 .
= 7.27 m.
Between A and 2 6 = 119° 25’ —90° 00’ = 29° 25’.
Therefore H = 100 (1.633 —1.000) cos? 29° 25’
= 48.03 m = horizontal distance A—2
V = 100 Saar sin 58° 50’
= 27.08 m.
Therefore height difference A—2 = 27.08+1.318—1.57
= 26.83 m.
The following computer program will carry out stadia tacheometric calculations
by either the staff normal or the staff vertical method. The vertical angle input
in the program is related to zero as the horizontal and the ZD angles given
in this example must have 90° subtracted from them. In lines 20 and 30 the
instrument constants are set to ffi = 100, f+d = 0. For non-standard
instruments these lines must be changed before the program is run.
Variables
A = Vertical angle M_ = Input/output, Minutes
B = Height of instrument P = = Uphill/downhill indicatcr
C = Theodolite multiplying Q$ = Staff normal/vertical
constant (set to 100) indicator
D = Input/output, Degrees S = Input/output, Seconds
H = Horizontal distance V = Vertical distance
I = Stadia intercept X = Bottom stadia reading
K = Theodolite additive constant Y = Mid-crosshair reading
(set to 0) Z = Top stadia reading
L = Difference in level
10 REM STAFF TACHEOMETRY

20 € = 100
30 K = 0
40 INPUT "INPUT BOTTOM STADIA READING",
50 INPUT "INPUT MID READING ", KX
60 IF Y < X THEN 190
70 INPUT "INPUT TOP STADIA READING ", Z
80 IF Z < Y THEN GOTO 190
90 I =%- x ‘
100 INPUT "INPUT VERTICAL ANGLE IN DEG,MIN,SEC ( DEG -VE IF DOWN) ", D, }

TiO P. = 1
120 IF D < 0 THEN P = -1
130 A = ((ABS(D) * 3600) + (M * 60) + S) / 206264.8
140 INPUT "INPUT HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT ", B
150 INPUT "STAFF NORMAL [N] OR VERTICAL [V] ", Q$
160 IF Q$ = "N" THEN GOTO 250
170 IF Q$ = "V" THEN GOTO 210
180 GOTO 150
190 PRINT "*** INPUT ERROR ***"
200 GOTO 40
210 H = C * I * COS(A) * COS(A) + K * COS(A)
220° V =5 #eC * Io*,SIN(A)* 2) + K * SIN(A)
230 Lo= B+ (Vo #OP)/— ¥
240 GOTO 280
250 H = (C * I + K) * COS(A) + P * ¥ * SIN(A)
260 VY= (C * I + K) * SIN(A)
270 L = B + (V * P) - (¥ * COS(A))
280 PRINT "HORIZONTAL DISTANCE = "; H
290 PRINT "VERTICAL DISTANCE ="; V
300 PRINT "DIFFERENCE IN GROUND LEVELS = "; L
310 END
We now find the standard errors of distances and height differences. This
part of the question is covered by Chapter 8 but, for continuity, treatment is
given here.
Assuming that the multiplying constant will be unchanged, horizontal distance
H is influenced by staff reading errors (ds) and errors in vertical circle reading
(dé).
5
H = — cos’6,
i
dH
therefore —— = As cos?6
ds i
dH
and — = = fs sin 20
dé i
aH \* dH \?
Thus sy? = dH? = (——) s,? + {——) 5s)
ds dé
2 2
ll @ cos’) s+ & sin 28) Se.
i i
where sy, 5, and sg are the standard errors in H, s and @, respectively.
Similarly for V
dV eee sin 26
ds i 2
and ls = fscos 26.

dé i
Let L be the height difference
L = V+hy,—h;-
hp is a staff reading and will be subject to error (there is no mention of h,,
in the question).
2 dL \2
ry ppm m
2 2
then 5,7 = dL? = e oh ry x 5,7 + ( cos 28) x 59
where sy, is the standard error in height difference L. Now the standard error
of a single stadia reading is 1.5 mm and there are two such readings involved
D0 We .
Therefore 5,7 = 1.57 + 1.57 = 4.50 mm?

1.5 \2
and yh ee os REE > (4.36339 0-4)
180 360
dl
=a
dh
Sin? = 1D = 2.25 mm’,
Between A and 1
— cos?@ = 100 cos? 4° 37’ = 99.352

1
fs sin 20 (100
x 0.979) sin 9° 14’m = 15709 mm.
i
Therefore sy? = (99.352? x 4.5) + 15709?
x (4.3633 x 10~4)?
= 44465.7 mm?
Sy = 210.9 mm = 0.21 m.
pill Se wey
sin Se 1A). si
pope: 2 2
fscos 20 = 97.9 cos 9° 14’m

: = 96 631.52 mm.
Therefore s,7 = 8.027
X 4.5+96 631.52? (4.3633x 1074)?4+1 x 2.25
= 2069.43 mm?
sy = 45.5 mm = 0.046 m.
Between A and 2, in a similar manner which the reader should check
Sy = 0.19 m,
eS 0.09 m.

2.10 Effect of staff Referring to the previous worked example determine the effects of
verticality inclinations of 1° of the staff from the vertical:
(a) towards the instrument for line A—1; and
(b) away from the instrument for line A—2.
Solution. Consider the basic theory. In Fig. 2.14 the staff is inclined
through angle 6 towards the instrument and so intercept RS would be given
by the stadia lines rather than the correct value XY on the vertical staff.
Let WV and TU be perpendicular to the line of sight. Since WV and TU
are very near together in practice we can assume that WV = TU. Moreover,
WV makes an angle of (6+6) with RS.
Inclined staff
seats Vertical staff
6 ae
Figure 2.14
Therefore TU XY cos 0
II WV
RS cos (6+6).
Therefore XY true staff intercept
RS cos (6+6)
cos 6
The same relationship holds for elevation 6 when the staff is inclined away
from the instrument.
In Fig. 2.15 the staff is inclined away from the instrument and so WV makes
an angle of (@—6) with RS.
As above TU = XY cos 6 = WV
= RS cos (@—6).
6—6
Therefore XY = RS SAG 9),
cos 8
This relationship holds for elevation @ with the staff inclined towards the
instrument.
We now find the error in the horizontal distance A—1. In Fig. 2.14 we have
6 = 4° 37’, 6 = 1° 00’ and RS = (1.479 —0.500) m.
Inclined staff
is Vertical staff
Figure 2.15 2
True horizontal distance I KY cos’ 4° 37"

l
+6
= Lf x eae) cos? 4° 37’
i cos 6
5° 37’
100 x 0.979 <*>. & cos? 4° 37’
cos 4° 37’
97.12 m.
The apparent distance = 100 x 0.979 cos” 4° 37’
= 97.27 m.
Therefore error = +0.15 m or 1 in 647 (approx.).

We next find the error in the horizontal distance A—2. In Fig. 2.15 we have
6 = 29° 25’ and 6 = 1° 00’, whilst RS = (1.633 —1.000) m.
True horizontal distance Me mY Gos 20" 25"

i
er eT cos (6 —4) :
os? 6
i cos
28° 25’
100° 0.633 a con? 00 8
COSEZ29- 25
48.50 m.
The apparent distance 100 x 0.633 cos? 29° 25’
= 48.03 m.
Therefore error = —0.47 m or 1 in 102 (approx.).

When the staff has been held normal to the line of sight 6 is of no influence.
However 6 causes an increase in the staff reading and the error in horizontal
distance is positive. Accordingly, this method of staff holding is to be preferred
when 0 exceeds, say, 10°. ’

2.11 Subtense To measure a base line for an industrial measurement survey a
tacheometry horizontal subtense bar of length 2 m was set up at station A. Its targets
subtended a mean angle of 3° 58’ 46.8” at a theodolite set up at station
B. Determine:
(a) the length of line AB; and
(b) the fractional error in that length if the angle was measured with
an accuracy of + 1”.
Introduction. The bar is set up horizontally by means of a levelling head,

and by means of a sighting device it is arranged to be virtually perpendicular
to AB. Invar steel is used in construction of the bar to ensure that temperature
effects are of no consequence.
6 is measured in the horizontal plane by the theodolite, and so H is the reduced
horizontal distance. Moreover, since the bar is horizontal refraction has no
effect on the readings and pointings may be made using a single face.
Solution. Finding the length of line AB, from Fig. 2.4

H= b/2 » b
tan 6/2 2 tan 6/2
v 2.00
a 58’ se
2 tan {|———————_-
2
= 28.783 m.
We now find the fractional error in H.

b
In H = ———_.,,
2 tan 6/2
since 6 is small we can write 2 tan 0/2 = 6 radian.
Therefore H = b/60
—b
dH
We
—H?
- dé,
b
i.e. increase in 6 gives decrease in H. Given that the accuracy of measurement
is + 1 second of arc,
1
d@ = ———— radian
206 265
ee 2
Therefore dH = pain Ss in
2 206 265
a O00 9b00
Fractional error = 1 in 14332
Note that dH depends upon H? for a given value d6, and consequently
accuracy is reduced markedly with increasing length.
Problems
1 Five bays of base line AB were measured under a tension of 149 N

and the data given in Table 2.5 was recorded. The tape was standardized
on the flat under a pull of 89 N and at temperature 20 °C.
Table 2.5
Length of span Rise/fall between ends of span

(m) (m)
29.940 — 0.258 End A
29.096 0.118
29.101 0.292
29.891 0.325
29.846 0.424 End B
Field temperature = 17 °C
Tape details
Coefficient of thermal expansion 0.000 011/°C
Young’s modulus 207 kN/mm?
Density 7700 kg/m?
Cross-sectional area 6 mm?
An EDM was set up 1.37 m above end A of the base line and a prism
was set up 1.56 m-above end B. The distance between them was read
as 147.859 + 5 mm. What is the maximum and minimum possible length
of the 30 m division on the tape? [Salford]
Answer 30.008; 30.006 m.
2 A surveyor measured a base line in five bays using a tape in catenary

under a pull of 10 kg f. He recorded the data given in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6
Length of span Rise/fall between end of span

(m) (m)
29.913 +0.31
29.935 —0.22
29.872 +0.81
29.914 + 1.05
23,721 —0.49
Unfortunately, he poorly recorded the field temperature and could not

decide whether he had written down 15 °C or 18 °C. He returned to
the site with an EDM and with the prism axis set at the same height
as the instrument collimation. The EDM gave a reading of 143.212 +
5 mm.

If the tape was standardized on the flat under a pull of 7 kg f at 20 °C,
which of the field temperature readings is correct?
a = 0.000011/°C
E = 207000 MN/m?
Tape area = 6 mm?
Tape density = 7700 kg/m? [Salford]
Answer 15 °C
3 The difference in level between the top and bottom of a railway

embankment was found to be 15.216 m. The length of the embankment
was measured along its surface as 25.214 m using a steel tape under
a pull of 25 N at a temperature of 10°C. If the tape was standardized
on the flat at 20°C under a pull of 49 N what is the embankment gradient?
Tape details
Cross-sectional area = 6 mm
Young’s modulus = 207 000 MN/m2
Coefficient of linear expansion = 0.000 011/°C
Answer 1 in 1.38.
4 A steel tape, 50 m long on the flat at 20 °C under a pull of 89 N,

has a cross-sectional area of 6 mm? and a mass of 2.32 kg. It is to be
used to measure lengths when supported at mid-span.
Assuming that the ends of the tape are at the same level and the field
temperature is 20 °C determine the tension to the nearest newton to be
applied to ensure that errors greater than +2.5 mm will not occur when
measuring a length of 50 m.
Take Young’s modulus to be 207 000 N/mm? and g to be 9.81 m/s’.
[Salford]
Answer 198 N; 255 N.
5 A steel tape of nominal length 200 m was used to measure a length

down a shaft as 165.252 m. The mean recorded temperature was 3 °C
and a plumb bob, mass 15 kg, had been attached. If the tape had been
standardized to be 200.0012 m under a tension of 120 N at 20 °C
determine the corrected length.
Cross-sectional area of tape = 10mm 2
Mass of tape = 0.07 kg/m
Modulus of elasticity = 2 x 10° N/mm?
Coefficient of linear expansion = 11 x 10~°/°C
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.807 m/s”
Answer 165.231 m
6 Explain carefully how a transmission having a sinusoidal wave form

can be used to measure distances. Hence derive an expression for N,
which is the whole number of complete waves beyond multiples of ten
wavelengths. Consider both dx, > dx, and dx, < dx, where dx; and
dx, are phase differences on frequencies 1 and 2, respectively.
An EDM instrument produces a wavelength of exactly 10 m when
transmitting on frequency 1. Frequency 2 = 9/10 frequency 1 and
frequency 3 = 99/100 frequency 1.
This instrument was set up at O in line with P and Q in order to
determine the length PQ. Station O is on the side of P remote from Q.
Determine the shortest possible value for the length of the line from the
observations given in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7
Length Phase differences
dx, dx, dx3
OP 2.561 1.450 0.440

OQ 5.763 9.096 8.086
Explain how this method eliminates the effects of zero error in the
instrument. [Bradford]
Answer 281.601 m
7 The length of a certain line was measured as 1873.574 m by an EDM

instrument which had a design refractive index of 1.000 274, modulation
frequency of 14.985 52 MHz and carrier wavelength of 0.874 um.
Air temperature and pressure were 15 °C and 740 mmHg,
respectively. Determine
(i) the refractive index of the air at the time of measurement,
(ii) the corrected length of the line.
Answer (i) 1.000271; (ii) 1873.580 m
8 (a) With one type of EDM instrument the determination is based on
Arg
the formula (x2 —)) where x, and x, are fractions of two dif-
1—A2
ferent measuring patterns with wave lengths \, and ), respectively.
Answer the following questions relating to this formula and its use.
(i) What distance is the formula intended to represent?
(ii) How is the fomula derived?
(iii) What relationship must exist between ), and ),?
(iv) When does the formula fail to produce the required distance
even though x, and x2 have been correctly measured and what must
then be done to obtain the distance? Explain why.
(b) If an instrument capable of displaying the fractions referred to in
part (a) to 0.001 cycle is to be designed, propose with reasons wave
lengths for its measuring patterns which will allow distances up to 10 km
to be calculated by elementary arithmetic, i.e. requiring no electronic
or mechanical aids, with a resolution of 0.01 m. [London]

Answer 20m, 22.222 m, 20.202 m, 20.020 m. (Assuming that Cp =
300 x 10° m/s)
9 The formula given in a manufacturer’s instruction manual for

computing the atmospheric correction (c,,) to measured electro-optical
distance measurements is
1.000 281 95
0.000 294 335 ¥ P +4
1+0.003 660 86r 1013
t = ambient atmospheric temperature (°C)
P = ambient atmospheric pressure (mb)
corrected slope distance = measured slope distance X c,,
The modulated wavelength of the instrument (A,) is 20.00 000 m

corresponding to a frequency of 14.985 400 MHz at specified
meteorological reference data of 12 °C (t) and 1013 mb (P) and carrier
wavelength (A) of 0.860 um.
A survey line forming part of a precise test network was measured
with the instrument and a mean value of 2999.097 m recorded. The mean
ambient temperature ¢ and pressure P were 13.4 °C and 978.00 mb,
respectively.
Compute the atmospheric correction using the formula given in the
instruction manual and from first principles, and compare the results.
Assume the velocity of electromagnetic radiation in free space to be
299 792.5 km/s.
It was later discovered that the field barometer was in error by
+24 mb. Compute the correction in the distance due to this error. What
conclusions can be drawn from these calculations?
Aide-mémoire
= P
aT 1013.25
162.88 1.36
ng = 1+ [28760.443 X ——— +5x | x 107%,
d he
ae
Ing
where
n, = group refractive index of atmosphere,
ng = group refractive index of white light (1.000 294),
n, = group refractive index for standard conditions,
a = 3.661 x 10-°* K~',
T = ambient temperature (K),
P = ambient pressure (mb),
d, = modulated wavelength (20.000 000 m),
> =| carrier wavelength (0.860 ym),
Co = velocity of electromagnetic radiation in free space
(299 792.5.km/s),
ow Il modulation frequency (14.985 40 MHz). [Eng. Council]
Answer +0.054 m
10 The data in Table 2.8 has been abstracted from the field notes of
a mine surface trilateration survey. Calculate the horizontal distance
between BH and LB. [CET]
Answer 1251.963 m
Table 2.8 ‘
Measured
From| To (m) (m) | vertical angle | (m) (m) (m)
BH | LB 1.68 1.56 |—03° 00’ 56”| 1.63 | 1.65 | 1253.687

LB |BH 1.65 1.68 |+03° 00’ 03”
11 Anelectromagnetic distance-measuring instrument is to be used to

measure a slope distance of 3 km inclined at 10° to the horizontal.
Compute the accuracy of the vertical angle measurement required in order
to determine (a) slope corrections and (b) differences in level with a
standard error of +10 mm. What conclusions can be drawn from the
results of this computation and what instructions should be given to the
field party regarding the measurement of the vertical angles?
. [CET]
Answer (a) +4.0”; (b) +0.7”
12 A theodolite was set up over station P and observations were taken

on to a subtense bar set up over Q and R in turn. The results in Table
2.9 were recorded.
Calculate the area of the triangle PQR. [Leeds]
Answer 5440 m?
Table 2.9
Instrument Subtense Subtense Horizontal

station bar station angle circle
01° 05’ 26” 116" 37% Sa”

00° 58’ 56” 179° 12’ 05”
13 A theodolite with constants 100 and 0 was set up 1.38 m above

Station A and the tacheometric readings given in Table 2.10 were
recorded on a staff held vertically.
Boreholes at A, B and C showed the depth of bedrock below the surface
to be 7.65 m, 2.46 m, and 11.27 m respectively.

If the level of the ground at station A was 126.026 m AOD, find the
bearing of the line of steepest rock slope relative to line AB.
[Salford]
Answer 16° 58’ 48”
Table 2.10
Horizontal Vertical
Station circle circle Stadia
B 123° 10’ 20” —11° 2’ 20” 1.000/1.200/1.400

Cc 33° 10’ 20° eee” 20” 1.891/2.321/2.751
14 Three survey stations, F, A and B have been set out in line on steeply
inclined ground. A target at B, 1.219 m above the ground, is sighted
from the two instrument stations A and F. The angles of elevation are
45° 30’ from A and 30° 20’ from F. The height of the instrument axis
at A above the ground is 1.554 m and at F, 1.451 m. The horizontal
distance from A to F is 60.961 m. A levelling staff is held at F, and
a reading of 2.585 m obtained from the instrument at A, the telescope
being set to the horizontal.
Assuming station F to be 24.384 m above Ordnance Datum, calculate
(i) the horizontal distance from A to B, and (ii) the reduced level of
station B to Ordnance Datum. [Eng. Council]
Answer (i) 79.852 m; (ii) 107.509 m
15 A theodolite with a multiplying constant of 100 and no additive

constant is set up over station X, which has coordinates of 2241.03 m E,
2106.58 m N and is 224.260 m above datum. The height of the instru-
ment above the station is 1.320 m. A station Y with coordinates of
2368.56 m E, 2002.40 m N is sighted. Readings are then taken succes-
sively on a staff held vertically on stations A and B and the observations
in Table 2.11 are recorded.
If the positive and negative signs in the vertical circle column denote
angles of elevation and depression respectively, calculate:
(i) the horizontal length of AB
(ii) the bearing of AB
Table 2.11
Vertical Horizontal
circle circle
15° 20’ 31”
+1° 15° 20”| 22° 28’ 57”
—2° 04’ 50”| 141° 15’ 36”
(iii) the heights of points A and B above datum. [Leeds]
Answer (i) 236.02 m; (ii) 281° 06’ 58”; (iii) 226.06 m, 217.96 m
16 Describe the method of tangential tacheometry. Two points B and

C were observed from A. Field notes are given in Table 2.12.
(a) Calculate the coordinates of B if the coordinates of C are 70.00 mE,
120.00 mN.
(b) Calculate the ground level at B if the ground level at C is 59.130 m
AOD. [Bradford]
Answer (a) 261.17 mE, 124.25 mS; (b) 44.41 m
x
Table 2.12
From To Bearing Vertical angles Staff (m)
A B 165° 36’ —3° 18’; —3° 00’ 1.00; 3.00

Cc 216° 06’ —2° 54’; —2° 06’ 1.00; 3.00
17 A theodolite, with a multiplying constant of 100 and no additive

constant, is set up at A and sighted on a level staff at B. The upper stadia
hair, centre hair and lower stadia hair readings are 2.975, 1.890 and
0.805 respectively and the angle of elevation of the telescope is 4° 36’.
If the height of the instrument above the ground at A is 1.250 m, calculate
(a) the horizontal distance AB and
(b) the difference in height between A and B. [Leeds]
Answer (a) 215.60 m; (b) 16.71 m
18 A tacheometer with a multiplying constant of 100 and no additive

constant is set up over station X and sighted on a level staff held vertically
on a bench mark, B, and then on two points Y and Z. The height of
B above datum is 278.36 m. The results are in Table 2.13.
Table 2.13
Stadia | Centre
Instrument} Station hair hair Vertical Horizontal
station | sighted| readings] reading circle circle
+2° 15’ 10” -_
+3° 36’ 00” eooene ee

0.732
2.522 | 1.455 | —2° 42’ 30”| 93° 51’ 55”
0.388
aa es —
The positive and negative signs in the vertical circle column denote
angles of elevation and depression respectively. Calculate:
(a) the horizontal distance YZ,
(b) the heights of points Y and Z above datum and
(c) the error (in mm) which would occur if the slope distance rather
than the horizontal distance of YZ was plotted on a 1/500 scale plan.
[Leeds]
Answer (a) 211.79 m; (b) 286.19 m, 265.39 m; (c) 2.0 mm
19 The following values were recorded during a theodolite tacheometric

survey
Stadia readings: 3.33 m (top) 2.20 m (middle)
1.07 m (bottom)
Vertical angle: +11° 40’
Instrument height: 1.48 m
Height of collimation: 269.01 m
Find the horizontal distance between the staff and instrument station,
and the reduced level of the staff station. Assume that the telescope is
anallactic, the multiplying constant 100, and the staff vertical.
Determine the error in the horizontal and vertical distances due to an
error of +5 minutes of arc in the measurement of the vertical angle.
[CET]
Answer 216.76 m; 222.05 m; 40.130 m; +0.30 m
20 The gradient of the line joining two stations A and B was known
to be 1 in 18. A tacheometer having a multiplying constant of 100 and
zero additive constant was set up at A and, with an angle of depression
of 3°, observations were taken on a staff held vertically at B. If the height
of the instrument axis was 1.190 m and the reading of the lower stadia
line was 1.000 m, estimate the other staff readings, and deduce the
horizontal distance between A and B.
What other method of staff positioning may be adopted? Compare the
two methods with particular reference to the effects of staff tilt.
[CEI]
Answer 1.511; 2.023; 102.05 m
2
21 Use the slope correction expression aa to show that the dif-
ference between the actual correction and the nominal correction has
a magnitude of
h
2 —~ X nominal correction
due to an error of 6h in h.
The slope length of a line was measured as 29.8984 m and / was
booked as 1.382 m instead of the measured height 1.392 m. What error
will arise in the corrected horizontal length of the line?
Answer error = +0.0005 m (correction = —0.0005 m)
3
Theodolite and traverse surveying
The theodolite There are three important lines or axes in a theodolite,.namely the line of sight,
the horizontal axis and the vertical axis. The line of sight has to be perpendicular
to the horizontal axis (trunnion axis), and their point of intersection has to
lie on the vertical axis (see Fig. 3.1). The line of sight then coincides with
the line of collimation which, in a correctly adjusted theodolite, describes a
vertical plane when rotated about the horizontal axis. In use, the vertical axis
has to be centred as accurately as possible over the station at which angles
are being measured and that axis has to be truly vertical.
Line of Z
collimation
Circle reading
reflecting
the-direction Vertical circle
Trunnion of line of (face right)
axis collimation Horizontal
circle
defined by plumb bob

or optical plummet
Figure 3.1
Errors in horizontal Errors in horizontal circle readings due to certain maladjustments of the
circle reading theodolite are given below, h being the altitude of the signal observed.
Maladjustment Error
(a) Line of collimation making an angle (90—c) with the csech
trunnion axis, i.e. vertical hair of diaphragm displaced
laterally.
(b) Trunnion axis inclined at (90—() to the vertical axis, i tanh
i.e. tilted from the horizontal.
Errors in vertical It can be taken that errors in the vertical circle readings due to (a) and (b)
circle reading are negligible and that, in each case, the mean of horizontal circle observations

taken face left and face right will be free from error. This is not the case when
the vertical axis is not truly vertical. The error in the horizontal circle reading
is of the form given for (b) above but i is now variable, depending upon the
pointing direction of the telescope. Its maximum value occurs when the trunnion
axis lies in that plane containing the vertical axis of the instrument and the
true vertical.
Traverse By means of a traverse survey a framework of stations or control points can

be established, their positions being determined by measuring the distances
between the stations and the angles subtended at the various stations by their
adjacent stations. For accurate work the theodolite is used to measure the angles,
with distances measured by methods discussed in Chapter 2, although stadia
tacheometry would only be used in low-order work. Modern EDM instruments
can be mounted on, or incorporated within, theodolites and this allows the
two to be used in combination in an efficient manner, particularly with data
recorders.
Co-ordinates Normally, plane rectangular co-ordinates are used to identify the stations on
a traverse. A specific point is defined by its perpendicular distances from each
of two co-ordinate axes which are based on north—south and east—west
directions. The former is the reference axis and it can be:
(a) true north;
(b) magnetic north;
(c) National Grid north; and
(d) a chosen arbitrary direction, which could be one of the traverse lines
if so wished.
The intersection of the axes gives the origin for the survey and usually it is
to the south and west to ensure that all points have positive co-ordinates.
Easting/northing The co-ordinates given by the perpendicular distances from the two main axes
are termed:
Figure 3.2
THEODOLITE AND TRAVERSE SURVEYING 71

eastings (distance from the north—south axis)
northings (distance from the east—west axis)
as indicated in Fig. 3.2 for the points X and Y. Relative positions are given by
co-ordinate differences AE = Ey —E,
and AN = Ny—N,.
Bearings The position of a point may also be referenced by stating length XY and bear-
ing ¢ of line XY, and these are referred to as polar co-ordinates. The bearing
¢ is termed the whole circle bearing (WCB) of XY. It is measured clockwise
from 0° to 360° at X between the north—south reference direction and the
direction of Y from X. In Fig. 3.3 the whole circle bearing of YZ is 6, and
the whole circle bearing of ZY is (@— 180°).
Similarly for YX in Fig. 3.2 the bearing is (6+ 180°) and, in general, bearing
of line 1—2 = bearing of line 2—1 +180°, 1 and 2 being points within the
system.
WCB of YZ = @
Figure 3.3
3.1 Calculation of (a) Briefly explain the following terms

Rerrige (i) true north
(ii) magnetic north
(iii) whole circle bearings.
(b) The included angles given in Table 3.1 are recorded at stations
forming a closed traverse survey around the perimeter of afield.
Table 3.1
Included angle
1222 Ae" 20"

87° 16’ 40”
133° 08’ 20”
125° 60°20"
92° 47’ 40”
158° 06’ 40”

Determine the amount of angular error in the survey and adjust the
values of the included angles.
If the whole circle bearing of the line BC is 45° calculate the whole
circle bearings of the traverse lines and the corresponding values in the
centesimal system. [Salford]
Introduction. True north refers to the north geographical pole. The true
or geographical meridian through a point is the trace of the plane through the
north and south poles and the point in question.
Magnetic north does not coincide with geographical north: the magnetic
meridian is the direction revealed by a freely floating magnetic needle. The
angle between it and the true meridian is termed declination.
The whole circle bearing of a line has been defined previously as the angle,
lying between 0° and 360°, between the direction of north and the direction
of the line, measured clockwise.
Solution. Determine the angular error and apply corrections.
north A
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.4 shows the traverse survey, the orientation of line BC being 45°
from the meridian. This form of traverse is known as a closed-loop traverse
since it begins and ends at the same point. The sum of the internal angles of
a polygon is (2n—4) right angles, where n is the number of angles.
Thus the sum of the six angles of this example must be eight right angles,
or 720° 00’ 00”, whereas by measurement it is 719° 57’ 00” (Table 3.2).
The total error is therefore —3’ 00” or — 180” , and hence a total correction
of +180” has to be applied. Note that this is of some magnitude and implies
a relatively low order of work, for example fourth order implies an error of
the order of 60VN sec, i.e. 60V6 = 147”.
The corrections can be applied equally to each angle on the assumption that
conditions were constant at the time of measurement and that the angles had
been measured with the same accuracy. Hence a correction of (+180”/6) =
+30” is given to each angle in this example. Next we calculate whole circle
bearings.
It is usual to proceed in an anti-clockwise manner round the traverse when_
internal angles have been measured. To determine the whole circle bearing
of the line to the forward station it is necessary to add the whole circle bearing

Table 3.2
Observed value Adjusted value
122° 42’ 20” 122° 42’ 50”

87° 16’ 40” 872.17’ 10”
133° 08’ 20” 133° 08’ 50”
125° 55’ 20” 125° 55’ 50”
92° 47’ 40” 92° 48’ 10”
158° 06’ 40” 158° 07’ 10”
of the previous line, i.e. that from the back station, to the internal angle at
the station, and then to add or deduct 180° depending upon whether that sum
is less or greater than 180°. For instance, at A we require the whole circle
bearing of AF knowing that of BA.
N
WCB of BA
%, = Internal
angle at A
Forward
station F
Figure 3.5
Therefore from Fig. 3.5, WCB of AF = 03,+¢,— 180°

since NBA = 6g, = S,AB.
In this example we are given the bearing of BC but to move round the traverse
in the anti-clockwise direction B, A, F, E, D, C, B we need the bearing of
CB instead.
Now whole circle bearing of BC = 45°
therefore whole circle bearing of CB = 45°+180°
= 225°.
We can now proceed, using the quoted rule, to determine the whole circle
bearings of the six traverse lines as follows:
WCB of CB = 225° 00’ 00”
Add angle B Sit AU
312° 17° 10" (Exceeds 180°)

Deduct 180° 180° 00’ 00”
Therefore WCB of BA 132° 17 / 10 ”
Add angle A 122°. 42 050"
255° 00’ 00”

Deduct 180° 180° 00’ 00”
Therefore WCB of AF = 75° 00’ 00”

Add angle F tom 10"
Zoe OT 40"
Deduct 180° 180° 00’ 00”
WCB of: FE 53° 07’ 10”

Add angle E 92° 48’ 10”
145° 55. 20”
(Less than 180°)
Add 180° 180° 00’ 00”
Therefore WCB of ED = 325° 55’ 20”
Add angle D |
aera hie Nags
ce Re ee)ten De
Deduct 180° 180° 00’ 00”
Therefore WCB of DC 271° 51’ 10”

Add angle C 133°..08— 305
405° 00’ 00”

Deduct 180° 180° 00’ 00”
Therefore WCB of CB = 225° 00’ 00” (Check)
Calculate centesimal values.

In the centesimal system the major graduations of the instrument range from
zero to 400 gon, as against zero to 360° in the sexagesimal system. Subdivision
in the centesimal system is carried out in steps of ten and readings may be
made to 0.0001 gon. It will be evident that:
1 degree is equivalent to ? gon
1 minute is equivalent to 4 gon
1 second is equivalent to 57 gon.
Hence in the case of line FE, 53° 07’ 10” in the sexagesimal system is
equivalent to

53 x 2Oo = 58.8889
7x4 = 0.1296
10 X 3% = 0.0031
59.0216 gon
Similar calculations are used to complete Table 3.3.
Table 3.3
Whole circle bearing
Sexagesimal Centesimal
system system
75° 00’ 00” 83.3333 gon

53° 07’ 10” 59.0216 gon
325° 55’ 20” 362.1358 gon
efi? St 10” 302.0586 gon
225° 00’ 00” 250.0000 gon
182°°17" 10" 146.9846 gon
3.2 Correcting a A survey was carried out on a closed loop traverse with six sides.
traverse by With the traverse labelled anti-clockwise as shown in Figure 3.6 the
Bowditch’s method data in Table 3.4 were obtained.
Table 3.4
130° 18’ 45”

110° 18’ 23”
99° 32’ 35”
116° 18’ 2”
119° 46’ 7”
° AR’ ON”
ep Pepi Figure 3.6
The co-ordinates of point A are 1000 mE, 1000 mN and the whole circle
bearing of line A—F is 166° 45’ 52”.
After adjustment by Bowditch’s method what are the co-ordinates of
the other five traverse stations?
[Salford/CIOB]
Solution. The first stage in the process is to determine the angular error
and apply corrections as discussed in Example 3.1.
Table 3.5 shows the tabulated angular data which sums to 720° 00’ 12”,

expected closure = (2n—4) x 90°
= 720°
error 720*-00/ 12" =720°
= +12”
Thus, assuming that the angles have been measured with equal accuracy, a
correction of —2” should be applied to each as shown in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5
Observed value Adjusted value
130° 18’ 45” 130° 18’ 43”

110° 18’ 23” 110° 18% 2rs
99° 32’ 35” 99° 32’ 33”
NiGeIs” +2” 116° 18’ «0%
119° 46’ 7” 119° 46’ 5”
143° 46’ 20” 143° 46’ 18”
The next stage is to calculate the whole circle bearings. In Example 3.1 a
method of calculating whole circle bearings was presented adding or subtracting
180° to the bearing of the back station plus the internal angle at the station.
The same set of bearings can be obtained by approaching the problem
differently. The reader is advised to try both methods and adopt the one that
is found to be easiest; the two methods cannot be mixed in any one calculation.
Consider Fig. 3.7.
ry WCBg,
WCB,,
Figure 3.7
WCBz, = WCBap + 180° (to lie in range 0° < WCBga < 360°)
WCBgc = WCBg, + B (subtract 360° if greater than 360°)
WCBcg = WCBgc + 180° etc
Readers can consider themselves to be at each of the stations in turn logically

proceeding around the traverse in an anti-clockwise direction.

At A WCBar 166° 45’ 52”
add A 130° 18’ 43”
WCBap 297° 04’ 35” (exceeds 180°)

— 180° 00’ 00”
AtB WCBga 117° 04’ 35”
add B 110° 1821”
227° 22’ 56” (exceeds 180°)

— 180° 00’ 00”
At C WCBcs 47° 22’ 56”
add C ie pa
146° 55’ 29” (less than 180°)

+ 180° 00’ 00”
At D WCBpc 526. 20
add D LToSt1s% (O°
443° 13’ 29” (exceeds 360°)

— 360° 00’ 00”
WCBpz 83° 13’ 29” (less than 180°)

+ 180° 00’ 00”
AtE WCBgp 26320130729 *

add E 119° 46’ 05”
382° 59’ 34” (exceeds 360°)

— 360° 00’ 00”
WCBr 22° 59’ 34” (less than 180°)

+ 180° 00’ 00”
At F_WCBrp 202; so. 34"

add F 143° 46’ 18”
WCBra 346° 45’ 52” (exceeds 180°)

— 180° 00’ 00”
WCBar 166° 45’ 52” Check

The next stage is to determine the easting and northing differences. In the
introduction it was pointed out that:
(a) easting difference AE = Ey—Ex
(b) northing difference AN = Ny—Nx
for points X and Y, which can be the stations at each end of a line as in Fig. 3.8.

Figure 3.8
It will be seen that,
(WE, lyy sin (WCB)
and AN = lxyy cos (WCB).

The signs of AE and AN automatically follow the trigonometrical terms. Since
the whole circle bearing lies between 180° and 270° both sin (WCB) and
cos (WCB) are negative. This causes AN and AE to be negative in respect
of the positive directions of N and E in Fig. 3.8.
The resultant easting differences and northing differences can now be
computed for the traverse lines, as in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6
297° 04’ 35”

2er?-22. 56"
146° 55’ 29”
83° 13’ 29”
22° 59’ 34”
346° 45’ 52”
Next, the closing error is determined. The algebraic sums of the easting
differences and northing differences should be zero because the traverse starts
and ends at A, but in fact we have total errors in so far as this traverse is
concerned of
AE = 0.067 m
and AN = —0.007m
Closing error = V(AE* + AN?)
= V(0.0677 +0.0077)
= 0.067 m
Expressed fractionally in terms of the total length of the traverse the linear

error is 0.067 m in 324.572 m or 1 in 4844, This is close to third-order
accuracy of 1 in 5000.
The error in easting and northing distances should now be corrected. There
are a number of methods of carrying out this task; Bowditch’s method is
commonly adopted in civil engineering surveys since it has some theoretical
background and is relatively simple to apply. The method assumes that the
error in the bearing of a line caused by inaccurate angular measurement
produces a displacement at one end of a line (C) relative to the other end (B)
which is equal and perpendicular to the displacement along that line due to
an error in linear measurement, which is taken to the proportional to VLgc.
Figure 3.9 shows that the method causes C to be displaced to C’, and
consequently the bearing of BC changes.
Displacement —"
due to linear
error
%
4 / |cotectionto ANgc
Vi
“Ci
Correction to AEg,
Displacement
due to angular
error
Figure 3.9
For individual lines Bowditch’s method states:
dE x length of line BC
correction to easting difference AEgc . =
total length of traverse
dN X length of line BC
correction to northing difference ANgc =
in which dE and dW are the total corrections required for the easting differences
and northing differences, respectively.
In this example dE = —0.067 m and dN = +0.07 m. Hence the corrections
for line BC are:
85.771
correction to easting diffe rence —0.067 x
324.572
= —0.018 m
85.771
correction to northing difference +0.007 x ————_
324.572
= +0.002 m
Note also that in Fig. 3.9 a

: . ; correction to AE
the change in bearing of the line = tan~! ————————"
correction to ANgc
= tan~! ——
dN
This is the bearing of the closing error and the correction in bearing applies
throughout the traverse for all lines.
The corrections can be tabulated as in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7
Correction |Corrected
to AN AN
The final stage is to determine the co-ordinates of the stations by applying

the corrected difference AE and AN to the previous station co-ordinates, i.e.
for B
easting co-ordinate of B = easting co-ordinate of A + AEas
northing co-ordinate of B = northing co-ordinate of A + ANap
Hence we obtain the values given in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8
Co-ordinates
Station
A 1000.00 1000.00
(line AB) — 12.689 6.485
B 987.311 1006.485
(line BC) — 63.136 — 58.074
Cc 924.175 948.411
(line CD) 42.180 — 64.787
4D 966.355 883.624
‘(line DE) 28.019 3.331
E 994.374 886.955
(line EF) 20.730 48.881
F 1015.104 935.836
(line FA) — 15.104 64.164
A 1000.00 1000.00

The following computer program will correct a closed-loop traverse by
Bowditch’s method. Stations must be numbered clockwise around the traverse,
the co-ordinates of point 1 being fixed and the whole circle bearing of the line
joining station 1 and station NV must be known. The internal angles at the stations
should have been measured and the traverse lines must not cross.
Line 230 in the program compares the actual angular misclosure to the
allowable one and calculation stops if this is exceeded, this check can be
removed by deleting lines 230—250.
For readers with programmable calculators the DIM statement in line 20
has been set for a 10-sided traverse, minimum values are L(N), E(N+1),
N(N+1), A(N), B(N). The data is output in a table and lines 430, 500, 540
and 560 will need to be reformatted for machines with a limited display.
Variables
A(i) = Angle i Pi — Actual angular misclosure
B = WCB of line 1 to N S = Input/output, Seconds
Bi) = WCB of line i to i+1 S1 = Minimum theodolite
C = 360° in seconds division (least count)
D = Input/output, Degrees T = Sum of measured angles
E(i) = Easting of station i Tl = Expected sum of angles
I = Loop counter U1 = Easting misclosure
K = = Traverse accuracy factor U2 = Northing misclosure
(1-3) U3 = Linear error
L = Sum of side lengths U4 = Fractional error
L(i) = Length of side i to i+1 US = Cumulative easting
M = Input/output, Minutes correction
N = Number of sides_ U6 = Cumulative northing
N(i) = Northing of station i correction
P = Allowable angular X =I+1
misclosure
10 REM CLOSED LOOP TRAVERSE CORRECTED BY BOWDITCH’S METHOD

20 DIM L(10), E(11), N(11), A(11), B(10)
30 INPUT "NUMBER OF SIDES ", N
40 FOR I = 1 TON
50 PRINT "INPUT ANGLE"; I; "IN DEG,MIN,SEC"
60 INPUT D, M, S
70 A(I) = (D * 3600) + (M * 60) + §
80 T = T + A(I)
90 X=I+1
100 IF I = N THEN X = 1
110 PRINT "INPUT LENGTH"; I; "TO"; x
120 INPUT L(I)
130 L = L + L(I)
140 NEXT I
150 INPUT "MINIMUM THEODOLITE DIVISION IN SEC (NORMALLY 1 OR 20) ", s1
160 INPUT "TRAVERSE ACCURACY FACTOR FROM 1 TO 3 e K
170 IF K < 1 OR K > 3 THEN GOTO 160
180 P = INT(K * S1 * SQR(N) + .5)
190 Tl = (2 * N - 4) * 90 * 3600
200 Pl =T - T1
210 PRINT "ANGULAR MISCLOSURE ="; Pl; "SEC"
220 PRINT "ALLOWED MISCLOSURE ="; P; "SEC"
230 IF ABS(P1) < P THEN GOTO 260
240 PRINT "DATA ERROR - CALCULATION STOPPED"
250 STOP
260 C = 360 * 3600
270 INPUT "INPUT CO-ORDINATES OF POINT 1", E(1), N(1)
82 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SUR VEYING

280 PRINT "INPUT W.C.BEARING OF LINE 1 TO"; N; "IN DEG,MIN,SEC"
290 INPUT D, M, S
300 B = (D * 3600) + (M * 60) +S
310 FOR I = 1 TO N
320 B(I) = B - A(I) + (Pl / N)
330 IF B(I) < 0 THEN B(I) = B(I) +c
340 B = B(I) + (180 * 3600)
350 IF B > C THENB=B-C
360 N(I + 1) = N(I) + L(I) * COS(B(I) / 206264.8)
370 E(I + 1) = E(I) + L(I) * SIN(B(I) / 206264.8)
380 NEXT I
390 U1 = INT((E(N + 1) - E(1)) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
400 U2 = INT((N(N + 1) - N(1)) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
410 U3 = INT((SQR((U1 * U1) + (U2 * U2))) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
420 U4 = INT((L / U3) + .5)
430 PRINT "STATION BEARING LENGTH CO-ORDINATES"
440 PRINT
450 FOR I = 1 TON
460 U5 = U5 + (U1 * L(I) / L)
470 U6 = U6 + (U2 * L(I) / L)
480 E(I + 1) = INT((E(I + 1) - U5) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
490 N(I + 1) = INT((N(I + 1) - U6) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
500 PRINT I; TAB(30); E(I); TAB(40); N(I)
510 D = INT(B(I) / 3600)
520 M = INT((B(I) - (D * 3600)) / 60)
530 S = INT(B(I) - (D * 3600) - (M * 60))
540 PRINT TAB(4); D; TAB(10); M; TAB(15); S; TAB(20); L(Z)
550 NEXT I
560 PRINT " 1"; TAB(30); E(N + 1); TAB(40); N(N + 1)
570 PRINT "EASTING ERROR ="; Ul
580 PRINT "NORTHING ERROR ="; U2
590 PRINT "LINEAR ERROR = U9
600 PRINT "FRACTIONAL ERROR = 1 IN"; U4
610 END
3.3 Correcting a A closed-loop traverse survey ABCDEA, shown in Fig. 3.10, gave
traverse by the the information in Table 3.9.
Transit rule
Table 3.9
Line Length Whole circle bearing

(m)
45° 10’ 10”
72° 04’ 55”
161° 51’ 45”
228° 43’ 10” E
300° 41’ 50”
Figure 3.10
Determine the closing error and hence, after adjustment by the Transit
rule, determine the co-ordinates of the traverse stations given that the
co-ordinates of A are 1200.00 mE, 1200.00 mN.
It may be assumed that the whole circle bearings do not need an
adjustment.
Introduction. The previous examples covered the first stage in traverse

computation in that the measured angles were assessed for error, and then duly
corrected. This was then followed by the determination of the whole circle
bearings of the lines. This example allows us to follow the remainder of the
procedure applied to the Transit rule.

This method has no theoretical background, but it is such that if a line has
no easting difference it will not be given an easting correction. This is not
so with the Bowditch approach. The rule states
: dE x AE
correction to AEpzp = path ieee 82°)
DAE:
‘ AN
dN x IE
cork i
correction to ANpzr SER
= Rc
L AN
Solution. First calculate the values of AE and AN in exactly the same manner
to Example 3.2. The data are tabulated in Table 3.10.
Table 3.10
Line Length AN
(m) n) (m)
45° 10’ 10” + 207.99 + 206.76
72°04" 65" + 685.87 + 221.77
161° 51’ 45” + 154.75 — 472.42
228° 43’ 10” — 393.28 — 345.27
a ae ETS
300° 41’ 50” —655.11 + 388.94
In the example L AE = 2097.00 m and dE = —0.22

also XL AN = 1635.16 m and dN = +0.22.
Magnitudes of the differences are considered but the signs are ignored.
Thus for line DE we have
393.28
correction to AEpr =Ui2e X
2097.00
—0.04
Table 3.11
+ 207.97 | +206.76 : + 206.79

+685.80 | +221.77 j + 221.80
+ 154.73 | —472.42 , — 472.36
— 393.32 | —345.27 ; — 345.22
—655.18 | +388.94 : + 388.99

345.27
correction to ANpp +0.22°x
1635.16
+0.05 m.
For the complete traverse we obtain the values in Table 3.11.
To determine the co-ordinates of the stations we apply the corrected
differences AE and AN to the previous station co-ordinates in the same manner
as Example 3.2, and hence we obtain the values in Table 3.12.
Table 3.12
E N
(m) (m)
A 1200.00 1200.00
(line AB) 207.97 206.79
B 1407.97 1406.79
(line BC) 685.80 221.80
c 2093.77 1628.59
(line CD) 154.73 ~ 472.36
D 2248.50 1156.23
(line DE) ~ 393.32 ~ 345,22
E 1855.18 811.01
(line EA) ~ 655.18 + 388.99
A 1200.00 1200.00
3.4 Vector A five-sided loop traverse (whose angles have an accepted misclosure)
misclosure of a has been computed giving the co-ordinate differences in Table 3.13 for
traverse each leg.
Table 3.13
(i) Determine the easting, northing and vector misclosure of the

traverse.
(ii) The vector misclosure indicates a mistake of 1 m in the length
of one of the sides of the traverse. Find which side contains the mistake

and, after eliminating its effect, recompute, the easting, northing and
vector misclosures. [London]
Table 3.14
Solution. (i) Calculate the vector misclosure of the traverse. The easting
misclosure is +0.94 m and the northing misclosure is —0.49 m, as indicated
in Fig. 3.11.
i WEBi=. 117° 32”

Misclosure vector
: _—pe_E
—0.49 = AN
[ee
0.94 = AE
Figure 3.11
Whence vector misclosure V((+0.94)? + (—0.49)?)

1.06 m
_, 0.94
with a bearing of tan 117° 32’, say.
—0.49
(ii) Now find the side that is in error. We are given that the angles as
measured produced an acceptable misclosure, and accordingly the magnitude
of the misclosure cannot be attributed to their measurement. In such an
eventuality we have to search for a side in the traverse which has the same
bearing, approximately, as that of the closing error. Bearings have not been
given in this example, but scrutiny of the data reveals that line BC is the only
one whose easting difference and northing difference bear some proportional
relationship with the corresponding differences of the closing error, i.e.
+70.45 m for AE and —34.71 m for AN against +0.94 m and —0.49 m,
respectively, in the closing error. Thus we can assume that BC is in error by
the amount stated. ;

The apparent length of BC = V((70.45)? + (—34.71)?)
= 78.54 m.
Also, for BC, pee = gS = —2.03

AN — 34.71
AE 0.94
and the closing error ——- = ———-_ = _— 1,92.
AN —0.49
If we accept that the length of BC should have been booked as 77.54 m (given
that it has been subjected to an error of 1 m) and recalculate the magnitudes
of the misclosures.
corrected AE for BC = ‘sues x 70.45 = +69.55 m

78.54
COMECSIPAN TBE BC ee ee a te 44.27 in:

78.54
Thus for the amended closing error, AE = +0.04 m AN = —0.05 m
magnitude = V((0.04)? + (0.05)”) = 0.06 m

, 0.04
bearing = tan™ = 141° 19’.
—0.05
3.5 Closed-link Measurements of the traverse ABCDE, as shown in Fig. 3.12, are
traverse given in Table 3.15.
Table 3.15
; \ 123° 16’ 6”
Clockwise angle | Length | .—_.4-)\.
(m)
782.820 mE
260° ° 31’ ‘ 18 ” 129.352 460.901 mN
123°°50" 42” 81.700
233° 00’ 06” ;
101.112
158° 22’ 48” 94.273
283° 00’ 18” ;
WCB of EY = 282° 03’ 00”.
740.270 mE
84.679 mN
Figure 3.12
The measured angles are as shown in the figure. Keeping the bearings
XA and EY and also the co-ordinates of A and E fixed, obtain the adjusted

co-ordinates for B, C and D using an equal shifts angular adjustment
and Bowditch linear adjustment. [Bradford]
Introduction. Although in an extended form, rather than starting and finish-

ing at one point, this traverse is still a closed traverse, since it runs between
two points whose co-ordinates are fixed and two lines whose bearings are fixed.
It is known as a closed-link traverse and it can be readily adjusted.
Solution. Determine whole circle bearings. Starting with the bearing of

XA we should end with the given bearing of EY; if not then there will be
some angular error to balance.
x
Using measured angles: Using corrected angles:
WCB of XA = 123° 16’ 06” WCB of XA = 123° 16’ 06”

A = 260° 31’ 18” Corrected A = 260° 31’ 39”
Add = 383° 47’ 24” Add = 383° 47’ 45”
Deduct 180° 00’ 00” Deduct 180° 00’ 00”
WCB of AB = 203° 47’ 24” WCB of AB = 203° 47’ 45”
B = 123° 50’ 42” Corrected B = 123° 51’ 02”
Add = 327° 38’ 06” Add = 327° 38’ 47”
Deduct 180° 00’ 00” Deduct 180° 00’ 00”
WCB of BC = 147° 38’ 06” WCB of BC = 147° 38’ 47”
€ = 233° 00’ 06” Corrected C = 233° 00’ 26”
Add = 380° 38’ 12” Add = 380° 39’ 13”
Deduct 180° 00’ 00” Deduct 180° 00’ 00”
WCB of CD = 200° 38’ 12” WCB of CD = 200° 39’ 13”
BD = 158° 22’ 48” Corrected BD= 158° 23’ 08”
Add = 359° 01’ 00” Add = 359° 02’ 21”
Deduct 180° 00’ 00” Deduct 180° 00’ 00”
WCB of DE = 179° 01’ 00” WCB of DE = 179° 02’ 21”

E = 283° 00’ 18” Corrected E = 283° 00’ 39”
Add = 462° 01’ 18” Add = 462° 03’ 00”
Deduct 180° 00’ 00” Deduct 180° 00’ 00”
WCB of EY = 282° 01’ 18” WCB of EY = 282° 03’ 00” Check
But given WCB of EY = 282° 03’ 00” Stim 20 9
therefore angular error = —O1’ 42”

and total correction = +01’ 42”
This has to be shared out to five angles, i.e. 21” to A and E and 20” to B,
C and D.
Next determine the easting and northing differences. Having adjusted the
observed angles and deduced the whole circle bearings of the lines, the easting

Table 3.16
Line Length AN
(m) im) (m)
129.352 203° 47’ 45” — 52.191 — 118.356
81.700 147° 38’ 47” + 43.721 — 69,017
101.112 200° 39’ 13” — 35.664 — 94.614
94.273 179° 02°21" + 1.581 — 94.260
740.270 84.679
782.820 460.901
and northing differences are calculated for each line on the basis of
AE = | sin (WCB) and AN = | cos (WCB).
From Table 3.16 it will be seen that the total difference is — 42.553 mE and
— 376.247 mN. The fixed co-ordinates for A and E are as in Table 3.17. Thus
the easting differences and northing differences given by the actual
measurements are in error by
eastings —42.553 — (—42.550) — 0.003 m
northings —376.247 — (—376.222) —0.025 m.
Therefore corrections of +0.003 m and +0.025 m are required for the easting
differences and northing distances, respectively.
Make the Bowditch adjustment of the easting and northing differences. As
stated previously the Bowditch linear adjustment for a particular line is
length of line x dE
correction to easting difference
length of line x dN
correction to northing difference
total length of traverse :
in which dE = +0.003 m and dN = +0.025 m for this traverse. Hence the
corrections to be applied are as in Tables 3.18 and 3.19.
The computation of co-ordinates is given in Table 3.20.

Table 3.18
eeLo [oe |
Length (m) 129.352 101.112] 94.273 | 406.437 m
AE correction (m) | + 0.001 + 0.001 + 0.003 m
AN correction (m) | + 0.008 + 0.006 + 0.025 m
Table 3.19
Line Correction See Correction” see

to AE to AN
— 52.190
+ 43.721
— 35.663
+ 1.582
Table 3.20
Co-ordinates A : 782.820 460.901

AEns — 52.190 — 118.348
Co-ordinates B 730.630 342.553

AEgc + 43.721 - — 69.012
Co-ordinates C 774.351 273.541

AEcp — 35.663 — 94.608
Co-ordinates D 738.688 178.933

AE pe + 1.582 94.254
Co-ordinates E 740.270 84.679 (Check)
3.6 Errors The magnitude of the errors in centring a theodolite over a station by
introduced when various methods has been investigated and the following results quoted
centring the
(i) plumb bob +3 mm
theodolite
(ii) centring rod +2 mm
(iii) optical plummet +1 mm
(iv) constrained centring +0.1 mm.

Compute the maximum errors in the measurement of a horizontal traverse
angle of approximately 120° resulting from each of the above centring
errors, assuming that the lengths of the adjacent drafts are 15 m and 25 m.
[Eng. Council]
Figure 3.13
Introduction. In Fig. 3.13 let the true centring position of the theodolite
be S. It is possible for the vertical axis of the theodolite to lie anywhere within
a circle of radius x from that point, x being one of the centring errors quoted
above. However, there will be two points on the perimeter of that circle at
which the true horizontal angle RST will be subtended. These are S, and S,
which lie on the circumference of the circle containing R, S, and T. Accord-
ingly RS,T = RST = RS,T because all three angles stand on chord RT.
Figure 3.14
Solution. First determine the maximum angular error due to a centring error
of +3 mm. In Fig. 3.14 the theodolite has been centred at U, distance x from
S. The measured horizontal angle RUT = y;,
whilst the correct angle RST = +
=§@+ a
Now yi =%@+90+a+68
Therefore the error in measurement E = ¢ + 6

sin sin a
But pat =
x Zz
in which z= TU
sin } sin 0
and =
x 7
in which y = UR.

For small angles sinB = B” X sin 1”
and sin Giiseed 3%. sin-1”
Therefore E = @ + B seconds of arc
_ _*x sin 0 x sin a
y sin 1” z sin 1”
x sin 0 sin a
Il
Sint” y Z
It will be noted that the absolute maximum error E is given when sin a and
sin 6 have their maximum values. This occurs when a = 90° and 0 = (y—a)
= 90°, i.e. RST = 180°. .
Note also that E increases as y and z decrease. However, in this case we
are given that y is of the order of 120°, and for the maximum error arrising
; : dE
in this case —— = 0.
a
Now
ee a x sin(y — @) a sin a
sin 1” y Zz
Devnet (sin y X cos a)—(cos y X sin @) =! sin @

sin 1” y va
Therefore
eae
da
ose
sin 1”
(—sin
y X sin ~)—(cos
y X cos a) =
y
cos a
Zz
)=o.
Tieketors COS _ (sin y X sin a)+(cos y X cos a)
Zz y
or y = z(siny X tana + cos y)
brnnte oud i eit

Z sin y
ems 25.cos120 = 15+12.5

25 sin 120 21.65
= 1.270 207 8.
Therefore a = 51° 47’, say.
The direction of displacement of U is significant.

Taking case (i), x = 3 mm = 0.003 m, thus
0.003 eats 47’) 5 sin 51° =)

sin 1” 15 25

0.003 oe 59 2 0.785 ;)
ll
Sine)” 15 25
in which *———— 206 265 and so E = 57.8 seconds.

sin 1
3.7 Errors due to Derive expressions for the error in horizontal circle readings taken
maladjustment of the using a theodolite having the following maladjustments:
th lite . en :
eau (i) the line of collimation not perpendicular to the trunnion axis by
a small amount c
(ii) the trunnion axis not perpendicular to the vertical axis by a small
amount i.
Hence prove that the effect of these maladjustments is eliminated by using

the mean of face left and face right readings.
Calculate the true value of angle PRQ from the readings given in Table
3.21 which were taken using a theodolite at R on face left only for which
instrument c is known to be 23 seconds left and i is known to be 15
seconds down at the right.
Table 3.21
Station | Horizontal circle Vertical circle Panny
PA DegTSA ee6 BOTS te. depression

A 22v27 53% 28° 12’ 34” elevation
[Bradford]
; Path of
Path of
line of sight 2, 2 Z, ri # vd
(face right) A (face left)
LJ
S, T,Q,T, S,
\
Vertical Trunnion
circle axis
Figure 3.15

Introduction. In Fig. 3.15 the line of sight is shown to make a small angle
c with the perpendicular to the trunnion axis (which would be its correct
position). It sweeps along circle Z,QT, when the telescope is rotated about
the trunnion axis for the pointing on Q. The reading of the horizontal circle,
however, is as if Q were in vertical circle ZS, (to which Z,QT, is parallel)
whereas it is actually in vertical circle ZQ,. Consequently, the error in the
horizontal circle reading is $,Q, for this sighting, and it is positive on a
clockwise reading circle.
Let SQ be at right angles to ZS,, i.e. S = 90°. Then in spherical triangle
ZSQ
sin Z sin S
sinSQ sin ZQ.
Therefore sin Z = ee
sin ZQ
For small angles we can write
_ SQxsin S
~~ sin(90—h)
in which h = QQ, (the altitude of Q).
Therefore Z (since sin S = 1)

cos
SQ sec h
c sec h,
writing SQ = c.
In Fig. 3.16 the left-hand support of the trunnion axis is higher than the right-
hand support and consequently the line of sight sweeps out Z,QS3, making
angle i with the vertical circle ZS3. Q appears to be on that circle but is in
fact on vertical circle ZQ,. Thus the error in the horizontal circle reading for
this particular case is S3Q, and it is negative.
Consider spherical triangle QQ,S; in which Q, = 90°
sin Q,S3 = tani X tan QQ).
Line of Path of line

sight of sight Path of
(face left) ye z line of sight
(face right)
Trunnion S Qi os
axis
Figure 3.16
SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SURVEYING

Therefore for small angles
Q,S3 = i tan h,
in which h is the altitude of Q.

The same expressions hold when depression angles are observed. In the case
of collimation error c the senses of the errors are the same since path Z,;QT,
is parallel to ZS, throughout (see Fig. 3.15). However, in Fig. 3.16 Z,QS;
is inclined to ZS, the two effectively crossing at S; when moving from
elevation to depression. Thus there is a change in sense and P, in this particular
worked example, will have a positive error.
When face right observations are made the paths of the lines of sight change
direction Z,, moving to Z,’ in Fig. 3.15, thus giving an error of Q,S) in the
horizontal circle reading. This is of similar magnitude but of opposite sense
to S,Q,. Similarly, in Fig. 3.16, Z, moves to Z,’ and S3 to S4, giving error
S4Q, which is equal in magnitude but of opposite sense to error Q,S3.
Thus in each case the means of the face left and face right observations will
give the true value of the horizontal circle reading.
Solution. Determine angle PRQ. Tabulating the errors we have the values
in Table 3.22.
Table 3.22
RP +23” sec 42° 15’ 12” = + 31.1” +15” tan 42° 15’ 12” + 13.6”
RQ +23” sec 28° 12’ 34” = +26.1” —15” tan 28° 12’ 34” —8.0”
Applying corrections equal and opposite in sense to the above errors we

obtain the values given in Table 3.23.
Table 3.23
Observed angle Corrected angle
RQ ViZS2 i063 * 112° 27’ 34.9”

RP Sr ed54 277 27° 14’ 42.3”
85° 12’ 52.6”
Therefore the corrected angle PRQ = 85° 12’ 53” to the nearest second.

Problems
1 A closed traverse survey involved the measurement of angles at and

distances between five stations, A, B, C, D and E.
Table 3.24
Station Line Length Whole-circle

(m) bearing
A AB 293 45° 10’ 00”

B BC 721 72° 05’ 00”
Cc cD 496 161° 52’ 00"
D DE 522 228° 43’ 00”
E EA 762 300° 42’ 00”
A
From the information given in Table 3.24 calculate the closing error
in eastings and northings using the Bowditch method and hence determine
the corrected values of station co-ordinates if the known co-ordinates
of station A are 1500 N and 650 E.
Assume that all the angles, as given in Table 3.24, are correct and
therefore do not require any adjustment. [Salford]
Answer Co-ordinates of C 1543.5 mE, 1927.8 mN
2 A,B,C, D are the stations of a four-sided loop traverse; angles are

measured with a Wild TIA and distances with a 50 m steel band, with
the results in Table 3.25.
Table 3.25
Angle A 42° 47’ 55” AB 329.88 m

135° 37’ 30” BC 181.60 m
187° 31’ 50” cD 265.15 m
44° 02’ 30” DA 650.14 m
(i) Compute the traverse, and say whether you would consider the
misclosure satisfactory.
(ii) If you consider the misclosure to be unsatisfactory, say where
the bad observation responsible is most likely to have occurred.
(iii) On the basis that your assumption is correct, obtain adjusted
co-ordinates for B, C, D on the basis of:
Co-ordinates of A: 1000 mE, 2000 mN

Bearing of AB: 30°
[London]
3 The measured internal angles of a looped traverse ABCDEA are

A = 51° 37’ 40”
B = 192° 08’ 55”
€ = 101° 51’ 55”
D = 87° 29’ 35”
E = 106° 53’ 35”
The lengths of the sides are measured in metres as AB = 88.355,
BC = 65.205, CD = 76.405, DE = 112.960, EA = 125.400.
Using an equal shifts angular adjustment and a transit linear adjustment,
calculate the co-ordinates of the points B, C, D and E if the co-ordinates
of A are 50.235 mE, 75.170 mN and the bearing of the line AB is 56°
56’ 40”. [Bradford]
4 Three control points A, B and C have been set out on a construction

site. A traverse was run between A and B. It was lettered APQRB. Field
notes were:
Measured clockwise angle: CAP = 123° 36’ 00”
Measured deflection angles at: P = —28° 17’, Q = —43° 23’
R = —41° 53’
B (to C) = =57° 05’
Measured lengths (m): AP = 42.67, PQ = 55.13
QR = 89.15, RB = 24.50
Co-ordinates (m): Ex = 162.970, Na = 34.160
Ep = 251.865, Ng = 181.815
Ec = 27.305, Nc = 186.520
Using an equal shifts angular adjustment and a transit linear adjustment
calculate the co-ordinates of the points P, Q and R.
(Deflection angles are negative when measured in an anticlockwise
sense.) [Bradford]
Answer Co-ordinates of Q, 249.11 mE, 72.98 mN
5 A traverse is carried out between two points P and Q, the co-ordinates

of which are known to be 1268.49 mE, 1836.88 mN and 1375.64 mE,
1947.05 mN, respectively. Table 3.26 gives the values of the eastings
and northings of the sides as calculated from the field observations.
Table 3.26
ee, ee
Adjust the closing error using Bowditch’s method and hence calculate
the adjusted co-ordinates of A, B, C and D. [Leeds]

6 A precise closed traverse consisting of six survey stations has been
conducted. The adjusted internal horizontal angles and reduced distances
are given in Table 3.27.
Table 3.27
Horizontal angles Distances (m)
94° 25’ 13” 1388.906

68° 34’ 36” 1901.654
181° 14’ 00” 1648.992
90° 39’ 06” 1238.602
124° 19’ 04” 740.543
160° 48’ 01” 1101.562
Assuming the co-ordinates of A are 324 022.039 mE,

342 846.959 mN and the azimuth AB to be 137° 04’ 54” , compute the
co-ordinates of the remaining five stations and the linear closing error
of the traverse.
[Eng. Council]
Answer Co-ordinates of D 325 029.173 mE, 343 040.041 mN
7 Inorder to correlate underground workings with the surface, a precise

traverse involving four survey stations B, C, D and E has been conducted
between vertical wires A and F suspended in the downcast and upcast
shafts at a deep mine.
The National Grid co-ordinates of the wires are given in Table 3.28.
Table 3.28
~E (m)
323 679.139: 340 431.406

323 808.007 340 571.246
The mean clockwise horizontal angles and grid distances for the traverse
are given in Table 3.29.
Table 3.29
Horinzontal angles Grid distances

(m)
ABC 178° 46’ 0” 164.899
BCD 269° 20’ 54” 123.860
CBE 235° 40’ 56” 74.054
DEF 199° 11’ 110.156
138.906
Compute the National Grid co-ordinates of the stations B, C, D and

E which are all to the North-West generally of the shafts and the
approximate azimuth of the line AB is 334°.
{[Eng. Council]
Answer Co-ordinates of D 323 615.739 mE, 340 724.269 mN
8 A closed traverse survey ABCDEA in which lines CD and AE cross
SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SURVEYING

Table 3.30
Whole circle
bearing
325° 40’ 00”

69° 10’ 00”
41° 00’ 00”
305° 55’ 00”
194° 50’ 00”
was carried out in a confined area. Various obstructions prevented

distances BC and CD from being measured although their whole circle
bearings were able to be recorded. Determine the lengths of BC and CD
from the values given in Table 3.30.
Assume that A has co-ordinates 500.00 N, 500.00 E. [Salford]
Answer 88.9 m, 202.5 m
9 Derive an expression for the error in the horizontal circle reading

of a theodolite (h) caused by the line of collimation not being
perpendicular to the trunnion axis by a small amount c.
A theodolite under test for error in collimation and alignment of the
trunnion axis is set with its axis truly vertical. Exactly 20.000 metres
away is a vertical wire carrying two targets at different levels. An accurate
scale perpendicular to the line of sight is graduated from — 100 mm to
+100 mm and is mounted just touching the wire and in the same plane
as the trunnion axis. The zero graduation coincides with the wire.
The theodolite is first pointed at a target, the telescope is then lowered
to read the scale with the results given in Table 3.31. Determine the
magnitude and sense of the error in collimation of the theodolite and
the inclination of the trunnion axis.
Table 3.31
Vertical angle Scale reading
65° 27’ 15” +4.11 mm

30° 43’ 27” —6.24 mm
(The error in horizontal circle reading caused by a trunnion axis

misalignment f is ¢t tan a where a is the altitude.) [Bradford]
Answer Collimation 148.8” left; Trunnion 182.9” left support down
10 Horizontal angle POR was measured, face left and face right, R
being clockwise of P. The mean value of the angle was computed as
75° 30’ 30”, the vertical angles being booked as 22° 00’ elevation on
P and 35° 00’ depression on R.
When measuring the angle it was noted that the horizontal plate bubble
(mounted parallel to the trunnion axis) had moved off centre during the
observations, in Table 3.32.
What value should be assigned to angle POR? The positive signs imply
bubble movement towards the left.
Answer 75° 30’ 16”

Table 3.32
| Pointing Face left Face right
P +20" +30”
R 0” +10”
11 List the factors which determine the magnitude of the angular error
due to defective centring of the theodolite.
The centring error in setting up a theodolite over a survey station is
1 mm. Compute the maximum and minimum errors in the measurement
of the clockwise angle ABC induced by this centring error if the
magnitude of the angle is approximately 120° and the lengths of the lines
AB and BC are approximately 5 m and 20 m respectively.
What conclusions can be drawn from this computation?
[Eng. Council]
Answer Maximum error = 47.3”; minimum error = 0”.
12 Calculate the maximum error in the measurement of a horizontal

angle of magnitude 135° resulting from a centring error of +2 mm;
the lengths of the adjacent legs of the traverse are 35.50 m and 26.26 m.
Answer 25.3”
13 The readings in Table 3.33 were taken by theodolite.
Table 3.33
Instrument} Pointing Vertical circle Horizontal circle
station
Face left Face right
+ 63° 227 00)” 27° 24’ 14”! 246° 18’ 53”

U
2 + 12° 16" 20” 119° 47’ 11”| 338° 41’ 28”
Determine the corrected horizontal circle readings given that the line
of sight was not at right angles to the trunnion axis, this being the only
maladjustment.
Answer 27° 24’ 34”; 246° 18’ 33”; 119° 47’ 20”; 338° 41’ 19”
14 Ina certain theodolite the left-hand support of the trunnion axis is

higher than the right-hand support when the telescope is ‘face left’, the
inclination of the trunnion axis being 30” to the horizontal.
Pointings were made on two targets and the readings in Table 3.34
booked.
Table 3.34
Horizontal circle Vertical circle
reading (face right) reading
P 246° 18’ 53” +63° 22’ 00”

R 338° 41' 28” +12°116' 20”

Determine the angle subtended at the instrument, assuming that there
is no other maladjustment.
Answer 92° 23’ 28”
15 If the horizontal axis of a theodolite makes an angle of (90° +a)

with the vertical axis and if the instrument is otherwise in adjustment,
show that the difference between circle left and circle right measurement
of the horizontal angle subtended by two targets, whose elevations are
6 and ¢ above horizontal, is 2a(tan @—tan ¢).
In a certain theodolite, the horizontal axis is 0.025 mm out in 100 mm
and the instrument is otherwise in correct adjustment. Find the difference,
to the nearest second, between circle left and circle right values of the
horizontal angle subtended by two targets whose elevations are 55° 30’
and 22° 00’. [London]
Answer Q1’ 48”
16 An angle of elevation was measured by vernier theodolite and it

was noted that the altitude bubble was not in the centre of its run in either
the face-left or face-right positions. Deduce the value of that angle from
the data in Table 3.35.
Table 3.35
Altitude level
eS
Left 25° 20’ 40” 25° 21’ 00” 3.5 div. 2.5 div.
Right 25° 21’ 00” 25° 21’ 20” 4.5 div. 1.5 div.
O and E refer to the objective and eyepiece end respectively of the

bubble, and one division of the altitude level is equivalent to 20 seconds.
[I. Struct. E.]
Answer 25° 21’ 20”
17 A, Band C are the corners of a triangulation survey, and O is a

station within the triangle. The co-ordinates of O are 1000 E, 1000 N,
of A are 260 E, 75 N and of B are 1930 E, 56 N. If the whole circle
bearing of OC is 285° 10’ 20” and CA is 187° 10’ 25”, what is
(a) the whole circle bearing of OA
(b) the whole circle bearing of BO
(c) the co-ordinates of C?
[Salford]
Answer (a) 218° 39’ 35”; (b) 315° 25’ 40”; (c) 397.00 mE,
1163.52 mN
18 The co-ordinates and surface levels of three exploratory boreholes

A, B and C are listed in Table 3.36 together with the depths to a
metalliferous ore-body. A fourth borehole is to be drilled at point D,

Table 3.36
Borehole Easting Northing Level Depth

AOD ore-body
1920 90
2850 260
1830 100
430 390
the co-ordinates and surface level of which are also listed. All quantities
are in metres.
Calculate
(i) the direction and rate of full-dip of the ore-body which may be
assumed to be uniform
(ii) the borehole depth at which the ore-body would be intersected at
point D.
{Eng. Council]
Answer WCB = 174° 40’ 54”; 1 in 3.066; 1205.6 m
19 In the looped traverse ABCDEA station D could not be occupied,

but was observed from C and E. The internal angles were: at A 95°
18’, at B 105° 45’, at C 96° 09’ and at E 120° 54’. The lengths (m)
were AB = 86.61, BC = 79.48 and EA = 52.19. If the co-ordinates
ofA are 127.50 mE, 146.25 mN and the bearing AB is 39° 54’ calculate
the co-ordinates of D. [Bradford]
Answer 225.97 mE; 124.48 mN

4
Triangulation and the National Grid
Uses of triangulation Triangulation surveys can be used for the accurate location of control points
for plane surveys, aerial surveys and geodetic surveys covering appreciable
areas. They can also be used for the setting out of civil engineering works
such as the piers and abutments of long span bridges, and the measurement
of the deformation of dams.
Control points The control points lie at the corners of geometrical figures such as triangles,
quadrilaterals with diagonals and polygons with central points. All angles of
these figures are measured and their most probable values are determined as
illustrated in Chapter 8.
Base line Providing one side length has been measured all others can be calculated by
trigonometry; this length is referred to as the base line. At least one other length
should be measured, particularly over large areas, so that comparison may
be made between their lengths, calculated and measured. The accuracy of the
work can then be assessed.
If EDM systems are available, and all the sides are measured, a trilateration
survey is established. However, angular measurements define the shape of the
survey network better than wholly linear measurements and so it is likely that
a number of angles will be included in a trilateration survey.
Survey of Great In the geodetic triangulation of Great Britain, commenced in 1936, the primary
Britain triangles had side lengths generally lying between 40 km and 70 km. These
triangles supported a secondary system which, in turn, divided into tertiary
and fourth-order systems. In the latter case stations were at 1 km to 2 km
intervals in urban areas and were often fixed by the techniques of intersection
or resection.
National Grid Triangulation stations in Great Britain have co-ordinates expressed to 0.001 m
within the National Grid. This is composed of lines parallel to a central meridian
(through 2°W) and lines perpendicular thereto, producing a square grid of
side 10 km. The grid was derived from a Transverse Mercator projection whose
origin lies on the central meridian at a latitude of 49°N. The scale is constant
TRIANGULATION AND THE NATIONAL GRID 103

at every point in all directions, but during the projection some adjustments
were made. Consequently, the scale changes with distance from the central
meridian, being correct on lines nearly parallel to the central meridian about
two-thirds of the way towards the boundaries.
The reader will appreciate that if a ‘local’ engineering survey can be tied
into Ordnance Survey points it should be ‘strengthened’.
Convergence The direction of Grid North is that of the central meridian through 2°W but
elsewhere a meridian does not align with Grid North. Thus, in general, the
grid bearing of a line will not equal the true bearing of that line if measured
at a station by an astronomical method or by gyro-theodolite. To convert the
former to the latter a convergence factor has to be applied.
4.1. Sine and cosine In a triangulation survey for a certain civil engineering project line
rule AC was measured and found to be 1210.46 m long. Two stations B and
D were established on opposite sides of AC and the following angles
were observed:
ABD = 44° 40’ 59”
DBC = 67° 43’ 55”
ADB = 63° 19’ 28”
BDC = 29° 38’ 50”
Calculate the length BD.
Figure 4.1
Introduction. In Fig. 4.1, ABCD is a quadrilateral with diagonals, referred

to as a braced quadrilateral, and it is one of the basic figures employed in
triangulation. Further examples of this type of ‘three-point problem’ are covered
in Chapter 7.
Solution. First calculate angles BAD and BCD.
In triangle ABD In triangle BCD
ABD = 44° 40’ 59” DBC = 67° 43’ 55”
ADB = 63° 19’ 28” BDC = 29° 38” 50”
108° 00’ 27” ; OTe ae. Shy”

Therefore BAD 180™00' 00*R==iee 00427." = 71° 59’ 33”
BCD L30%:00 00%» =anOF mee? 45” = §2° 37’ 15”
Next use sine rule to establish lengths AB and BC in terms of BD in triangle
ABD.
BD AB
sin 7 le 99°33” sin 63° 19’ 28”
ee ee BOS Fr, ony soe eee

sin 71° 59’ 33”
In triangle BCD
BD BC
TP Aa al Ye sin 29° 38’ 50”
re eee tr eG tary
sin 82° 37’ 15” ee es
Finally, use cosine rule in triangle ABC to obtain BD.
AC? = AB* + BC? — (2AB x BC x cos ABC)

in which ABC =
II (44° 40’ 59” + 67° 43’ 55”).
Therefore AC? =
ll (0.939 588 x BD)? + (0.498 789 x BD)?
+ (0.357 408 8 x BD’)
1.489 025 BD?.
Since AC = 1210.46 m
ae 1210.46 a
1.489 025
= 991.97 m.
4.2 Satellite station Explain the term triangulation survey and state the factors to be
considered when selecting stations for such surveys.
In triangle ABC, C could not be occupied and a satellite station S was
established north of C. The angles in Table 4.1 were then registered
by a theodolite set up at S.
Table 4.1
Horizontal circle reading
14° 43’ 27”

74° 30’ 35”
fele (ete
The lengths of AC and BC were estimated to be 17 495 m and 13 672 m,

respectively, and the angle ACB was deduced to be 59° 44’ 53”.
Calculate the distance of S from C. [Salford]

Introduction. The term triangulation survey has been discussed at the
beginning of this chapter. In so far as selection factors are concerned:
(a) stations must be visible from each other;
(b) the triangles should be well conditioned, that is with no angle less than
30° and ali sides tending to the same length;
(c) the sides should be as long as possible; and
(d) when selecting stations on the edge of an area, connection to adjoining
surveys should be considered.
A Satellite station (or eccentric station) may be used when it is very difficult,
or impossible, to centre the theodolite over a particular station, even though
it is clearly visible from other stations in the network. In addition, a satellite
station can be included in the observation programme if there are line-of-sight
difficulties on to one station but not on to the nearby satellite station.
Solution. Establish the relative location of A, B, C and S. Assuming that

the theodolite is graduated in a clockwise manner, the observations from S
imply that B and C lie in a clockwise direction from A with angle ASB =
59° 47’ 08” and angle ASC = 212° 34’ 45”. Since S is stated to be north
of C then the general disposition of the four stations is shown in Fig. 4.2 with
S lying within triangle ABC. Lengths AC and CB could have been estimated
since the length of AB would have been determined from previous observations,
and during the observation programme angles ABC and BAC would have been
measured. Taking ACB as (180— BAC — ABC) then the approximate lengths
of AC and BC are readily obtained.
A B
p q
Cc
Figure 4.2
First we determine distance SC. In Fig. 4.2 let angles CAS and CBS be
p and q, respectively. SC will be a short distance in practice (less than AC/1000,
preferably) and so p and q will be relatively small angles. From Fig. 4.2
SC AC
sin p sin ASC
SC BC
and ae
sin g sin BSC
Now ASC = 360°—212° 34’ 45”
= Pa 25 157
and BSC = 227° 18’ 12” —74° 30’ 35”
2 es oyi,

SC
Thus sin p = sin 147° 25’ 15”
AC
: SCam
and si q = —— ‘sin Ia2-47 7
BC
For small angles
sin p = p”” sin 1”

oe sing = q” sin 1”.
in which sin 1” = 1/206 265.
Therefore ae SC y Sin 147° 25" 15”

17 495 sin 1”
= 6.348 x SC.
- Se sine sl 479377
qa ye
13 672 sin 1”
= 6.898 x SC.
Inspection of Fig. 4.2 will show that ASB = ACB + p + gq.

From the theodolite readings at S
ASB = 74° 30’ 35” —14° 43’ 27”

= 59° 47’ 08”
also ACB = 59° 44’ 53” from the data.
Therefore p+q+59° 44’ 53” = 59° 47’ 08”
pt+q = 02’ 15” = 135”,
i.e. (6.348 x SC) + (6.898 x SC) = 135” and SC = 10.192 m.
4.3 Spherical In a geodetic survey the mean angles in Table 4.2 were observed in
triangles one triangle, each having been observed the same number of times under
similar conditions.
Table 4.2
62° 24’ 18.4”

64° 56’ 09.9”
52° 39’ 34.4”
Side AB was known to be 37 269.280 m long. Estimate the corrected

values of the three angles. Take the radius of the earth to be 6383.393 km.
Introduction. The theodolite measures horizontal angles in the horizontal

plane but in the case of large triangles, i.e. primary triangles in the National

Figure 4.3
Triangulation, the curvature of the earth means that such planes are not parallel
at the apices, Fig. 4.3. Accordingly, the three angles of a large triangle do
not total 180°, as is the case for a plane triangle, but to 180° + spherical
excess. The spherical excess depends upon the area of the triangle, and
triangular error is given by
X observed angles — (180° + spherical excess).
Solution. First determine the spherical excess. The sum of the three mean
angles at A, B and C is 180° 00’ 02.7”. In order to estimate the spherical
excess it is necessary to estimate the area of triangle ABC. For this purpose
it is sufficiently accurate to assume that the triangle is plane. The three angles
should thus sum to 180° and we can deduct 2.7”/3 = 0.9” from each to give
AWS 162°a 246 75 ¢
B = 64° 56’ 09.0”
Co 52395533554
180° 00’ 00”

AB abe
Now : = —
sin C sin A
37 269.280 “fi BC
sin 52° 39’ 33.5” sin G2 °924) 91725)”
Therefore BC = 41 544.469 m
Area of triangle = 4 x AB X BC x sin 64° 56’ 9.0”

701.3 km?.
Spherical excess can be calculated from the expression,
Area of triangle
R* sin 1”
where R is the radius of the earth.
701.3
Whence the spherical excess of triangle ABC =
6383.3937 x sin 1”
= 3.6”.
Now calculate the triangular error and the’ angle corrections.

Theoretical sum of the angles = 180° + spherical excess
= 180° 00’ 03.6”.
Sum of observed angles = 180° 00’ 02.7”.
Triangular error = 180° 00% 02:7” — 180° 00’ 03.6”
= —0.9”.
Hence a total correction of +0.9” is required and since the angles were
measured with equal reliability a correction of +0.3” is applied to each as
in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3
62° 24’ 18.4” + 0.3” 62° 24’ 18.7”

64° 56’ 09.9” + 0.3” 64° 56’ 10.2”
52° 39’ 34.4” 52° 39’ 34.7”
180° 00’ 03.6”
4.4 Effect of the A traverse was run as in Table 4.4

earth’s curvature
Table 4.4
Length | Clockwise angle ip

(m) | from rear station Meridian
4215.65
205° 36’ 12”
3778.46
144° 23’ 20”
5237.28
Figure 4.4
The bearing of XQ is 36° 40’ 18” and the latitude of X is 52° 20’
45” N. Determine the bearings of YX and YR at Y and estimate the
latitude of Y.
Length of 1” Length of 1”
of latitude of longitude
30.9022 m 18.9364 m
30.9107 m 18.9008 m

Equator
Ps
Figure 4.5
Introduction. The curvature of the earth causes the azimuth or bearing of

a ‘straight’ survey line to constantly change so that the bearing of X from Y
is not equal to the bearing of Y from X +180°. In Fig. 4.5 let XY be the
line in question, X and Y having latitudes of ¢, and ¢, respectively, p, and
p, are the terrestrial poles so that the meridians of X and Y are p,Xp, and
p;Yp,. These meridians are parallel at the equator but this changes with
progress towards the poles. At the poles the angle between the meridians is
6, which is also the difference in longitude of X and Y. The bearings of XY
at X and XY at Y are shown as a and a+6a, respectively, da indicating the
convergence of the meridians, i.e. the angle between the meridian at X and
the meridian at Y. da can be readily derived from spherical triangle Xp,Y
(Fig. 4.5), in which
Xp, = 90-9,
Yp, = 90-9,
Cos
(Pe) r Pn
tan a COL
eatey 2
Ccos| SS
2
COs
(90 — d2) — (90 — 4)
a+(180—a—6a) 2
tan ee X COL
2 :(90 — $1 0- $1) -
Ff os2
wa(m0—) =
= ——
- —— X cot LS
“: = as nN N
ar

Whence tan = xX tan —.
For survey purposes we can take (¢;—¢)) and @ to be small, so that
da = 6 sin(**2)
= @sind
where ¢ is the mean latitude of X and Y.
Figure 4.6
For calculation purposes it is quite adequate to assume that the meridians

at X and Y are parallel when the two points are relatively close together, say
less than 40 km apart. This allows a rectangular grid to be established, as in
Fig. 4.6, the lines being spaced apart at mid-latitude distances. Thus \
represents the length of 1” of latitude, whilst » represents the length of 1”
of longitude, at the mean latitude, @, of X and Y in each case. / is the length
of XY, which is actually part of a great circle, and the average bearing of
XY is (a+). Thus we write
dX X 6¢ = I cos (a+)
p x 60 II I sin (a+——
A}
and ba II 60 x sin @.
Note that had X and Y been widely separated, triangle Xp, Ycould be solved
for angles X and Y using the standard expressions for tan [(X+Y)/2] and tan
[(X = Y)/2).
Solution. First calculate the traverse details. In the first instance the
relationship betwen X and Y is established as if the surface of the earth is plane.

(a) Whole circle bearings (meridian at X serving as reference):
WCB of XQ = 36° 40’ 18”

add 2052336 2s
242° 16’ 30”

deduct 180° 00’ 00”
WCB of QR = 62° 16’ 30”

add 144° 23% 20%
206° 39’ 50”

deduct 180° 00’ 00” -
WCB of RY = 26° 39’ 50”
Table 4.6
Easting Northing
difference difference
(m) (m)
4215.65 36° 40’ 18” 2517.71 3381.25
3778.46 62°°16"30" 3344.66 1757.85
5237.28 26° 39’ 50” 2350.26 4680.32
(b) The easting and northing differences are given in Table 4.6.
Length of XY II= V(8212.637 + 9819.427)
12 801.11 m = /(Fig. 4.6).
es 8212.63
Bearing of XY
9819.42
39° 54’ 28.7” =a.
Next determine the convergence effect. Had the latitude and longitude of X
and Y been given, 5¢, 60 and @ would be known and the expressions derived
previously could have been used directly. However, the latitude of Y and the
longitude difference 60 are unknown and accordingly the mid-latitude of X
and Y has to be estimated and 6¢, 60 and da evaluated by successive
approximations.
For the first trial we assume that the mid-latitude of XY is that of X, i.e.
52° 20’ 45” N.
45
Therefore 30.9022 + 300 (30.9107 — 30.9022)
30.9035 m.
The approximate difference in latitude between Y and X

l cos a northing difference 9819.42
30.9035 30.9035 30.9035
317.74”.
Whence the approximate mid-lattitude
= 52° 20’ 45” + pbb ii
= (52.923:23.9"..
For this latitude
203.9
= II 18.9364 — x 0.0356
18.9122 m
Isina __ easting difference
‘anda 00) =
18.9122 18.9122
434.25”.
Therefore ba 60 xX sing
434-25 Sie 25 25.9.
344.01” = 5’ 44.01’.
For the second trial we take the mid-latitude to be 52° 23’ 23.9”
203.
A = 30.9022 + eae (30.9107 — 30.9022)
300
= 30.9080 m.
Now da = 344.01”
$e _ 172.00".
2:
l ba
Hence 6g = — cos [a + —
r 2
odWi
= ne se: cos 39° 57’ 20.7”
30.9080
a= SlyLahe.
317.48”
Revised mid-latitude = 52° 20’ 45” +
ll S2metige ls! ye
203.7
Wh ence yb = 18.9364— (300 x 0.0356 )
== PR) Pease
Tes: ba
Revised 66 = — sin {a + —
m 2

= ol ROLY
BOL-B sin 39° 57’ 20.7”
18.9122
434.68”
and da = 56 sin d
434.68 sin 52° 23° 23.77
344.35”.
It will be seen that only small changes have occurred in the values of 6¢
(decrease), 50 (increase) and 6a (increase). A further trial is not warranted,
particularly in view of the fact that the data were expressed to an accuracy
of a single second.
x
Whence 6a = 344.35
= 05’ 44”, say.
Therefore bearing of RY at R = 26° 39’ 50” + 05’ 44”
= 26° 45’ 34”.
Therefore bearing of YR at Y = 26° 45’ 34” + 180°
= 206° 45’ 34”.
Similarly,
bearing of YX at Y 39° 54’ 29” +05’ 44” +180°
220° 00’ 13”.
latitude of Y = latitude of X + 6¢
= 52° 20’ 45” + 317.48”
=. 52° 26’ 02” N.
4.5 Co-ordinates Two survey stations A and B have the National Grid co-ordinates and
latitudes given in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7
A 460 257.664 350 258.130 N 53° 02’ 45”

B 460 476.691 350 340.727 N 53° 02’ 48”
Calculate
(i) the grid length of the base line

(ii) the National Grid bearing of the line A to B
(iii) the National Grid bearing of the line B to A
(iv) the convergence at station A
(v) the convergence at station B
(vi) the geographical bearing of the line A to B
(vii) the geographical bearing of the line B to A.
Assume the local radius of the earth to be 6384.100 km, and since
the two points are close to the central meridian an approximate formula
may be used in the calculation of convergence. [Eng. Council]

Introduction. The earth can be idealized as being spheroidal, and for
geodetic purposes a spheroid of reference may be adopted to satisfy a particular
area. In the calculation of the Transverse Mercator projection referred to at
the beginning of the chapter the Airy values equivalent to 6 377 563.394 m
and 6 356 256.908 m were used for the lengths of the major semi-axis and
the minor semi-axis, respectively, of the spheroid of reference.
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.7 shows a spheroid with point A on its surface. The normal at A
meets the minor axis at C and AC represents the radius of curvature (r)
perpendicular to the meridian. @ is the geographical latitude of A, and AD
is the radius of the parallel of latitude through A, having a value of r cos ¢.
Hence the length of 1” of longitude at this latitude is r cos @ X sin 1”.
Solution. (i) Find grid length AB.

The co-ordinates are given in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8
er
ae ee B 460 476.691 350 340.727
A 460 257.664 350 258.130
Therefore grid length AB = V(219.0277 + 82.5977)

= 234.084 m.
(ii) Find the National Grid bearing of line A to B. Let agg be the required
bearing.
tan QAB
Ngp—-Na
219.027
82.597
2.651 754 9.
Therefore aap = 69° 20’ 17”.

(iii) Find the National Grid bearing of line B to A.
Let aga be the required bearing. Since BA is a straight line within the grid
ABA a CUAR ste 180° *
= 249° 20’ 17”.
(iv, ind the convergence at station A. All north—south lines on the grid
are pa lel to the central meridian running through 2°W, the true origin lying
at 49°N thereon. However, to ensure that all eastings are positive and all north-
ings are less than 1000 km a false origin 400 km west of and 100 km north
of the true origin was adopted. Hence the grid easting of the central meridian
is 400 km, so that A is at a perpendicular distance of (460 257.664 —
400 000) m = 60 257.664 m from the central meridian. Referring to Fig. 4.8,
let L be the perpendicular distance from the central meridian to A.
ike Meridian
at B
Meridian
Central
atA
meridian
Figure 4.8
The difference in longitude between that meridian and A is

L
60 = ; ;
rcos @ X sin 1”
But the change in bearing over that length is
da = 46 sin d
L
—E———— ee SIN
rcos @ X sin 1”
L
= 206 265 — tan o”.
ic
Since the north—south grid lines are parallel to the central meridian, 5a is
the convergence, C,, at A.
60 257.664
Therefore Cy, = 206 265 x ad tan 53° 02’ 45”
6 384 100
= 2587.9”
= 43’ 07.9”.
(v) Find the convergence at station B. The perpendicular distance from the
central meridian to B is 460 476.691 — 400 000 = 60 476.691 m. Therefore

the convergence
60 476.691
Cg = 206 265 x ————— x tan 53° 02’ 48”
6 384 100
= 2597.38”
= 43’ 17.38”.
(vi) Find the geographical bearing of the line A to B. The geographical
bearing of line AB is the angle between the meridian at A and the line.
Meridians of points to the east of the central meridian are inclined to the
direction of Grid North as shown in Figs 4.8 and 4.9.
Grid north
Meridian
atA Grid bearing BA
Central
Meridian
meridian».
at B
Figure 4.9
Hence the geographical bearing of line AB at A is aap + Cy

= 69° 20’ 17.15” + 43’ 07.9”
= 70° 03’ 25.0”, say
(vii) Find the geographical bearing of the line BA at B.

The bearing is ag, + Cp
= 249° 20’ 17.15” + 43’ 17.38”
= 250° 03’ 34.5”, say.
Note that when the station is to the west of the central meridian, i.e. its easting
co-ordinate is less than 400 000 m, its meridian will be inclined in the other
direction with respect to the central meridian. Convergence (C) takes a negative
sign and is deducted from grid bearing to give geographical bearing. A further
point in respect of long lines is discussed in Example 4.6.
4.6 (t—T) correction Calculate the (t—T7) direction corrections to obtain straight-line
directions at two stations A and B having the National Grid co-ordinates
A E 300 120 m N 385 920 m
B £E310970m N 380 230m
Aide-mémoire
(ty—Ta)” = (2y,t+yp) (Na—Np) X 0.845 x 107°

(t3—Tp)” = (2yptya) (Np—Na) X 0.845 x 107 [CE]

Grid
north Meridian
atA
Meridian
: at B
True bearing
of AB
Grid bearing
of BA
Projected
sight line
Figure 4.10
Introduction. The direct line of sight between A and B becomes effectively

curved in the projection. This is of particular importance for long-sighting
distances and correction (t—T) has to be applied when deducing the
geographical bearing of lines from the National Grid co-ordinates.
Convergence, C, has to be taken into account also as indicated in Fig. 4.10
so that
True bearing = Grid bearing + C—(t—T).
Note that the curved line is always concave to the meridian.
Solution. Determine the (t—7) corrections. In the quoted expressions
y = (Easting — 400 000) m.

Therefore y, = (300 120 — 400 000)
—99 880 m >
and Ys (310 970 — 400 000)
— 89 030 m.
Thus 2ya+yg = —288 790 m
2yptya = —277940m
and N,y—Npg = +5690 m
Ng-Na = —5690 m.
(t,—Ta)” = (2ya+yp) (Na—Ng) X 0.845 x 107?
= —288 790 x 5690 x 0.845 x 10~°
= —1,39’.
(tg—Tp)” = —277940 x —5690 x 0.845 x 107°
= +1.34”.
4.7 Local scale The measured slope distances from a survey station A situated on a
factor colliery headgear 101.15 m above Ordnance Datum, to two Ordnance
Survey stations B and C, are AB 1923.400 m and AC 1398.446 m. The
National Grid co-ordinates and levels of stations B and C in metres are

as follows:
Station B: E 323 679.35 N 340 431.32 Level 385.13 AOD.

Station C: E 324 022.07 N 342 846.89 Level 259.99 AOD.
Assuming the local radius of the earth and the local scale factor to be
6383.391 km and 0.999 672, respectively, compute the National Grid
co-ordinates of station A. Station A is to the east generally of B and C.
[CEI]
Horizontal
plane
Figure 4.11
Introduction. As mentioned previously, although the scale is constant in

any direction at a particular point there are variations across the projection
as a whole. In order to relate distance (S) on the spheroid at mean sea level
to the corresponding distance (s) in the projection, the expression s = F X
S is used. F is known as the local scale factor. Thus we can either deduce
the spheroid distance from a known grid distance or transform a measured
distance (reduced to mean sea level) to grid distance. On the central meridian
the value of F is 0.999 60, whilst at eastings of 220 km and 580 km the value
is 1.000 00. The values of local scale factor are symmetrical about the central
meridian and can be closely approximated by the expression F = Fo(1+k y”)
in which Fp is the scale factor on the central meridian and y is defined in
Example 4.6.
At the easting of 220 km
1.000 00 = 0.999 60 (1+k x 1807),
since y = (220—400) km.
Therefore k = 1.235 06 x 1078.
For the easting of 670 km
y = (670—400) = 270 km
and so. F = 0.999 60 (1+(2707 x 1.235 06 x 107%)
= 1.000 50.
The reader could check the easting satisfying the given F.
Solution. First determine horizontal distances AB and AC. The difference

in height between A and B is 385.13 —101.15
= 283.98 m.

Slope distance from A to B = 1923.400 m.
Therefore horizontal distance
AA, = V(1923.400? —283.987)

= 1902.320 m.
The difference in height between A and C is 259.99—101.15
= 158.84 m.
Slope distance from A to C = 1398.446 m.
Therefore horizontal distance
AA, = V(1398.446?
— 158.847)
= 1389.396 m.
Note that since the height differences are appreciable when compared to the
slope distances Pythagoras’s theorem has been used to determine the horizontal
distances, rather than the slope correction —h7/2L referred to in Chapter 2.
Grid distances can now be determined. In order to calculate the correspond-
ing grid distances between A and B, and A and C we must initially establish
the distances at mean sea level. The horizontal distances AAj, etc., are
positioned at their mean heights, h,,, as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 4.12.
Vertical Vertical
at B
Figure 4.12
Chord lengths, c, are then calculated by proportion. For A to B

tag Ml 6 383 391
1902.320 6 383 391 + 243.14
P = (LOL, 1S 38):
since the mean height of AB is ( SHEL and R is given as
6383.391 km. :
Therefore c = 1902.248 m.
Similarly, for A to C
geen 6 383 391
1389.396 pik Sti gees

Therefore c = 1389.357 m.
The same lengths would be obtained by applying the mean sea level correction,
—Lh,,/R, referred to in Chapter 2, to the horizontal distances. Over the
distances in this example the chord lengths are the same as the curved lengths
at mean sea level, but the conversion needs to be considered when long lengths
are involved.
Thus the distances at mean sea level are
Sap = 1902.248 m
and Sac = 1389.357 m.
Now FS = s.
Therefore saz = 0.999 672 x 1902.248
= 1901.624 m
and Sac = 0.999 672 X 1389.357
= 1388.901 m.
The calculations for grid distances have been presented in stages for clarity,
but these distances could be readily determined directly from the horizontal
distances L by the expression
I SON sl
ame) : ;
For construction below datum h,, takes a negative sign.

Since the National Grid co-ordinates of B and C are expressed to two places
of decimals, grid distances of 1901.62 m and 1388.90 m will be accepted for
AB and AC, respectively.
Next calculate grid length and grid bearing of BC. The co-ordinates are given
in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9
Station E N
(m) (m)
C 324 022.07 342 846.89
B 323 679.35 340 431.32
Grid length of BC = V(342.72? + 2415.57?)

= 2439.76 m.
Grid bearing ofBC.eu es — gy 1
sii ai oes No—Np 2415.57
= n CO SS
tan~! 0.141 879 6

08° 04’ 30.7”.
Finally calculate the co-ordinates of A. In Fig. 4.13

Grid north C _
at B
Figure 4.13
b? = a?+c?-2 ac cos B,
whence 2 ac cos B = a?+c?—b?
a* = 2439.767 = 5 952 428.858
c? = 1901.62? = 3 616 158.624
add = 9 568 587.482
b* = 1388.90? = 1 929 043.210
deduct = 7 639 544.272
7 639 544.272
Therefore cos B =
2 X 2439.76 x 1901.62
0.823 316 1.
Therefore B44" 34" 54.7".
The grid bearing of BA is 34° 34’ 54.7” + 08° 04’ 30.7” = 42° 39’ 25.4”.
Whence between B and A
easting difference Il ~ 1901.62 sin 42° 39’ 25.4”

= +1288.55 m
northing difference = 1901.62 cos 42° 39’ 25.4”
= +1398.49 m.
Thus
E N
Station B 323 679.35 340 431.32
+ 4 -2ESS5 + 1398.49
Station A 324 967.90 341 829.81

Grid co-ordinates of Station A are: E 324 967.90 m N 341 829.81 m.
4.8 Gyro-theodolite Describe carefully the ‘reversal’ method of observation using a

observations— gyro-theodolite.
reversal method Using the Schuler mean values calculate the bearing of reference object
B from the following observations taken at Station A using a
gyro-theodolite.
Horizontal circle readings to B: face left 45° 20.8’, face right 225°
20.2’. The turning-point readings on the gyro-theodolite were as follows:

Left turning-point Right turning-point
146° 27.2’ 151° 46.3’
146° 28.8’ 151° 44.8’
146° 30.2’ 151° 43.5’
The calibration constant of the instrument is +2.4’. [Bradford]
Introduction. In its operating mode the spinner of the suspended gyroscope

is driven at a high speed about its spin axis, which lies in a horizontal plane.
Although the earth’s rotation causes the spin axis to move into the meridian,
it does not settle there but tends to oscillate about it in a sinusoidal manner.
The mid-position of the oscillations gives the orientation to north.
Solution. First, describe the reversal method. Essentially, the theodolite

and gyroscope should be directed within a few degrees of north. The spinner
is activated and an index mark, indicating the behaviour of the spin axis, is
observed through a viewing system against a horizontal scale and is kept
centred thereon using the horizontal motion system of the theodolite. The spin
axis and the line of sight of the theodolite should now be in the same vertical
plane.
In the middle of an oscillation the gyromark moves quickly but it stops
momentarily at a reversal, or turning point, before changing its direction. The
observer must read the horizontal circle at this position, and then carry on
tracking the gyro mark towards the next turning point. At least four such
observations are made at successive turning points, as illustrated in Fig. 4.14,
in which aj, etc., are the horizontal circle readings. The mid-position of
Mid-position
a, | of oscillations
(Horizontal circle
reading = N)
as Turning point
(right)
a3
Plot of movement
Of gyro mark
Turning point
as (left)
Figure 4.14

oscillation can be estimated as (a, +a,)/2 and in.fact this approach can be used
to orient the line of sight of the theodolite before beginning the series of
observations.
Now calculate the bearing of reference object B. The Schuler mean of three
turning-point observations is given by the expression (a; +2a7+a3)/4. Hence
for the given set of observations we have the following Schuler mean values
VAG? 27.2 +-(2_X 151° 46,3')+146° 28.8"

= 149° 7.15’
4
151° 46.340. % 146° 28,8) 41512 44-8'% swe 1957

4
146° 28.8'+(2 x 151° 44.8’)+146° 30.2’ _ igo 7 15,

4
151° 44 84
5 ; x ° 5 ’
Soe te
° ; ,
peal, £38? To ag
4
Mean value = 149° 7.2’.
Thus the mean horizontal circle reading implied by the turning-point

observations is 149° 7.2’.
The bearing of the reference object is given by the expression M—N+E,
in which M is the mean circle reading for the pointing on the reference object
(the face-left reading being adopted) and N is the deduced circle reading for
the mid-position of oscillations. C is the calibration constant of the instrument,
being the horizontal angle between the telescope’s line of sight at the mid-
position of oscillation and the meridian at a station. It should be checked
regularly against a known meridian.
Assuming that the horizontal circle is graduated in a clockwise manner, the
readings indicate that reference object B is ‘west’ of north since the relevant
reading, M, was lower than N. This means that 360° must be added to that
reading.
Thus M = 45° 20.5’ (+360° 00’)
N = 149° 7.2’
= +2.4’
Therefore the bearing of AB
45° 20.5’ (+360° 0.0’) —149° 7.2’ +2.4’
= 256° 15.7’ clockwise from north.
4.9 Gyro-theodolite Horizontal circle readings on a reference object were recorded as 297°
observations — 32.8’ and 117° 32.6’ face left and face right, respectively, and an
transit method approximate gyro orientation of 159° 37.0’ was then established.
Successive transit times and amplitudes were recorded as follows:
a

Times of transit:
00 min 00.0s 03 min 21.1s 07min 13.8s 10min 34.75
Amplitudes:
+9.3 —11.6 +9.2
Determine the azimuth of the reference object given that the proportion-
ality factor was 0.046’/s and the instrument calibration factor was
—2.5’. The gyro attachment was fixed with the telescope in the face-
left position and the gyro scale is marked positive and negative left and
right respectively of the zero mark.
Introduction. This method of observation, the transit method, requires that

the telescope pointing remains unaltered, once it has been placed in a pointing
within +15’ of true north. The gyro oscillations are damped so that the
gyromark remains within 15 graduations either side of the scale zero. The
horizontal circle reading is recorded for the fixed pointing of the telescope,
and the moving gyro mark is followed, recording the times of its transit through
the zero of the graduated gyro scale and the amplitude of swing, i.e. maximum
scale readings (Fig. 4.15).
Zero of Moving
graduated index mark
scale
Figure 4.15
Figure 4.16
Solution. The relationship between the true and estimated meridians is

needed. In this method the torques due to the earth’s rotation and tape torsion
play a part, the mid-position of oscillation being referenced by the resultant
of the two torques, My and Mz, as shown in Fig. 4.16. It can be shown that
(Mg +Mr7)
bN
= ba
Mastm

Furthermore
ON = ca’ 6t,
in which c is the proportionality factor, a’ is the amplitude measured in scale
units, and df is the time difference derived from the times of three successive
transits. Reference may be made to ‘Surveying’, Bannister, Raymond and Baker
(Longman) for the derivation of the above expressions. The circle reading,
N’, is corrected by 6N to achieve the true meridian pointing, N.
Table 4.10
Time of Time of Time Amplitude Mean

transit swing difference reading amplitude
left + right ot reading
(s) (s)
00 min 00.0s
03 min 21.1s
07 min 13.8 s
10 min 34.7 s
Mid-position Fixed direction

of oscillations (estimated meridian)
Nt
Transit
times
noted
Figure 4.17

We now determine the bearing of the reference object. The data can be
tabulated, and reduced, as in Table 4.10. We can see that the gyro mark was
moving to the left at the transit time of 00 min 00.0 s since the sign of the
amplitude reading between the first two transits was positive, i.e. to the left.
The second transit occurred with the gyro mark moving through the scale zero
towards the right, recording a negative amplitude. Accordingly, the times of
swing have been determined as follows:
(a) 03 min 21.1 s—00 min 00.0 s = 03 min 21.1 s = 201.1 s.
This has been booked as a positive time of swing: the gyro mark was to the
left of the scale zero during this period of time.
(b) 07 min 13.8 s—03 min 21.1 s = 03 min 52.7 s = 232.7s.
The corresponding amplitude was negative, i.e. to the right of the scale zero
and hence this particular time of swing has a negative sign.
(c) 10 min 34.7 s—07 min 13.8 s = 03 min 20.9 s = 200.9 s.
As in (a) this is a positive time of swing.
The differences in successive swing times can now be calculated to give dt
values of
+201.1—232.7 = —31.6s
and +200.9—232.7 = —31.8s,
respectively.
Now ON =ca’ 6,
in which the mean amplitude

ri toes Vers = 10.42,
and the mean time difference
soos (BRE) ou~~ 31.6 31.8
Therefore 5N 0.046 x 10.42 x (—31.7)

etee? 15 22
The sign of 6N depends upon the sign of dt, and the negative sign indicates
that 6N must be deducted from the horizontal circle reading for the fixed
direction N’ to determine the circle reading for the True North pointing.
Now the bearing of the reference object = M—N+E
= 297° 32.7’ —(159° 37.0’ —15.2’)—2.5’
= 138° 08.4’ clockwise from north.
Note that since the gyro attachment was positioned with the telescope face
left, the horizontal circle reading for the fixed pointing N’ was observed on
that face and the corresponding face reading had to be taken for the mean
pointing on the reference object.

4.10 Use of Derive from first principles the following equation for the proportionality
gyro-theodolite factor of a gyro-theodolite attachment
ee ae
awAtw ate apAte
= the proportionality factor

= the difference in the horizontal circle readings for
transit observations either side of the meridian
aw and ag = average amplitudes either side of the meridian
Atw and Atg difference between successive transit times either
side of the meridian.
During the correlation of surface and underground surveys, gyro-
theodolite observations have been conducted on a surface base of known
azimuth (128° 17’ 52”) and on an underground base. In both cases the
‘Transit’ method of observation was employed and the results are listed
below.
Determine the additive constant (or E-factor) and the proportionality
factor from the surface observations.
Thereafter determine the azimuth of the underground base line and
the angle between the surface and underground bases.
Surface observations
Known azimuth 128° 17’ 52”
Observations west of gyro north

Horizontal-circle reading during transit observations: 11° 47’ 00”
Horizontal-circle reading to reference object: 140° 15’ 07”
Times oftransit: 0 m00.0s, 2m35.5s, 7m26.4s, 10m02.2s,
14 m 54.5 s ;
Average amplitude: 2.51
Observations east of gyro north
Times oftransit:0 m00.0s, 2m51.3s, 7m27.3s, 10m18.4s,
14 m 53.9 s
Underground observations
Observations west of gyro north
Time oftransit: 0 m00.0s, 3m08.6s, 7m26.7s, 10m 36.3 s,
14 m 54.8 s

Observations east of gyro north
Times oftransit:0 m00.0s, 3m12.8s, 7m27.0s, 10m39.3s,
14 m 54.0 s
{[Eng. Council]
Introduction. The proportionality factor can be determined from two transit

observations, the approximate meridian positions being set west and then east
of the meridian which, in turn, can be estimated as mentioned in Example
4.8 by finding the mean position of two consecutive turning points.
Solution. Two sets of readings are obtained giving the corrections dN to be

applied to circle readings N’. Those corrections will be of opposite sign since
the approximate positions are to each side of the estimated true meridian.
Figure 4.16 shows an easterly setting and for a clockwise reading theodolite
ON will be negative to reduce circle reading N’ to N. Similarly the correction
for the west setting will be positive.
Hence Nw + dNw = Ne — SNe
Nw ata Caw Aty = Ng — Cay Atg
6N
therefore c = ———————_
aw Atw + ap Atg
From the surface observations west of gyro north we obtain the data in Table
4.11.
Table 4.11
Time of transit Time of swing (s)

At
0m 00.0s
2m 35.5s
7m 26.4s
10m 02.2s
14m 54.5s
Mean At = 135.67
Thus dw Atw = 2.51 X 135.7 = 340.53 s.

From the surface observations east of gyro north we obtain the data given
in Table 4.12.

Table 4.12
Time of transit Time of swing (s) Time difference

At (s)
0m 00.0s
2m51.3s
7m 27.38
10m 18.4s
14m 53.9s
Mean At = 104.67
Thus ap Atg 3.05 X 104.67 = 319.24 s

Now ON = 12° 17’ 00” — 11° 47’ 00”
i (ie
Whence a wet terns

340.53 + 319.24
= 0.045’/s
Also caw Atw = 0.045 x 340.53’

= 15 192
and Cag Atg = 0.045 x 319.24’

=a i
For the western setting we have

corrected azimuth = M—N+E >
i.e. 128° 17’ 52” = 140° 15’ 07” — (11° 47’ 00” + 15’ 19”) +E
Ee=s5. O42
Similarly for the eastern setting

128° 17" 52° = 140° 15’ 07" —(12° 17’ 00” —14’ 22")+E
km 5 23"
Therefore mean value of E = 5’ 13” (say)
From the underground observations west of gyro north we obtain the data
given in Table 4.13.
Thus cay Atw = 0.045 x 4.8 x 69.0 = 14’ 54”
From the underground observations east of gyro north we obtain the data
Thus cag Atg = 0.045 x 5.3 X 62.0 = 14’ 47”
Next calculate the azimuth of the underground line.
From the western observations rT

Table 4.13
Time of transit Time of swing (s) Time difference

At (s)
0m 00.0s
3m 08.6s 69.5
7m 26.75 68.5
10 m 36.3 s 68.9
14m 54.8s
Mean At = 69.0
Table 4.14
Time difference
At (s)
0m 00.0s
3m 12.8s
7m 27.0s
10m 39.3s
14m 54.0s
Mean At = 62.0
azimuth = M—N+E
= 49° 44’ 15” —(10° 08’ 00” + 14’ 54”) + 5’ 13”
= 9992267 .247
From the eastern observations

azimuth = 49° 44’ 15” —(10° 38’ 00” + 14’ 47”) + 5’ 13”
39399, 261/152
Mean azimuth= 39° 26’ 19”
Finally calculate the angle between the two bases
Azimuth of surface line Ms ly” 52”
Azimuth of underground line Bo 26" 19"
Angle between lines = 88° 51’ 33”

4.11 GPS The latitudes and longitudes of the two stations given in Table 4.9 were
observations obtained using a Leica System 200 GPS receiver, working to the WGS84
reference ellipsoid. The National Grid co-ordinates of the two points
are also given in Table 4.15. Compare the length obtained from the GPS
data to the grid distance assuming the scale factor, F, to be 0.99969 and
the radius of the Earth to be 6 382 710 m.
Table 4.15
Latitude Longitude Easting Northing Level

(m) (m) (m AOD)
x 52° 00’ 49.24” N | 00° 46’ 29.65” W | 484 176.101 | 235 737.866 | 81.141
Y 52° 01’ 43.24” N | 00° 46’ 20.44” W | 484 323.566 | 237 408.841 | 76.879
[Data supplied courtesy Leica UK]
Latitude Length of 1” Length of 1”

52° 00’ 30.9048 m 19.0753 m

52° 05’ 30.9053 m 19.0399 m
Introduction. GPS, or the Global Positioning System, is a system of 24

satellites orbiting the Earth at an altitude in excess of 20 000 km. Once fully
operational the satellites’ orientation should ensure that at any given time at
least four satellites will be visible at all points on the Earth’s surface. Each
satellite continuously transmits two carrier waves (L1 and L2) which are phase
modulated by a binary code containing time information and identifying the
satellite. There are two modulation patterns, the coarse acquisition (C/A) code
and precise (P) code but access to the P-code is not guaranteed since its primary
purpose is for military applications. A control station in Colorado, USA, is
used to track the satellites and update the code pattern so that all of them transmit
in the same time base.
At the survey station an antenna receives the code from the visible satellites
(a minimum of four are needed for XYZ co-ordinates) and electronically
processes it, comparing the received code to a reference signal inside the
receiver. The difference in the code is used to determine the time of travel
of the carrier wave and hence the distance from satellite to station, the co-
ordinates of the station then being obtained by a resection process. GPS works
in the World Geodetic System 1984 co-ordinate system, the information being
transposed into latitude and longitude and converted to a local co-ordinate
system; in the UK this is the National Grid. The conversion process would
normally be carried out by computer software associated with the GPS receiver.
Solution. The first step in the calculations is to determine the grid distance.
From Table 4.16,
Grid length XY = V(147.465? + 1670.9752)

1677.469 m

Table 4.16
X 484 176.101 235 737.866

nif 484 323.566 237 408.841
147.465 1670.975
Next use the GPS data to calculate the lengths of 1” of latitude and 1” of
longitude at the mean latitude of the two stations. Referring to Fig. 4.6,
Mean latitude of X and Y 52°01 16.24”
ll S2e0TE: 24"
Difference in latitude 66 = 54.00”
Difference in longitude 69 = 9.21”
Referring to the equations derived in Example 4.4, the length of 1” of latitude
at the mean latitude is
dX = 30.9048 + (30.9048 — 30.9053) {ica
= 30.9049 m
and the length of 1” of longitude at the mean latitude is
p = 19.0753 — (19.0753 — 19.0399) as

300
= 19.0663 m
The distance XY can now be estimated since, in Fig. 4.6,
tan («of pear) ksee

2 d dd
_ _19.0663 x 9.21
30.9049 x 54.00
= 0.105 221 6
Therefore, a + da/2 = 06° 00’ 23.95”
Also, from Fig. 4.6,
l cos («+ 22) = dh d¢
30.9049 x 54.00
Therefore, xy =
cos 06° 00’ 23.95”
ll 1678.078 m
This length can now be reduced to its corresponding spheroid value.

, (81.141 + 76.879)
The mean height of line XY = ——M—#@——+——__
2
= 79.010 m
Therefore,
1678.078 x 79.010
spheroidid distance,
di S = 16/38.0/8.
6 - ———————
6 382 710
= 1678.057 m
and grid distance, s = FS
= 0.999 69 x 1678.057
= 1677.537 m
This compares to the previously calculated distance of 1677.469 m, i.e. an
overestimate of 0.068 m.
In practice the software converting latitude and longitude to grid co-ordinates
will use a more rigorous mathematical approach, leading to a greater degree
of accuracy, than the method used here which assumes that the meridians at
X and Y are parallel.
Problems
1 Two stations A and B are 773.58 m apart. From theodolite stations

P and Q on opposite sides of AB the following angles were observed:
APQ = 61° 12’ BOP = 53° 28’
QPB = 44° 11’ POA = 41° 29’
Calculate the distance between stations P and Q. [London]
Answer 651.36 m
2 Clockwise angles were observed on three stations A, B, and C by

a theodolite set up at an eccentric station S, distant 5.204 m from, and
south of, A. Angles ASB = 56° 14’ 10” and ASC = 142° 52’ 50”
were measured. The approximate lengths of AB and AC were estimated
as 7014.4 m and 6201.2 m, respectively. Calculate the value of angle
BAC.
Answer 86° 38’ 17”
3 Explain the use of a satellite station.

The following clockwise angles were observed on to three stations A,
B and C with a theodolite set up at a satellite station S, distant 4.550 m
from A. A, zero; B, 57° 10’ 36”; C, 131° 27’ 40”. The approximate
lengths of AB and AC were estimated as 2460.0 m and 3090.0 m
respectively. Calculate the value of BAC. [London]
Answer 74° 15’ 31” ‘

4 Ina triangulation network stations were established at A, B and C.
The measured angle ACB was 81° 52’ 17”. The distances AC and BC
determined by electronic distance measurement were 5136.25 m and
4242.73 m respectively.
At a later date the station marker at C had to be removed because of
a dispute over land ownership. It was replaced by a new station marker
at D 7.32 m from C such that the angle ACD was 119° 40’ 23”.
Using the theory of satellite stations calculate the angle at D subtended
by A and B. State clearly any assumptions made.
Show from first principles how this answer would still be correct to
the nearest second even though the angle ACD was only determined to
the nearest minute. [Bradford]
Answer 81° 52’ 54”
5 In setting out for a nuclear reactor it is necessary to establish four

control points A, B, C and D (listed clockwise) which form an exact
square with sides precisely 100 m long. The line from A to B runs due
north.
During construction a check is required on these control points but
because of site obstructions a theodolite cannot be mounted on station
A although observations can be made towards it. A satellite station P
is therefore established at P 315 mm away from A on a bearing 319°
SR a ec
Using normal satellite theory, calculate the exact anticipated theodolite
readings at P when observing A, B and D. Station C is assumed to be
the reference object with a reading 00° 00’ 00”.
What percentage error can be tolerated in length AB without
introducing an error greater than 1” in the angle BPA? [Bradford]
Answer CPB = 314° 59’ 23.5”
6 Ina triangulation a tall pointed spire, referred to as station C, is clearly
visible from stations A and B. The horizontal distances CA and CB have
been calculated from the unadjusted triangulation to be 3911 m and
3034 m respectively. A fourth station S is set up close to C so that A,
B and C can be seen from it. The horizontal distance between S and
a further station T is measured and found to be 22.10 m. The mean
horizontal circle readings in Table 4.17 are obtained from a theodolite
set up at S and T.
Table 4.17
Instrument at Station sighted Mean horizontal

circle reading
038° 08’ 46”

174° 52’ 20”
232° 01’ 06"
347° 23’ 34”
190° 13’ 53”

255° 40’ 18”
cee

Calculate the magnitude of the angle ACB. [ICE]
Answer 56° 49’ 14”
7 In triangle ABC, C could not be occupied and a satellite station S

was established east of C.
The angles in Table 4.18 were then registered by theodolite set up at S.
Table 4.18
[ Pointing Horizontal circle reading
A 9927.15"
B 71° 04’ 42”
Cc 307° 38’ 15”
The lengths of AC and BC were found to be 10 566 m and 11 525 m

respectively.
If the angle ACB was deduced to be 61° 37’ 05” calculate the distance
of S from C.
Estimate the length of AB and the values of angles ABC and BAC.
[Salford]
Answer SC = 9.679 m
8 A line, of length L, following a parallel of latitude through station

X, is to be located by means of offsets from a direction at 90° to the
meridian at X. Show that the offsets may be determined from the
expression,
L? tan
Rey
where ¢ is the latitude of X and R is the local radius of the earth.
Such a line, 30 km long, is to be set out along the 53° parallel of latitude
from a station. Compute data for locating points at 10 km intervals
assuming that R = 6384 km.
Answer At 30 km, 93.54 m (at 89° 38’ 34”)
9 A line AB of length 9946 m has an azimuth of 286° 21’ 40” at A

in latitude 53° 21’ 00” N and longitude 02° 16’ 00” W. Line BC makes
an angle of 30° 40’ 15” clockwise from BA at B. Calculate the azimuth
of BC.
Table 4.19
Latitude Length of 1’ Length of 1”
30.9155 m 18.5065 m
30.9160 m 18.4704 m
[Salford]
Answer 137° 08’ 49”

10 If line AB in Problem 9 had a bearing of 73° 38’ 20”, estimate
the latitude and longitude of B and the bearing of AB at B.
ANSWereoj ase al”, 2° 7’ 24” Weeesaas’ 14”
11 Derive an approximate formula for the convergence of meridians

at a survey station in terms of the latitude distance from the central
meridian of the station, and the local radius of the earth.
Two survey stations A and B have the following National Grid co-
ordinates and latitudes:
A: E 448 315.186 N 347 987.763 Latitude N 53° 01’ 36”
B: E 448 026.224 N 347 768.921 Latitude N 53° 01’ 29”
The mean of a series of gyro theodolite observations from station A to
station B gave the geographical bearing of the line AB as 233° 26’ 20”.
Assuming the local radius of the earth to be 6384.100 km, compare the
geographical bearing determined from National Grid co-ordinates with
that obtained from the gyro theodolite observations, and state the differ-
ence in seconds of arc. Note that since the two points are close to the
central meridian, an approximate formula may be used in the calculation
of convergence. [CEI]
Answer 3”
12 Describe one approximate and one precise method of establishing

the azimuth of a survey line by gyro theodolite observations.
The following ‘transit’ observations were recorded with a gyro
theodolite attachment on a laboratory base line bearing 128° 17’ 52”.
Observations east of true north
Horizontal circle reading during transit oscillations = 15° 30.00’
Horizontal circle reading to reference object = 143° 32.45’
Times oftransit:0 minO s, 03 min57.7s, 07 min20.5s, 11 min
18.5s, 14 min 41.1 s
Amplitudes: —10.8, +8.3, —10.7, +8.2.
Observations west of true north
Horizontal circle reading during transit oscillations = 15° 00.00’
Horizontal circle reading to reference object = 143° 32.45’
Times oftransit:0 minO s, 04 min05.7s, 07 min20.4s, 11 min
26.0s, 14 min 41.2s
Amplitudes: +7.9, —5.6, +7.9, —5.5.
Determine the additive constant and the proportionality factor for this
particular attachment stating carefully the units of both. [CEI]
Answer +0.58’; 0.044’/s
13 Describe carefully the ‘amplitude’ method of observation using a

gyro theodolite.
Using the Schuler mean calculate the bearing of reference object B
from the following observations taken at station A using a gyro theodolite.

Horizontal circle readings to B: face left 42° 26’ 15”
face right 222° 26" 2)”
Angular readings of successive gyro turning points were as follows:
lefts 2762: 20.1' right 280° 32.4’
276° 21.6’ 280° 30.8’
216° 2353! 280% 2975"
The calibration constant of the instrument is +2.6’. [Bradford]
Answer 124° 02.3’
14 Given that the co-ordinates of two survey stations A and B are ea,na
and eb,nb on a local arbitrary grid and EA,NA and EB,NB on the
National Grid, derive expressions for the co-ordinates of the original
of the local grid relative to National Grid origin and for the sine and
cosine of the angle between the two sets of co-ordinate axes.
If the co-ordinates of A and B relative to the two grids are as tabulated
below, derive the National Grid co-ordinates of point P from the values
of the local co-ordinates given.
Point A ea 374.62 na 615.88
EA 49 624.31 NA 21 315.74
Point B- eb 47.23 nb 566.37
EB 46 676.24 NB 20 988.72
Point P_ ep 373.19 np 127.38
[Bradford]
Answer 50 111.34 mE, 21 517.92 mN
15 Anoil company wishes to locate accurately the position of a drilling

rig. Unfortunately, no Ordnance Survey control is visible from the rig,
but from a point (S) nearby, two second-order triangulation stations,
Castle Hill and Beckwith Mount, may be seen. The co-ordinates of these
stations are as in Table 4.20.
Table 4.20
Easting Northing
(m) (m)
Castle Hill 2619.43 2803.03
Beckwith Mount 4142.49 2005.50
The approximate co-ordinates of the rig are scaled from the Ordnance
Survey sheet as 3662 mE, 4400 mN. The distance from station S to the
rig is carefully measured as 18.835 m and the following angles observed:
Beckwith Mount — Castle Hill - S 85° 03’ 11”
Castle Hill — Beckwith Mount - S 50° 36’ 32”
Rig — S — Castle Hill 108° 30’ 43”
Rig — S — Beckwith Mount 64° 10’ 26”

Calculate the co-ordinates of the rig. [Leeds]
Answer 3661.56 mE, 4400.32 mN
16 Explain the significance of the local scale factor, indicating how

and when it should be used.
If you had measured a distance between two Ordnance Survey points
whose mean height is 325 m and the horizontal distance is equal to
6500 m, what length would you expect to calculate from the co-ordinates
of the two points? (Curvature correction D?/33R? if R = 6380 km and
a LSF = 1.000 14.)
Explain why the true bearings from the two ends of the line are not
180° different. [Leeds]
Answer 6500.579 m
17 The National Grid co-ordinates of stations A and B are as in Table

Ane
Table 4.21
E N
(m) (m)
| A | 449 674.24 321 315.74
449 624.31 320 988.72
Given that the local scale factor is 0.999 63, determine the spheroid
distance between A and B.
Answer 331.24 m
18 A straight line AB, 18.5 km long, was set out at 90° to the meridian
at A in latitude 52° 22’ N. Determine the bearing of AB at B if 1” of
longitude has a length of 18.9222 m.
Answer 90° 12’ 54”
19 The slope distances and mean reciprocally observed vertical angles

of the three sides of a triangle ABC, forming part of a surface network,
are given below:
AB 1424.954 m + 06° 48’ 29”
AC 2011.865 m + 00° 17’ 14”
CB..1398.453.m +,06% 31’ 20°
Assuming that the level of station A is 91.069 m above mean sea level,
the local mean radius of the earth to be 6383.393 km and the local scale
factor to be 0.999 672, calculate the grid lengths of the three sides and
the internal horizontal angles of the triangle. [Eng. Council]
Answer AB = 1414.403 m, A = 43° 39’ 16”
20 Your firm has won a contract to construct some 30 km of road

running approximately in an east—west direction. A control traverse is

to be run, establishing stations approximately 5 km apart, between two
Ordnance Survey triangulation points lying near the two ends of the road.
What corrections might have to be made to the traverse observations
to achieve a satisfactory closure and calculation of National Grid co-
ordinates of the control points if they are to be calculated to the nearest
centimetre?
The longest line is measured as 6593.455 m between two points whose
heights are 40.172 m and 168.866 m. What length should be used in
calculating the co-ordinates if the curvature correction is D*/43R ? and
the local SF is 1.0036?
Discuss whether any of these corrections will be required for local
traverses connecting adjacent control points: [Leeds]
Answer 6615.823 m
21 Two stations have National Grid co-ordinates as in Table 4.22.

Determine the (t— 7) values for the two points.
Table 4.22
E N
(m) (m)
| A | 527 398.249 304 854.427
551 477.378 315 465.283
Answer —3.64”; +3.85”
22 (a) Compare the essential features of the three main methods of

observing azimuth with a gyro theodolite.
(b) Describe the procedures of measurement, and outline the data
analysis required when using a gyro theodolite to determine the azimuth
of:
(i) a line of 150 m length in a mine gallery with one end of the
line beneath a vertical shaft from the surface;
(ii) a line above ground, approximately 30 km in length, and
extending in a generally north-easterly direction. [RICS]
23 The National Grid co-ordinates and levels of four survey stations

are given in Table 4.23. Assuming the local scale factor to be 0.999 674,
the local mean radius of the earth 6380.850 km and the coefficient of
refraction 0.071, calculate:
(i) the National Grid distances from station R to the other three stations
Table 4.23
| Station Easting (m) Northing (m) Level
R 324 022.042 342 847.079 259.971

B 324 967.822 341 829.829 101.135
Ss 323 679.139 340 431.408 385.115
G 323 117.797 341 782.848 , 95.131

(ii) the actual slope distances from station R to the other three stations
(iii) the horizontal angles closing the horizon at station R
(iv) the vertical angles which would be observed from station R to the
other three stations.
[Eng. Council]
Answer (i) 1391.036 m; 2439.887 m; 1396.512 m
(ii) 1399.015 m; 2444.012 m; 1406.698 m
276 sR 280 092501612872 51° 05" 04"
(iv) —6° 06’ 45”; 2° 55’ 32”; —6° 44’ 06”
24 Derive an approximate formula for the convergence of meridians

in seconds of arc C” at a survey station, in terms of the latitude ¢ of
the station, the distance D from the central meridian to the station and
the local mean radius R of the earth.
The astronomical azimuth of a surface base line FE has been
determined from station F (latitude N 52° 58’ 03”) to be 39° 26’ 23”.
In order to check this azimuth, a precise traverse survey has been
conducted from two Ordnance Survey pillars A and B. Given the data
listed below, compute the National Grid azimuth of the base line FE
and the convergence of meridians at station F. Compare the astronomical
azimuth with the National Grid azimuth after applying the convergence
correction. State the difference in the azimuths in seconds of arc.
Station A: E 321 369.438 N 349 645.488
Station B: E 323 643.609 N 345 706.783
Mean horizontal angles Mean grid distances
ABC 235° 41’ 27” BC 1639.084 m
BCD 146° 38’ 13” CD 878.543 m
CDE 125° 33’ 10” DE 1101.563 m
DEF 282° 28’ 28” EF 1396.413 m
Assume the local mean radius of the earth to be 6380.847 km.
[Eng. Council]
Answer 5”
25 Measurements were made in spherical triangle ABC as follows:

A 61° 36’ 12.4”
He S2z 22", 24.25
Ot 66% 02’ 27.2%
AB 45 986.248 m
AC 34 257.189 m.
If the radius of the earth is 6367 km calculate the correct values of the
angles.
Answer Spherical excess = 3.5’; A = 61° 35’ 12.3”
26 Two radio towers are to be erected, one at a point X, latitude 56°

15’ 23” N, longitude 4° 04’ 20” W, and the other at a point Y, latitude
56° 06’ 39” N, longitude 4° 07’ 41” W. A microwave aerial is to be

fitted to the top of each tower and so aligned that each aerial is precisely
directed axially at the other. a
Determine to the nearest second the direction in which each aerial
should be oriented relative to the meridian in order that this condition
may be achieved. Assume that the earth is spherical. [ICE]
Answer 192° 04’ 35” at X, 12° O1’ 48” at Y.
27 In order to determine the additive constant E of a gyro-theodolite

attachment, a series of observations on a base line of known azimuth
(128° 17’ 52”) has been conducted.
The results obtained, using the Reversal Point Method, are given in
Table 4.24. Compute the additive constant?
Table 4.24
R.P. left R.P. right Reference object
18° 37.0’ 148° 31.2’

21° 53.0’
18° 38.0’
APSA ath
18° 39.8’
=
Answer E = 1’ 50” [Eng. Council]
28 In order to fix the position and level of control station R, overlooking

a large construction site, observations have been conducted from two
fixed and stable stations T and G, of precisely known co-ordinate value
and level situated to the south-west generally from station R. Listed below
are the observed and known data:
Observed Data
Mean slope distances: : TR 1425.0241 m
GR 1406.6943 m
Mean of reciprocally observed TR +06° 48’ 25”
vertical angles: GR +06° 43’ 46”
Known Data
National Grid Co-ordinates and levels
Station T: E 322 958.461 N 341 914.580 91.070 AOD

Station G: E 323 117.797 N 341 782.848 95.131 AOD
Calculate the National Grid co-ordinates of station R.
Assume the local scale factor and local mean radius of the earth to
be 0.999 674 and 6380.850 km, respectively.
[Eng. Council]
Answer 324 022.045 mE 342 847.072 mN

S
Areas and volumes
The measurement of areas of sites, areas of cross-sections and volumes plays

an important part in civil engineering construction; various examples are
illustrated in this chapter.
Two fundamental rules exist for the determination of areas of irregular figures
typified in Fig. 5.1. Offsets, 0,, etc., have been taken at equal intercepts, d,
along the length of a survey line. In the case of a narrow strip of land, this
line can be run down the centre, measurements being taken either side or
continuously between boundaries.
d*d"d"d
Figure 5.1
0, +0
Trapezoidal rule Area = d (27% + on + 04 ee + o,-1}
In the trapezoidal rule the area is divided into trapezoids, boundaries being
assumed to be straight between pairs of offsets. The areas of individual
trapezoids, i.e.
0; +02 of 07 +03 a
2 2
are added together to derive the whole area.
d
Simpson’s rule Area = ci (0) F°40y F203 A 20,4 FF 0,):
In Simpson’s rule it is assumed that the irregular boundary is made up of

parabolic arcs, so that the area of 1 and 2 combined is
d
3 (0; ate 40> ta 03).
The areas of successive pairs are added together when formulating the rule.
Since pairs of intercepts are taken, it will be evident that an even number of
intercepts is required when using the rule to determine an area. If an odd number
of intercepts is present then the first or last intercept is treated as a trapezoid.
AREAS AND VOLUMES 143

Simpson’s rule gives more accurate results for a given d than does the
trapezoidal rule. oi
Areas of straight- In so far as straight-sided figures are concerned there are standard expressions
sided figures available, for example:
Triangle area = +ab sin C,
in which C is the angle included between sides a and b.
4 a+b
Trapezium area = 3 Pp;
in which a and b are the parallel sides, separated at perpendicular distance p.

Looped traverse area = Ly, n41 — Xn-1)
in which x, and y, are the easting and northing co-ordinates of a station.
Planimeter The planimeter, an integrating device, is available for the direct measurement
of all shapes, irregular and regular, and high accuracy can be attained.
(a) Level across (b) Two-level section
Original Tink
ground d d.
icici fee ey = 1 2 = is
| |
“ins
Formation -—*~ bib 1ins
level a2 Original
ground surface
ee | 4
b
2
ny|o
(c) Three-level section (7) Part cut—part fill
Figure 5.2
Volumes Volumes can be determined via cross-sections, contours or spot heights.

Providing that the original ground surface is reasonably uniform in respect
of the cross-fall, or gradient transverse to the longitudinal centre line, it is
convenient to work from ‘standard-type’ cross-sections. Expressions for side-
widths (d) and area (A) are easily derived, as indicated in various examples
later. As an illustration, we will however consider the ‘two-level’ section shown
in Fig. 5.2. Here
Rv 2,
ayt 2 k+s :

d, 00 nal
2 k-s
|): ie Pe?a
a51\9P + sh) (dq,1 + d 2) > |"
If cross-fall k is very large compared to s (the side-slope of the excavation),

i.e. the ground surface is tending towards the horizontal, we have
b
d,
1 =(—
E + sh)
sh) =d 2
= h(b + sh)
which is the ‘level-across’ case in Fig. 5.2.
Having computed the cross-sections at given intervals of chainage along the
centre line by standard expressions, as above, or by planimeter, etc., volumes
of cut in the case of excavation or volumes of fill in the case of embankments
can be determined. The end-areas rule or the prismoidal rule are applicable,
and they are analogous to the trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule, respectively,
for areas.
We will consider cross-sections which are D apart.
End-areas rule Volume = D ee +A, +A, +... + dail
This method gives the correct volume providing that the area of the cross-
section midway between two cross-sections D apart equals the mean of the
two cross-sectional areas.
2D
Prismoidal rule Volume = am [Age 4Ap ot 2Agechs .. + 24,2; +-A,].
The prismoidal rule is based on the assumption that the earth forms a prismoid
between the two cross-sections 2D apart. For this to apply the linear dimensions
of the section midway between them have to be the mean of the corresponding
dimensions at the outer sections. It is accepted that the prismoidal rule is the
more accurate, but in practice ‘end-areas’ is frequently adopted for estimation
purposes, since some irregularities are likely to occur between various cross-
sections. In addition, there is the problem of bulking and shrinking when soil
is removed from its virgin state and later replaced or placed elsewhere.
Quantities for the construction of mass-haul curves are normally established
using ‘end-areas’.
Contours and spot Contours are used in a manner similar to cross-sections when calculating
heights volumes, the contour intercept value for the scheme being adopted for D. Spot
heights have a role to play in the computation of volumes of excavations for
basements, etc. A network or grid of levels is taken over the site, the net or
grid being such that the ground surfaces contained within the grids can be taken

to be plane surfaces. Square or rectangular grids can be divided into triangles
to facilitate this, and a series of triangular prisms results. The volume of such
a prism, whose ends must be plane but not necessarily parallel, equals + (hy
+ h) + h3)A in which hj, h>, and h; are the lengths of the parallel edges and
A is the area of the cross-section normal to those edges. In the case of volumes
based on spot heights the triangular prisms are vertical.
5.1 Scaling from (a) On a certain Ordnance Survey sheet an area of 8.965 hectares on
plans with an the ground covers 143.44 cm?. What’is the scale?
allowance for (b) The plan of an old chain survey, plotted to 1/500 scale on linen
shrinkage cloth, was found to have shrunk such that a line originally 100 mm long
was now 98 mm. In addition, a footnote on the plan stated the 20 m
chain used during the survey was later found to be 20.02 m long after
completion of the plot. If a certain area on the plan is measured by
planimeter to be 2143 mm? estimate the correct area on the ground.
Assume uniform shrinkage.
Introduction. If the scale of a plan is 1:s then 1 mm on the plan is equivalent

to s mm on the ground. Thus in so far as area is concerned 1 mm? on the
plan is equivalent to s* mm? on the ground.
Solution. (a) Let the scale of the Ordnance Sheet be 1:s.

Then 143.44 cm? = 143.44 x s? cm? on the ground.
Therefore 143.44 x s? = 89 650 x 100?
since 8.965 hectare = 89 650 m? and 1 m* = 100? cm?.
Whence s = 2500 (i.e. scale of sheet = 1 in 2500).
(b) Adjust the scale. Since a line 100 mm long has ‘shrunk’ to 98 mm, lengths
measured on the plan must be ‘scaled up’ by a factor ue to obtain the original
plotted value. Hence 1 mm on the plan’= 500 x mm on the ground. But
the chain was found to be 20 mm too long when standardized after the survey.
Thus each ‘booked’ length of 20 m was actually 20.02 m on the ground and
a correction factor needs to be supplied to all linear measurements.

2 2
Therefore the ground area II 2143 x 5002 x ee x See
98 20.00
558 956 700 mm2
= 559 m?.
5.2 Using Simpson’s State Simpson’s rule and the trapezoidal rule for the determination of
rule and the areas. Figure 5.3 indicates a field with two straight boundaries AB and
trapezoidal rule BC and an irregular third boundary AC. The lengths of the straight lines
between the stations and the offsets from AC at defined chainages from
A are as follows: ‘

Line AB BC CA
Length (m) 470.0 550.0 770.0
Chainage from A(m) 0 110 220 330 440 550 660 770
Offset (m) 0 °12.5. 15.0, 10a 8.7 5.0 0
Figure 5.3
Determine the enclosed area by calculating the area of triangle ABC

and adding on the area contained within the irregular boundary and
straight line AC. This latter area should be calculated using both
Simpson’s rule and the trapezoidal rule, and a comparison made of the
resulting areas. [Salford]
Introduction. The example states that triangle ABC is to be treated

separately. Such a figure is the simplest shape used in surveying. Any area
enclosed by straight lines can be broken down into a number of triangles, whose
areas can be aggregated to give the total area.
Solution. (a) First calculate the area of triangle ABC. A standard expression
for the area of a triangle whose sides are known is
area = VS(S—a) (S—b) (S—c)
a+b+c
in which a, b, c, are the lengths of sides and S$ = 5
In ABC 25, 470.0 + 550.0 + 770.0

1790.0 m
Therefore S = 895.0 m,
whence S—a = 425.0
S—b = 345.0
S—c = 125.0
Therefore area = V(895.0 X 425.0 x 345.0 x 125.0)
128 076.82 m?
12.8077 hectares.
(b) Next calculate the area of the irregular figure. Simpson’s rule requires
an even number of increments in its application, whereas the trapezoidal rule

can be used with either an even number or an odd number. In this example
there are seven points at which offsets have been measured. Simpson’s rule
is applied over the first six increments to 660.0 with the final increment from
660 m to 770 m being treated by the trapezoidal rule.
(a) Use Simpson’s rule.
Table 5.1
Offset Offset length Simpson Product

multiplier
Therefore area (0 m to 660.0 m) = ix 201.8 = 7399.3 m?.

5.0+0
Area (660.0 to 770.0 m) = uo 5 )== 275.0 m’.
Total area by Simpson’s rule = 7674.3 m?.

(b) Use the trapezoidal rule.
Area ui (°°) +12.5415.0+10.7+19.6+8.7+5.0
110 x 71.5
= 7865 m?.
Total area enclosed is:
135 751.1 m?, i.e. 13.575 hectares by Simpson’s rule

or 135 941.8 m’, i.e. 13.594 hectares by the trapezoidal rule.
5.3 Area inside a Show that the area, abcd, enclosed by a traverse having four stations
traverse a(x; ¥1), b(x2 y2), C(x3 y3) and d(x4 y4) is given by the equation
F [yy(Xq —X4) + Y2(%3 — 4) + Y3(%4 —X2) + y4y — X3)].

The co-ordinates of a closed traverse survey are given in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2
Calculate the area of the figure enclosed by the traverse. [CEI]
Introduction. In the previous example it was pointed out that a straight-

sided figure could be broken down into triangles whose individual areas could
be determined, thereby leading to a total. In the specific case of a closed traverse
with stations of known co-ordinates, the area can be determined directly from
the co-ordinates.
Figure 5.4
Solution. Establish the expression. Figure 5.4 shows the four stations abcd,
lettered in a clockwise manner. By inspection: Area abcda = Area (abfea +
bchfb — dchgd — adgea). Now
+
Area abfea = ee) (x2 —X})
Area bchfb = (
--
Area dchgd = (= * (x3 —X4)
Area adgea = ( )

Figure 5.5
Therefore area abcda = + [V1Xo — YX + yXq — VrX1 + W2X3— Vox +73

— V3X2 — VW3X3 FY3X4 — YWaX3 + Ygrg — Y4X4t Yar]
—yyX4+yxX1]
Di (2X4) +y2 (x3 — 21)+3 (%4 Xp)
+y4 (x1 —x3)]
which can also be written as
= [Ot tyox3+¥3%4t+Y4r})
— (YpX4 + y2x1 +y3X2 + 4x3)].
Next determine the area ABCDEA. In this example the basic expression
derived above must be extended to include the fifth station, i.e.,
Area = 5[1 (x. —x5) +y2 (x31) +3 (X44 —Xp) +94 (Xs — 3)
+5 (x1 —X4)]
in which x and y refer to easting and northing co-ordinates, respectively. Figure
5.5 shows the five stations together with the co-ordinate axes x and y. It is
convenient to tabulate the data with respect to the above expression, as in Table
3.3:
Therefore area = +2 yp (X41 — Xn—1)
= 4 x 290 000
Table 5.3
Station n+1 Xn-1 YalXn+1 —Xn—-1)

(n) im) He (m) (m?)
0 (+150 0
300 (+450 +135 000
70 (+320 + 11900
—130(— 60 + 66 300
— 240 ( 0 + 76800
{ +290 000

145 000 m2
14.50 hectares.
In the table n stands for the particlar station under consideration, (n+ 1) relating
to the next station and (n — 1) relating to the preceding station as lettered within
the traverse. A further point of interest is that if the traverse is lettered
in an
anti-clockwise direction a negative total arises in the product column. Naturally
the negative sign is ignored.
The following computer program will calculate the area within a closed-
loop traverse from the co-ordinates of the stations. The DIM statement in line
20 is set for a 10-sided traverse, the minimum requirements are X(N+1), Y(N).
Variables
A Traverse area
I Loop counter
N Number of sides
X(i) X co-ordinate of station i
Y(i) Y co-ordinate of station i
10 REM AREA INSIDE A TRAVERSE

20 DIM X(11),Y(10)
30 INPUT"NUMBER OF STATIONS ",N
40 FOR I=l TO N
50 PRINT"INPUT CO-ORDINATES OF STATION ;"I
60 INPUT X(I),Y(I)
70 NEXT I
80 X(0)=X(N)
90 X(N+1)=xX(1)
100 FOR I=1 TO N
110 A=A+(Y(I)*(X(I+1)-X(I-1) )/2)
120 NEXT I
130 A=ABS (A)
140 PRINT"AREA =";A;"M2"
150 END
5.4 Splitting a A site is defined by the lines of traverse ABCDEA. It is to be crossed

traverse into two by a straight boundary QP on a bearing of 17° 39’. Q lies on DE and
areas P on BC. Calculate the co-ordinates of P and Q which will give an area
of 30 000 m? for PCDQP.
Co-ordinates are given in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4
ef wilhwasEP |
350 500 900 650 470
400 650 650 150 270
[Bradford]
Introduction. It is unnecessary to calculate the whole area ABCDEA in

this instance since the area of PCDQP has been specified. However, in certain
problems when, say, PQ has to divide the area into equal parts it can form
the first step of the solution. The computer program listed with Example 5.3
could be used to perform the task.

Figure 5.6 .
In this example there are two unknown sets of co-ordinates which depend
upon lengths r and s in Fig. 5.6. The solution is based, first, on the relationship
between r and s and then, second, using that relationship to evaluate the co-
ordinates of either P or Q, knowing the area PCDQP.
Solution. First establish the relationship between distances r and s. Consider

Q which lies on DE at a distance s from D (see Fig. 5.6). Then, by similar
triangles, Fig. 5.7,
AEg S ANo ie S
= and —~
180 DE 120 DE
in which
(DE)* = (650—470)? + (270—150)?.

Therefore DE = 216.33 m.
Figure 5.7
Whence AEg = 0.832 X s and ANg = 0.555 x s and so the co-ordinates

of Q are (650--0.832 X s) E, (150+0.555 X 5s) N.
Also, since P lies at a distance r from C, its co-ordinates are (900—r) E,
650 N.
Now, the bearing of QP is 17° 39’, and so
tan 17° 39’ = 0.318 18

Ep—Eo
(900—r) — (650—0.832 xs)

650 —(150+0.555 x s)
Therefore 250 —r+(0.832 x s) 0.318 18 [500—(0.555 xs)]
. 90.91 + (1.009 x s)
and so the co-ordinates of P are (809.09 —1.009s) E, 650 N.
Consider area PCDQP. The co-ordinates of the stations of this section of
the traverse are
Table 5.5
E(m) (809. atewsfei 650 (650 — 0.832s)

N(m) ae 150 (150 + 0.555s)
The area enclosed by the traverse lines is given by the expression

+ Lyn (%n+1 — X»—1) and, so on, tabulating we have the values in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6
Stn Xn+41-Xn—-1 Yn Xnei— Xn- 1)

(n)
650 (809.09—1.009s) | 900—(650—0.832s) 162 500.0 540.80s

650 900 650 —(809.09—1.009s)| —103 408.5 + 655.85s
150 650 (650 — 0.832s) — 900 — 37500.0 — 124.80s
(150+0.555s) | (650.0—0.832s) | (809.09 —1.009s) — 650 23 863.5 63.06s —0.56s?
45 455.0 + 1008.79s —0.56s”
Now, area
PCDQP = 5Lyn Gn+1 — %n—-1)

= 30 000 m?.
Therefore 45 455.0+1008.79s—0.56s* = 60 000,
i.e. s = 14.54 m
and = 90.91+1.009s
= 105.58 m.
From this:
co-ordinates of P = (900—r) E, 650 N

794.42 E, 650 N;
co-ordinates of Q = (650—0.832s)E, (150+0.555s)N
= 637.91 E, 158.07 N
These could be rounded off as
P 794 mE, 650 mN

Q 638 mE, 158 mN,

since the traverse co-ordinates were given to 10 m units. The reader can check
that the ‘rounded-off’ co-ordinates result in°an area of 30 075 m? for area
PCDQP.
5.5 Cross-sections Prove that on uniformly sloping ground the cross-section area of a
and volumes from cutting or an embankment is given by the following formula:
cutting and
embankment details
where d, and d, are the horizontal distances from the centre line to the
limits of the side slopes, b is the formation width of the cutting or
embankment and 1 vertical in s horizontal is the gradient of the side
slopes.
An embankment for a new road is to be 20 m wide at the top, with
side slopes of 1 vertical to 3 horizontal. The heights of fill at the centre
line of three successive cross-sections, 50 m apart, are 2.4 m, 3.2 m
and 4.0 m respectively and the existing ground has a uniform cross fall
of 1 in 12. Calculate the volume of fill required. [Salford]
bt Figure 5.8
1 ese
Introduction. In Fig. 5.8 the side slopes are shown meeting the original
ground surface at A and B so that the side widths are d, and d,, respectively,
and hy and h, denote the differences in height between these points and the
formation level. Points E, F and G, lie on the centre line of the embankment.
b
Now d, —> + sh 2
and
d,
hn = h— °% where h = FG.
Therefore d, =
|
ll
nv
|e
Se Fee’
aa
n|o
—~ Sa
| a|&|>
a x Se
7 ee

Similarly d,; = — + sh,
and hy T +.
|
b
Therefore d,; = & + sh met ;
2 k-s
ACDBA is known as a ‘two-level’ section because two observations of height
will define cross fall 1 in k.
Solution. Derivation of the general expression for the cross-sectional area.

Area of cross-section ABDCA = area of triangle AEBA — area of
triangle CEDC
BH d 2b EF
—— xX —]} — (— x —].
2 Ss 2 2
Now BH HJ + JB = 2d,
and EF 2
2s
Therefore cross-sectional area = ina 9 x at _ a x Li x ah

2 Ky a4 2s 2
did,
S 4s
1 b?
— |did),
> (aie si
Then determine the volume between the cross-sections.
: b k
In the expressions ag =\(— + sh) |——
a (Soa)
2 k—s
and A=| So |
|e
o
eet a(S
‘a
the following are given: s = 3, k = 12 and b = 20 m; h/ has values of 2.4 m,

3.2 m and 4.0 m, respectively, at 50 m intervals.
It is convenient to tabulate the data as follows in Table 5.7.
By the ‘end-areas’ rule
+A
V= oear + As)

Table 5.7
Cross- — + sh
section
(m)
2.4 Mine 22.93 | 13.76

3.2 oi 19.6 26.13 | 15.68
12.0 22.0 29.33 | 17.60
Ss A 103.24)
50
10 426.50 m?, say 10 426 m?.

By the prismoidal rule
2D
pera oa! + 4A, + A3)
100 (71.844(4 x 103.24)

— + 138.74]
10 392.33 m3, say 10 392 m?.
By means of a correction known as the prismoidal correction (PC), the volume
(Vp) determined by the prismoidal rule can be deduced directly from the
volume (Vg,q) determined by the ‘end-areas’ rule, since Ve, —-PC = Vp. For
the ‘two-level’ section ~
D7 “
PC:= a os »)sh,—hp) 5
In this example
Diife ke
='s
(hy —hy) = —0.8 m and (h—h3) = —0.8 m.

Therefore PC = 2 X 26.67 xX (—0.8)?
= 34.14 m?,
Therefore Vp 10 426.50 —34.14
10 392.36 m?, say 10 392 m?
Prismoidal corrections can only be derived for regular sections, as illustrated
in? Fre5.2.

5.6 Calculating the
area of a ‘three-level’
section
Figure 5.9
Calculate the area of cut in section 1 in Fig. 5.9 when BE = 1.0 m.

The areas of further sections at successive 20 m intervals along the
line of a straight road have been calculated. These are:
Section 2 3 4 5
Area
of cut (m”) 20.3 21.7 28.8 30.2
Calculate the volume of cut between sections | and 5 by the end-areas
and the prismoidal methods. [Bradford]
Introduction. Section 1 shown in Fig. 5.9 is an example of the ‘three-level’

section. The original ground surface has two crossfalls, requiring three reduced
levels for their determination. Had the change occurred on the centre line,
the standard expressions for side-widths and area could have been used directly,
substituting the k values as applicable. In this example the change occurs off
the centre line, but line BE can be used as a substitute centre line for two cross-
sections whose half-widths at formation level are:
DE = (7.5—1.0) = 6.5m
EG = (7.5+1.0) = 8.5 m.
Solution. First determine the side widths. The two relevant expressions
for side widths are
k
d, = at = sh :
2 k,+s
d by + sh
d, = (— ky
* ; (; ) (G25)
in which : 6.5 m, kj = 10, s = 2.5 andh = 1.0m
and 2 = 8.5m, k, 16.

10
Therefore d,; = (6.5 + 2.5 X 1.0) (——~—_ ] = 7.20m
10 + 2.5
16
a) =(8.5 + 2.5 x1.0) (———+—) =913.04 m.
16—2.5
Next determine the area of section 1.
Area ABCGDA = area ABHA — area DEHD + area BJCB

— area EJGE
(+d, x BH) — G DE x EH)

+ (bd, x BN) — (LEG x EJ).
DE 6.5
Now BH = BE + EH = BE + — = 1.0 + ——
Ss 25
Silane
EH =2.6 m
E :
BJ = BE + EJ = BE + s ii
S Le
= 44m
EJe— 34m:
Therefore area ABCGDA (+ x 7.20 x 3.6) — ‘Ga *% 6.5 2.6)

+ (4X 13.04 x 4.4) -— (§ x 8.5 x 3.4)
12.95 — 8.45 + 28.69 — 14.45
18.75 m?, say 18.8 m?.
Now calculate the volume of cut. There are five cross-sections and so the
prismoidal rule can be applied directly.
2D
Now Vp = Wes (A; =f 4A, =f 2A; He 4A, + As).
2 x 20
Therefore Vp = ———— [18.8 +. (4 x 20.3) + 2 X 27)
+ (4 Xx 28.8) + 30.2]
Vp = 1925.3 m?, say 1925 m>.
A,+A
Ven = D(A2AS 4 ty + Ay + As)
20 =26 4b j30,
+ 20.3 + 21.7 + 28.8)
1906 m°.

5.7 Cross-section A road having a formation width of 15 m is to be constructed in ground
part cutting, part fill having a cross fall of 1 in 10. The depths of fill at the centre lines of
cross-sections X and Y are 0.25 m and 0.38 m, respectively. Given that
the side slopes are 1 vertical to 1 horizontal in cut and 1 vertical to 2
horizontal in fill, determine the volume of cut and fill between X and
Y which are 20 m apart, allowing for prismoidal excess.
Introduction. This example refers to a cross-section which is part in cut

and part in fill, and the respective volumes will be calculated initially using
the end-areas methods. Prismoidal excess (or the prismoidal correction) will
be applied to give the volumes which would be derived by the prismoidal rule,
assuming that the dimensions of the cross-section midway between X and Y
are the mean of the corresponding dimensions at X and Y. The first stage will
be to establish general expressions for the areas of cut and fill from Fig. 5.10.
| 1ink
b | b
2 : 2
> rece ease ER Moai mem
1ins | Cc
i —_ eS in r
t d1 + d> —
Figure 5.10
Solution. First calculate the sidewidths and areas. Consider the difference
in level between formation ABCD and points E and F which define the limits
of the sidewidths.
: d,—kh
Rise from
C to E = hy = k
= Rise from D to E
z d,—b/2
ayer ;
d,—b/2
Therefore — r
Woolies
b k
d, = {|— —-rh) |——}.
In a similar manner, for F,

dit+kh d,—b/2
h, = 2 = 1.
b k
Therefore d, = + sh)yah
2 k-s

The cross-sectional areas are as follows:
Area in cut 7x CD x hy
N|-
ua das
N|—
oes tae
omy (ert)
Area in fill N|—
x AC X h,
“(+a @)
N|-
Note that if h had been the depth of cut at the centre line rather than fill, the
insertion of —h for h in the above expressions would give the respective
formulae for side widths and areas.
Next, calculate the volumes of cut and fill. As mentioned previously the
relevant volumes will be determined initially by end-areas.
Table 5.8
Section h
(m)
X 0.25 2.50 5.00 10.00

7% 0.38 3.80 3.70 11.30
In Table 5.8, b= 15m, r = 1 and s = 2. By the end-area method
A,+A
volume of cut between X and Y = D eras
: = 0. =)
~ 10 'e
= 9dfeof rhe
os (see)
volume of fill between X and Y
2
142.3 m?.
Establish the prismoidal correction. Consider two parallel cross-sections,
triangular in shape, D apart as in Fig. 5.11, their areas being A; and A). Also
consider the cross-section midway between them, formed by the straight
connecting them. :

Figure 5.11
Then A, +b hy A = +b, hy.
A, = area of mid-section
1 (bith hy +h,
RS pas
The volumes contained between the outer cross-sections are: by the end-area
method
ies D |
(b,h byh
2 2 2
By the prismoidal rule
Vp = D byh, a 4 b, +b, h, +h, ‘s bshy '
hall eae’ Z a 4 2
Now, the prismoidal correction or prismoidal excess is Vg, — Vp
8 D [(buf Gp Dalia
bsh ie Digebytage is, ofBirtby s
2 2 2 6 # 2
hithy\ | bah
2 f,
D
= — (b,—b,) 2) (hy
(oe! (h,—h).
— hy)
This is the standard expression for triangular cross-sections. Expressions for

other cross-sectional shapes can be derived by breaking them down into
triangles, and using the above.
Apply the prismoidal correction. The prismoidal correction has been shown
to be
D ( difference By paige |
12 \ base lengths heights
for the triangular section. Using the expressions previously derived for the
cut section

base length oe
2
d)—b/2
and height h, =
r
, ; b k
in which d, = {— — rh ‘
2 k=r
Now, b/2 = 7.50 m, k = 10 and r = 1. Whence, on tabulating, we get the
values in Table 5.9.
Table 5.9
b b
Cross-section h = —kh zs—rh d, hy,
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m)

X 0.25 5.00 7,25 8.06 0.56
Af 0.38 3.70 7.12 7.91 0.41
20
Therefore prismoidal correction = re (5.00 — 3.70) (0.56 — 0.41)
= 0.33 m’.
Therefore volume when treating the earth between the two sections as a
prismoid
= 21.5 — 0.3
= 21.2 m’.
Similarly for the fill
b
base length = AC = ry + kh
d,—b/2
height =h, = pe ie
S
b k
in which ad, = (— + sh| |——}.
e kas
With s = 2 we get the results in Table 5.10.
20
Therefore prismoidal correction = % (10.00 — 11.30) (1.25 — 1.41)
0.35 m?.
Therefore volume of fill Il 142.3 — 0.3
142.0 m°.

Table 5.10
Cross-section h
(m)
X 0.25
~ 0.38
5.8 Calculating In a cutting the width of the formation is 8 m and the side slopes are
volumes along a 1 in 2. The depths at the centre line, which lies on a circular curve of
curved section of radius 150 m, at three cross-sections 20 m apart are 2.50 m, 3.10 m
road and 4.30 m, respectively. The cutting is to be widened by increasing
the formation width to 11 m, the excavation being on the outside of the
curve and retaining the original side slopes.
Calculate the volume of excavation between the cross-sections using
the end-areas method. Assume that the transverse slope of the ground
is 1 in 5 at each cross-section.
Introduction. In previous examples it has been assumed that the cross-

sections were parallel and at right angles to a straight centre line. When the
centre line lies in a curve, as in this example, the cross-sections are set out
radially at stations established at chainages measured around the curve.
Use is made of Pappus’s theorem when calculating volumes. This states that
the volume swept out by an area revolving about an axis is given by the product
of the length of travel of the centroid of the area and of the area, provided
that the area is in the plane of the axis and to one side thereof. Therefore it
is necessary to locate the centroid positions when estimating the volumes of
earthworks.
Solution. First amend the end-areas and prismoidal formulae. If the cross-
sections are unsymmetrical, e.g. have transverse ground slopes, but have the
same shape and dimensions, the path of the centroids will be parallel to the
centre line. When there is some variation, as in this example, the path is not
parallel to the centre line. Some close approximations are made when using
either the end-areas of prismoidal formulae. For example, consider the three
successive cross-sections, D apart on the centre line, in Fig. 5.12, the centroids
of the ‘widening’ areas being e;, e) and e3, respectively, from the centre
line. The mean distances of the centroids of the two pairs of sections are
(e,+e,)/2 and (e,+¢3)/2 from that centre line. These values are taken to
represent all respective centroid positions within the relevant cross-sections
and therefore define the path.
If 6 is the angle subtended at the centre of the curve by the pairs of equi-
distant cross-sections

Centroids of
new excavation ~ ~
me \ | peeks eee
| |
babi
ioe de) |
Figure 5.12
6=—.D
R
: e,t+e
Therefore the distance between centroids = 0 (k= s) and
Had the widening been in the inside of the curve the above would change to
Dal diieadclavanei | see |,

2R 2R
An alternative approach is to treat each area separately, amending it by the
factor 1 + (e,/R), etc. Thus in this particular example if the areas of widening
are A,, A, and A; then the areas would be taken to be A, [1 + (e,/R)], A>
[1 + (e,/R)] and A; [1 + (e3/R)] spaced at intervals of D when using the end-
areas or prismoidal formulae.
Next locate the centroids. In Figs. 5.13 and 5.14
race omc peed

k m
Ot Sis id]
5 2. ;

at tt
151.5 4
1inm
Figure 5.13
>
Figure 5.14
Therefore a= =.
Sinilafyse ett se ee
5 9)
+2
Therefore = SS
Also 2h = d—-7.
10H+14
Therefore y= here
Also QRTS = 3h, m’, and so we get the values (in metres) given in Table
5.11. It will be noted that (d—w) is constant, and so triangle PQR has fixed
dimensions, its height PV being 5.0/k = 1.0 m, with QR = 3 m.
Table 5.11
15.0 20.0 13.0 16.5

“i 17.0 22.0 15.0 76 a 19.5
4.3 21.0 26.0 19.0 9.5 8.5 25.5

Therefore area PQR = 4x 1.009030 = 155 m*,
Its centroid is +X 3.5 m from PW, since VQ = (5—3) m.

Area QRTS = 3h, m’.
Its centroid is
2h
d- (4.0+ 1.5 + =a =(d—h, —5,5)m
from PW.
(1.5 x 4x 3.5) +3h; (d—h,—5.5)
Therefore X =
1.5 + 3h,
From this we get the values in Table 5.12. We can now calculate the volume
of excavation.
Table 5.12
H | d | nA, | (d—h,-5.5) | A = (1.5+3h,)

(m) |; (m) | (m) (m) (m?)
2.5 | 20.0 9.0 18.0

3.1 22.0 10.0 21.0
4.3 | 26.0 12.0 27.0
Using the end-areas method

aoe A,+A) D 1+e,+e, re A,+A3 D 1+e,+e;
2 2R Z 2R
(20
18.0+21.0
2
(1eameteree|
1.56+12.55
2 x 150
+
21.0427,7.0 saan : ;
A ink 12.55+14.54
a 2ix 150
= 944.7 m?, say 945 m°.
Alternatively, the areas can be amended as in Table 5.13.
Table 5.13
A(i + e/R)
(m*)
19.39
22.76
29.62

> =| 9119.39 + (2 X 22.76) +
29.62]
= 945 m°*.
Had the influence of curvature been neglected the calculated volume would
be 870 m?.
5.9 Volumes from a Figure 5.15 shows the distribution of 12 spot heights with a regular
rectangular grid of 10 m spacing covering a rectangular area which is to be graded to form
spot heights a horizontal plane. The spot height data (in metres) are:
VLG; 2 aay 3 17.63 1
A ehhS7s to Dally! 6 17.96
Del S8ruley Bot BO bie O. 418,25
10 17.83; 11 18.19; 12 18.42
Figure 5.15
Neglecting any effects of side slopes determine a suitable design level

such that cut and fill are balanced. [London]
Introduction. The solution to this example will be based on the fact that
the volume of a triangular prism is equal to the area of its normal section
multiplied by the mean length of side. Dividing the square grid of Fig. 5.15
into triangles, as shown, produces a set of vertical triangular prisms, one plane
end being at formation level and the other being the ground plane contained
between the corners of each triangle. Squares could be used rather than
triangles, but the ground plane should be better represented by the latter unless
the square grid size is small.
A
The volume of excavation in triangle 124 will be i (d,+d,+d4) m in
which A is the plan area of the triangle and d,, d, and d, are the depths from
ground level to formation level at the corners. For triangle 245 the volume
A
of excavation is a (d,+d4+ds), and so on.
It will be noted that d, appears in each of the volumes as it does in the

volume of the prism related to triangle 457: ds appears in six triangles. Thus,
rather than evaluating the volume of each triangular prism and then computing
the grand total, it is more convenient to establish an expression based on the
number of times particular depths are used.

A
Total volume = % (2D, + 22D, + 32D, + 172 aps ME),
in which A is the plan area of a triangle, LD, is the sum of depths used once,
XD, is the sum of depths used twice, LD; is the sum of depths used three
times, etc.
Had squares (or rectangles) been used four depths would arise in each prism
and the volume would be given by (LD, + 2 LD, + 3 UD; + 4XD,) in
which a is the plan area with D, etc., as before.
Solution. Determination of volume of excavation. In the first instance a

general expression for the volume of excavation over this particular grid will
be derived, assuming that the formation level is x m.
Table 5.14
Station Depth of Number of Product

cut D triangles in Dan
(m) which station
occurs n
1 17.06-—x
2 52.44 —3x
3 35.26 — 2x
4 52.11—-—3x
5 106.20 — 6x
6 53.88 — 3x
7 52.74 —-—3x
8 108.06 — 6x
9 54.75 —3x
35.66 — 2x
54.57 — 3x
WNWAWWOWNW 18.42—x
|=
=
XD xX n = 641.15—36x
It will be noted that in Table 5.14 the multiplying factors 2, 3 and 6 have
been used directly, rather than adding the depths used twice, three times and
six times, respectively, and then multiplying by those factors.
10 x 10
Area A of each triangle = oe m?.
10 x 10
Therefore volume of excavation = jx 5 LDn.
Thus if the formation level was to be 10 tn we could write x = 10 m and

> |= 0 (641.15 — 36 x 10)
4685.83 m?.
In practice, of course, it is simpler to deduct x from the original ground levels
so as to enter specific depths of cut in the table for each station, i.e. 7.06 m
for station 1, etc., when computing volumes.
However, in respect of the actual question, and assuming no bulking or
shrinking of the excavation material, there will be no residual volume of
excavation after grading has been carried out since it is required that cut
balances fill. Hence
V = 2 (641.15 — 36x)
=a)
Therefore x = 17.81 m.
The required design level is therefore 17.81 m.
The volumes for this type of problem can be calculated by the following
computer program. If the formation level is input as 10.0 m then the value
4686 m? is output as above. This particular problem would need a trial and
error solution, altering the formation level until the volume was zero. Lines
120 and 150 make use of the logic functions AND and OR; on computers that
do not support these functions line 120 must be replaced by four separate IF
... THEN GOTO 150 statements and line 150 by
150 IF | = 1 THEN 153

151 IF | = X THEN 153
152 GOTO 160
153 IF J = 1 THEN 180
154 IF J = Y THEN 180
Variables
H_ Height from formation to ground V_ Final volume
level at grid point V1 Formation level
I, J Counters V2 Level of a point on the grid
L1_ Grid interval X direction X Number points X direction
L2 Grid interval Y direction Y Number points Y direction
S Sum of heights with appropriate
multiplier
10 REM VOLUMES FROM A GRID OF LEVELS

20 INPUT"GRID INTERVAL IN X DIRECTION ",L1
30 INPUT"GRID INTERVAL IN Y DIRECTION ",L2
40 INPUT"NUMBER OF POINTS IN X DIRECTION ",X
50 INPUT"NUMBER OF POINTS IN Y DIRECTION ",Y
60 INPUT"FORMATION LEVEL ",V1
70 FOR I=1 TO X
80 FOR J=1 TO Y
90 PRINT"INPUT LEVEL AT GRID POINT";I;J
100 INPUT v2
110 H=V2-v1
120 IF I=1 OR I=X OR J=1 OR J=Y THEN GOTO 150
130 S=S+(4*H)
140 GOTO 190
150 IF (I=1 OR I=X) AND (J=1 OR J=¥) THEN GOTO 180
160 S=St+(2*H)
170 GOTO 190

180 S=S+H
190 NEXT J
200 NEXT I
210 V=INT((L1*L2*S/4)+0.5)
220 PRINT" VOLUME =";V
230 END
5.10 Volume of a Excavation is required for the construction of a tank, the existing
truncated cone ground sloping at 1 in 5. The tank is to have a diameter of 12 m at
formation level, its centre being 3.50 m below ground level. If the side
slopes are at 2 vertical to 1 horizontal, determine the volume of excavation
to the nearest m?. *
Introduction. The trace of the perimeter of the excavation at ground level

(see Fig. 5.16) will be elliptical, the major axis DF being in the direction of
maximum slope (1 vertical to 5 horizontal) of the ground. The centre of the
ellipse is at G.
Figure 5.17 indicates an oblique cone of height B,G, whose base is the
ellipse. The required volume of excavation is the difference between the volume
of that cone and the volume of the cone of height BB, on a circular base 12 m
Figure 5.16
--
Eb. Sap
isonet
Figure 5.17

in diameter. To determine the volume of the oblique cone the lengths of the
major axis and minor axis of the ellipse have to be found.
Solution. First calculate the lengths of major and minor axes. From Fig.
5.17, in which the ground slope is 1 vertical in 5 horizontal,
Pepe oy 1 3.50—DD,
CF, +6.00 Sa 6.00+AD; |
But CF, = FF,/2 and AD, = DD,/2 since the side slopes are 2 vertical to
1 horizontal.
Whence FF, = 5.22 m and DD, = 2.09 m.

DF :
Also = ooh
D,F, 5.00
Nee 2.09
and D Fy = 12,00°+ ——'+ -—
D D.
=15:66m
Therefore DF = 2DG = 15.97 m
length of major axis.
G is the centre of the ellipse, and thus it is at a height of (FF; + DD,)/2 above
the formation level ABC, i.e. 3.66 m.
The length of the minor axis of the ellipse is equal to the length of the chord
of the circle, centre E,, described by the intersection of the side slopes with
the horizontal plane through G (Fig. 5.18).
78a
Figure 5.18
15.97
Length DG along the slope = 5 m
, woes 13.97 5.00

Therefore horizontal projection of DG = x —
2 5.10
= 7.83 m.
Horizontal projection of DE = BD,
2.09
= 6.00 + ——
2
= 7.05.
Therefore GE, = 7.83—7.05 = 0.78 m.

Since the side slopes of the excavation are 2 vertical to 1 horizontal and GE,
is 3.66 m above formation level, the radius of the circle is
(6.00+ <a 7.83 m.
Therefore minor axis 2V(7.832 — 0.787)

= 15.58 m.
Next calculate the volume of excavation. In Fig. 5.17
BB, 2
ak i
Therefore BB, = 12m
and EB, = EB + BB, = 3.50 + 12 = 15.50 m.
B,G, is perpendicular to DF, being the height of the oblique cone.
Therefore B,G,; = 15.50 x
15.20 m.
Volume of excavation = a GF xX GH X B,G, — = x AB? xX BB,
15.
Sera eee
3 2 2
Hf ogee Gate
ae
537.72 m°>, say 538 m°,
5.11 Triangular Two stations were established on the top of a spoil heap. The following
ground surface model readings were recorded using a total station instrument sighting on to
points at the base of the heap. The height of instrument and height of
prism were equal for both sets of readings.
From A the values in Table 5.15 were obtained.
Table 5.15
Horizontal circle | Horizontal distance | Difference in level

(m) (m)
220° 10’ 11”

BT 21 a"
312° 42’ 19”
14° 36’ 43”
94° 12’ 33”
ire aie 67

From B the values in Table 5.16 were obtained.
Table 5.16
Horizontal circle | Horizontal distance | Difference in level

(m) (m)
ie" 18°12"
181° 8’ 47”
236° 38’ 22”
313° 41’ 19”
52° 25’ 38”
What is the volume above a horizontal plane 5.8 m below station A?
Introduction. Figure 5.19 shows the spoil heap; the reader should note that
the top of the heap would be truncated if point 6 did not lie on the ridge joining
stations A and B. The volume can be calculated by establishing a ground surface
model consisting of a network of triangles. The volume under each triangle
is the plan area of the triangle multiplied by the mean height of the corners
above datum.
Ae: Ref. zero
té
Figure 5.19
Solution. To calculate the plan area of the triangles we have the horizontal
length of two sides and the included angle, and
Area = ab sin C.
For triangle A12: em
angle = ei” 21 wt eemeae 1 The
= 51° 10° 54”
area = 4 X 50.23 x 41.69 X sin 51° 10’ 54”
= 815.7914 m’.
Height of 1 = 5.8 — 5.24 = 0.56
Height of 2 = 5.8 — 4.93 = 0,87
Height of A = 5.8 = 5.8
7.23
+3 = 2.41. _
Volume = 815.7914 x 2.41 = 1966.06 m?.
The calculation is best computed as a table, noting that B is 0.38 m lower than
A when the level differences for Point 1 are considered.
Table 5.17
pio] oeTeTe[oe [a[af [ov

51° 10’ 54” 815.7914 1966.06
41° 21’ 14” F ‘ 513.4372 . : ‘ F 1324.67
61° 54’ 24” : : 759.2133 ‘ ; : ‘ 1935.99
79° 35’ 50” : : 1097.3590 : : k : 2567.82
(O° no” 24° ; ‘ 478.0203 F : ; : 1959.88
46° 38’ 14” : - 367.5563 : , ; ‘ 1518.01
62° 50’ 35” F : 548.0033 . : : ; 2197.49

55° 29° 35” : ; 697.7012 : i : : 2769.87
UR ers SY : : 1304.6343 : : : : 2622.31
98° 44’ 19” : : 770.8633 : ). ‘ . 1464.64
65° 52’ 34” : : 672.3010 : : : : 1364.77
The following computer program can be used to solve this problem. The
DIM statement in line 20 is set for 20 readings at any one station. For computers
with limited memory this can be reduced, as appropriate; the value 6 is required
for this problem. The program is designed to work with ground and formation
levels. To solve this example input the formation level as zero, and the heights
as positive values above formation, i.e. level of station A = 5.8, B = 5.42,
point 1 = 0.56, etc.
Important: for any station, input should start with the point with the lowest
horizontal circle reading and proceed in increasing values of horizontal circle,
i.e. for A Point 4, 5, 6, ... 3; for B Point 8, 1, 6, ... 7. This allows the
instrument to be referenced on to an object or bearing that is not one of the
points, since line 270 calculates the oh a angle either side of the zero
reference line.

Variables
A(i) Horizontal circle reading to point i N1 Number of stations
A Included angle in triangle N2 Number of readings at station
D Input angle, degrees under consideration
H(i) Level of point i Plan area of triangle
H1 Height of instrument above Input angle, seconds
formation Volume
I, J Loop counters Formation level
L(i) Horizontal length to point i 2 Level of station under
oe,
<<
oe
M Input angle, minutes consideration
V3 Level of point under consideration
10 REM VOLUMES FROM TRIANGLES

20 DIM A(20) ,L(20) ,H(20)
30 INPUT"FORMATION LEVEL ",V1
40 INPUT"HOW MANY INSTRUMENT STATIONS ",N1
50 FOR I=1 TO Nl
60 PRINT"HOW MANY READINGS AT STATION";TI;
70 INPUT N2
80 PRINT" INPUT LEVEL OF STATION";I;
90 INPUT V2
100 H1=V2-V1
110 FOR J=1 TO N2
120 PRINT"HORIZ. CIRCLE READING TO POINT";J;"IN DEG,MIN,SEC ";
130 INPUT D,M,S
140 A(J)=((D*3600)+(M*60) +S) /206264.8
150 PRINT" INPUT DISTANCE FROM STATION";I;"TO POINT";J;
160 INPUT L(J)
170 PRINT" INPUT LEVEL OF POINT";J;
180 INPUT V3
190 H(J)=V3-V1
200 NEXT J
210 FOR J=1 TO (N2-1)
220 A=A(J+1)-A(J)
230 P=L(J+1) *L(J) *0.5*SIN(A)
240 H=(H1+H(J)+H(J+1))/3
250 V=V+(H*P)
260 NEXT J
270 A=2*3.1415962#-A(N2)+A(1)
280 P=L(N2) *L(1) *0.5*SIN(A)
290 H=(H1+H(N2)+H(1))/3
300 V=V+(H*P)
310 NEXT I
320 PRINT"VOLUME =";V
330 END
5.12 Calculating A digital terrain model is being established, the characteristic points
heights taking the form of a square grid of side L, shown in Fig. 5.20. Show
that the level, Zg, of Q may be expressed by
Z(L—x)\L—y) , Zx(L—Y)
Ze a L?2 L?
Spot heights at the nodes of squares of 20 m side were obtained during

the photogrammetric survey for a motorway, and Fig. 5.21 shows heights
established in the vicinity of the site PQR of a proposed permanent
subsidiary works unit. Determine the heights of P, Q and R and hence
make a first approximation of the volume of fill required to raise the

site level to 57.3 m above datum. The co-ordinates within the squares
are given in Table 5.18. Ng
Table 5.18
Figure 5.21

Introduction. A digital terrain model (DTM) is a statistical sampling of
the x, y and z co-ordinates of the ground. By interpolation, z co-ordinates can
be estimated when the corresponding x and y co-ordinates are known. The
position of the nodal points of the model have to be such that the terrain is
well represented.
Solution. Interpolating linearly between A and B, in Fig. 5.20 (b)

x
hy = Zy + (Zg—Za) 7
= Nga
Z,
L-x
+ A_—.
(|_|)
ie
Similarly, in Fig. 5.20 (c)

L-x %6
hy
2 = Z»(—)
|(—) + Z.
a—
In Fig. 5.20(d)
Zo = hy + (m — hh) tk
B
very) anual | be
L—x x y L-x Zox
ZA ir a3 Z +
(Tr) 47,
i L—x
pe er x
L- L- x
L
xy L—x\ y
PZ 78 PERE)
© 1? “Hae
ZL —x)(L—y) + Zp aL —y) te Zoxy
ibs EA [?
In triangle PQR, Fig. 5.21, with the origin for the grid co-ordinates at 0 we
get the results in Table 5.19.
From the results in Table 5.19 we get
PQ = V[(66.0 — 30.0)? + (93.0 — 44.0)”]
= 60.80 m,
PR = V[(93.0 — 30.0)? + (23.0 — 44.0)7]
= 66.41 m,
and QR = wv[(93.0 — 66.0)? + (23.0 — 93.0)7]
= 75.03 m.

Table 5.19
X CO-ae 0 y co-ordinate
(m)
30.0 44.0
66.0 93.0
93.0 23.0
Now PQ + PR + QR = 2S = 202.24 m
and so S = l0i12 m >
S — PQ = 40.32 m
S — PR = 34.71 m
S — QR = 26.09 m.
Therefore area of triangle PQR = V(101.12 x 40.32 x 34.71 x 26.09)
1921.5 m?.
For the calculation of Zp, Zg and Zp we get the values in Table 3220:
Table 5.20
L-x Somme aS was, x(L—y) xy y(L —x)

(mn) (m) (m*) (m?) (m?) (m?)
10.0 16.0 10.0 40.0 160.0 160.0
6.0 7.0 14.0 ; : 78.0 42.0 98.0
13.0 17.0 7.0 : ; . 39.0 221.0 119.0
From the values in Table 5.20 we get’

(52.8 x 40)+(53.5 x 40)
+(53.8 X 160)+(53.2 x 160)
ote 400
= 53.4m
rane (53.7 X 182) +(54.0 X 78) + (54.5 x 42)+(54.1 x 98)
400
= 53.9 m
z= (54.8 X 21)+(55.3 X 39) +(55.6 X 221)+(55.1 x 119)
400
= 55.4m
Let hp, hg and hp be the depths of fill required at P, Q and R, respectively.

hp = 57.3 — 53.4 = 3.9m
hg = 57.3 — 53.9 = 3.4m
hy = 57.3 — 55.4=1,9m.
ll §
A
Therefore volume of fill — th
3
1921°5
X (3.94+3.44+1.9)
5892.6 m?
= 5893 m’, say.
5.13 Mass-haul The volumes in cubic metres between successive cross-sections 50 m

diagram apart along a proposed road are given below, positive volumes denoting
cut and negative volumes denoting fill.
Chainage 2000 2050 2100 2150 2200 2250 2300
(m)
Volume —2400 —2700 —1700 +2100 +2500 +2400
(m?)
Chainage 2300 2350 2400 2450 2500 2550 2600
(m)
Volume +2000 +1500 +400 -—700 —2600 —2800
(m°)
Plot a mass-haul diagram for this length of road, assuming that the earth-
works were balanced at 2000 m. Indicate the positions of balancing lines
such that for:
Scheme | there is balance at chainage 1000 with borrow at chainage
2600,
Scheme 2 there is equal borrow at chainages 2000 and 2600.
Determine the costs arising in the two schemes using the following rates
Excavate, cart and fill within a
free-haul distance of 200 m £1.20/m3
Excavate, cart and fill for overhaul £1.70/m?
Borrow and fill at chainage 2000 £2.20/m?
Borrow and fill at chainage 2600 £2.40/m?
What change occurs in the cost of Scheme 2, should a rate of £0.30/m?
x 50 m be proposed for overhaul?
Introduction. A mass-haul diagram or curve can be drawn subsequent to

the calculation of earthwork volumes, its ordinates showing cumulative volumes
at specific points along the centre line. In Fig. 5.22 the ordinates have been
plotted from base line abc such that ordinate gg, represents the volume of fill
between a and g. Volumes of cut and fill are treated as positive and negative,
respectively; compensation can be made as necessary, for shinkage or bulking
of the excavated material when placed finally in an embankment.

AN n, 2400 (1) 2500 1 Ypy 2600
WL Dome SE ees a Y;
Y))p~
r Figure 5.22
Referring to Fig. 5.22, which has been drawn using the data of the example,
it will be noted that:
(a) decreasing aggregate volumes, i.e. a to g, s to m, imply the formation
of an embankment;
(b) a minimum point occurs in the curve at the end of an embankment, e.g. r;
(c) when the curve rises cut is involved, i.e. from r towards b;
(d) a maximum ordinate will occur on the mass-haul curve at the end of
a cut, i.e. at s.
If a horizontal line is drawn, i.e. gh, the ordinates of the mass-haul curve
are equal at g and h, and so the volumes of cut and fill balance over that length.
When the curve lies below that trace line earth is moved to the left, i.e. h—r—
g, and, similarly, when the curve lies above, earth is moved to the right, i.e.
b—s—c. The length of such a line, termed a balancing line, indicates the maxi-
mum distance that earth will be transferred within the particular loop of the
diagram formed by that line. It will be seen that the base line gives continuous
balancing lines ab and bc, but continuity is not essential, the balancing lines
being arranged to ensure the most economical solution.
Haul is defined as the total of the products of increments of volumes of cut
and their distances of travel to the embankment, i.e. area grh gives the haul
in length gh. Two other terms are of importance: namely free haul and overhaul.
Their definitions are given later in the solution.
Solution. First determine the accumulated volumes. From the data,

accumulated volumes can be tabulated as in Table 5.21 and then plotted as
in Fig. 5.22.
We now plot the balancing lines for the schemes, Scheme 1 first. For no
borrow (or, for that matter, no surplus) at chainage 2000 the balancing must
commence at the origin (a) of the mass-haul curve, the earthworks having
balanced to that chainage. Accordingly, being horizontal, the balancing lines
ab, be will pass through b and c to give a borrow requirement of 2000 m?
at chainage 2600.
For Scheme 2, the accumulated volume dt chainage 2600 is —2000 m?, and

Table 5.21
Chainage Volumes (m°) Accumulated

volume (m°)
therefore to give equal borrow at chainage 2000 and 2600 the balancing line
must bisect that particular ordinate to give 1000 m* borrow at the two
chainages. This is satisfied by balancing lines passing through d, e and f, as
shown.
Finally we estimate the costs incurred. The rate for excavation generally
allows for transport up to a specified distance, known as the free-haul distance
or free haul. For transport beyond this distance we have overhaul and a different
unit rate applies. Free-haul distances can be plotted on the mass-haul diagram
as shown in Fig. 5.22, balancing lines gh and lm being 200 m long in this
case. The total volumes of excavation involved are given by the intercepts from
gh to r and from Im to s. Since cut balances fill over the length of a balancing
line earth would be carted a maximum distance of 200 m from h to g and |
to m, respectively.
The volumes remaining, gg, and In, in Scheme 1, and gj with In in Scheme
2, i.e. the ordinates from the respective balancing lines, are the volumes to
which the unit cost of overhaul will refer.
In Scheme 1, balancing line abc:
free-haul volumes (based on gh and Im) = (6800 —2100) +(4100 — 1700)
= 7100 m?,
overhaul volumes (intercepts gg, and In,) = 2100+1700
= 3800 m’,
borrow at chainage 2600 = 2000 m’.
Cost = (7100 x 1.20) + (3800 x 1.70) + (2000 x 2.40)
= £19 780.
In Scheme 2, balancing line def:
free-haul volumes (based on gh and Im) = (6800 —2100)+(4100— 1700)
= 7100 m’,

overhaul volumes (intercepts gj and In) = (2100— 1000) +(1700 + 1000)
3800 m?,
borrow at chainage 2000 = 1000 m’,
borrow at chainage 2600 = 1000 m?.
Cost = (7100 x 1.20)+(3800 x 1.70)+(1000 x 2.20)+(1000 x 2.40)
= £19 580.
A further method of costing earthworks involves the use of a rate for overhaul
based on unit volume multiplied by distance, referred to as a station distance
and generally meaning the interval at which the ordinates are plotted on the
mass-haul diagram. This rate is ‘extra over’ the rate for free-haul movement.
It will be remembered that haul is defined by volume times distance and
that haul within a loop is given by the area of that loop on the mass-haul
diagram. In Scheme 2 the areas for free haul are gjkhrg and nlsmpn, and so
the corresponding areas for the calculation of overhaul are (dehrgd — gjkhrg)
and (elsmfe — nlsmpn). The cost of overhaul is obtained by multiplying these
areas by the rate for overhaul and adding the result to the costs of ‘free-haul’
volumes.
In Fig. 5.22 the overhaul may be taken as being
= (8 x a) + nate elects co.) a4 ox pf

é Z 2 2
1100 ie a ina 1100 ron 2700 x 65

Ps % Eo
Widen 45)m'
2 .
= 173 250 m‘*.

Hence:
freehaul volume (based on intercepts from de to r and ef to s, respectively)

= (6800 — 1000) + (4100 + 1000)
= 10 900 m°;
borrow at chainage 2000
= 1000 m’;
borrow at chainage 2600
= 1000 m’;
cost = (10900 x 1.20) + (1000 x 2.20) + (1000 x 2.40)
173 250 x at
50
= £18 720.

Problems
1 A road of formation width 12 m is to be constructed with side slopes

of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal in cut and 1 vertical to 3 horizontal in fill.
The existing ground surface has a cross-fall of 1 vertical to 8 horizontal
and it will intersect the formation 1.5 m to the left of the centre line
and 1.0 m to the right of the centre line at two cross-sections 20 m apart.
Calculate the areas related to the cut and fill at the two sections. Hence
calculate the outstanding volume of cut or fill remaining after the
establishment of the formation between the two sections.
[Bradford]
Answer, Fill 2.025 m?, cut 4.688 m7; fill 4.900 m2, cut 2.083 m7; fill
1.54 m
2 A straight road is being constructed, its formation width being 16 m
and its side slopes being | vertical in 2.5 horizontal. Two sections, 20 m
apart, are in cutting, the details in Table 5.22 applying. Calculate the
Table 5.22
Section lé Transverse Depth to formation

cross — fall at centre line
1 vertical in 10 horizontal 2.2m

1 vertical in 8 horizontal 46m
volume of cut between the two sections by both the end-area and
prismoidal methods. [Bradford]
Answer 1951.6 m? (end areas); 1893.9 m? (prismoidal)
3 An embankment on a line due north and laid on level ground has
a uniform height of 16 m. The width at the top is 30 m and at the base
80 m. A road, formed at ground level, is to be cut through the
embankment with WCB of 60°. The width of the cutting at ground level
is to be 25 m, and the sides are to slope at a gradient of 1 vertical to
15 horizontal. Calculate the volume of material in m? to be removed
from the embankment in forming the cutting for the road. Check your
calculations by means of an accurately scaled plan and cross-sectional
drawings, and draw an isometric view of the cutting. [Eng. Council]
Answer 46 096 m?
4 The values in Table 5.23 relate to a traverse survey. Find, in hectares,

Table 5.23
E 168.83 N 146.88
E 306.09 S 14.10
E 266.71 S 38.26
E 177.74 S 105.56
the area of the figure enclosed by the traverse. [CEI]

Answer 3.832 hectares

5 Data from a looped traverse ABCDEA is given below in Table 5.24.
The area is to be divided into two equal parts by a line through D which
will intersect AB at X.
Table 5.24
| Line | AB | BC | CD DE | EA
AE 30 | —140 50 —20 | 80
—90 | - 20 60 | 70 | —20
Calculate the distance BX. [Bradford]

Answer 32.34 m
6 The co-ordinates of 3 points are given in Table 5.25. A line PQ is

to be set out parallel to AC where P lies on AB and Q lies on CB and
the area APQC is 1200 m?. Calculate the lengths AP and CQ.
Table 5.25
Point | Es | N |
A 50.000 100.000
B 200.000 200.000
Cc 150.00 100.000
[Bradford]
Answer AP = 23.11 m; CQ = 14.33 m
7 (a) Give reasons why the estimation of areas and volumes is important
in most engineering schemes.
(b) Describe the planimeter and explain briefly how it is used to
measure areas from plans.
(c) State Simpson’s rule for the determination of areas and mention
the assumption which underlies the rule.
(d) In a survey of a field enclosed by a fence, offsets were taken to
the fence from a chain line as follows:
Chainage (m) 0 LO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Offset (m) 4.41 6.61 9.08 11.14 11.20 9.16 7.08 4.82 2.56 0
Use Simpson’s rule to determine the area between the fence and the chain
line. [Salford]
Answer 641.5 m?
8 A certain cutting ABCDEA has a formation width of 14 m and is

to be made in ground which has transverse slopes BA and BC falling
away from B respectively at 1 vertical in 8 horizontal and 1 vertical in
14 horizontal. B is 2.6 m above formation ED and is 5.8 m horizontally
from E. If the side slopes from D and E are at 1 vertical to 2 horizontal
determine the cross-sectional area of the cutting.
If the area of the next section 20 m along the centre line is 45 m?*
calculate the volume of cut between the sections by the end-areas
method. [Bradford]
Answer 38.24 m?; 832.4 m?
9 Two successive cross-sections of a 10 m wide road formation have
been constructed part in cut and part in fill, the original ground having
a traverse slope of 1 vertical in 5 horizontal. At one section there is
0.40 m cut at the centre line and at the other 0.26 m of fill.
Given that the respective side slopes of cut and fill are 1 vertical in
1.5 horizontal and 1 vertical in 2 horizontal determine the net volume
of earthworks contained between the two sections, which are 20 m apart.
The centre line of the road has a radius of 160 m in plan.
Answer 2.23 m? (cut)
10 A circular tank of diameter 10 m is to be constructed on a plane

ground surface which has a maximum slope of | in 8. The centre point
of the tank is to be 2.75 m above existing ground level, being placed
on fill having a side slope of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
Determine the volume of fill required (to the nearest m°).
Answer 602 m?
11 The centre line of a highway cutting lies in a circular curve in plan.

This cutting is to be widened by increasing the formation width of 20 m
to 26 m, the excavation being on the inside of the curve and retaining
the side slopes of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical. The ground surface and the
formation are each horizontal and the depth to formation over a length
of 400 m increases uniformly from 3 m to 5 m at the centre line.
Determine the radius of the centre line, if the volume of excavation
is overestimated by 5% when the influence of curvature is neglected.
[Salford]
Answer 342 m
12 A highway of 30 m formation width and with side slopes of 1 in

1.5 on embankments and 1 in 1.75 in cuttings, falls with a gradient of
1 in 75 longitudinally. The original ground slopes at 1 in 150 in the
opposite direction, but is level in a direction at right angles to the centre
line of the highway.
At a certain point the highway is on an embankment 2.7 m in height
measured at the centre line. Calculate the quantities of earthworks for
a distance of 250 m from this point in the direction of the falling highway
and plot the results in the form of a mass-haul diagram. _ [Salford]
Answer +955.6 m? at 250 m
13 A tank, whose horizontal base ABCD is 50 m long by 40 m wide,

is to be constructed in ground having a slope of 1 in 14 in the direction
of the larger dimensions BA and CD. The depths of excavation at A
and D are to be 5.7 m, the side slopes being 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
Calculate the volume of excavation required.
Answer 27 007 m°?
14 The provisional centre line for a new road has been pegged out but
no further survey operations have yet taken place.

(a) Describe how you would construct a mass-haul diagram, including
any field measurements and calculations that may be necessary.
(b) Give one application of a mass-haul diagram:
(i) at the design stage of a highway project,
(ii) during the construction stage of a highway project.
[RICS]
15 Plot a mass-haul diagram for a proposed road of length 1500 m given

the cross-sectional areas at intervals of 100 m indicated in Table 5.26.
Table 5.26
— =
Chainage Cross-sectional area

(m) (m*)
0 0
100 + 20.2
200 +36.2
300 +55.6
400 +61.7
500 +40.8
600 + 15.6
700 +) oO
800 —30.5
900 —58.7
1000 —72.3
1100 —45.6
1200 —30.0
1300 —22.5
1400 —13.0
1500 0
The ground between the given values of cross-sectional area can be

assumed to be uniform. The volume between the sections should be
calculated using the ‘mean area method’. Positive values of area denote
cut and negative values denote areas of fill. It is intended to re-use the
excavated material for filling and to allow for consolidation a shrinkage
factor of 0.9 should be adopted.
Determine:
(i) the accumulated volume at the end of the proposed road;
(ii) the accumulated volume coinciding with the end of the cutting
operation;
(iii) the haul distance over which 10 000 m? of excavated material
has to be moved to an area of fill so that the quantities of cut and fill
balance. [Salford]
Answer (i) —6551 m°; (ii) 20 709 m?; (iii) 610 m
16 Estimate the cost arising in the previous question when the following
rates apply:
Excavate, cart and fill within a free haul distance of 500 m
£1.40/m?
Overhaul £0.70/m? x 100 m
Borrow and fill £2.50/m?
Answer £70 280 ’

17 Figure 5.23 shows a 20 m square grid of levels set out on an opencast
site from a temporary bench mark. The enclosed area is to be excavated
to the level of the top of a coal seam known to be 52.50 m AOD at point
E, and to dip downwards in the direction EH at a gradient of 1 vertically
to 16 horizontally.
59.80 60.90 61.10 61.40
L
Figure 5.23
(i) If the excavation has vertical sides, calculate the volume of material
to be removed. (Assume no bulking.)
(ii) It was subsequently discovered that the grid actually had been set
out at 20.1 m centres, and an error in the adopted temporary bench mark
had resulted in all the ground levels being shown 0.50 m too high.
Calculate the corrected volume of excavation. [Salford]
Answer (i) 17 820 m?; (ii) 16 989 m?
18 A hillside, which may be considered to be a plane surface, has a
slope of 1 vertical in 9 horizontal. A straight road is to be constructed
thereon at a gradient of 1 vertical in 12 horizontal such that it is wholly
in embankment. Determine the volume of fill required between two cross-
sections 50 m apart if a side slope of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal obtains
and the width of formation is 16 m.
Answer 551.6 m°
19 Table 5.27 shows the equivalent areas enclosed by contour loops

on the plan of a tip at a construction site. The tip may be assumed to
have been levelled off at 262 m AOD.
160 000 m? of fill is required at another location on the site. If this
fill is removed uniformly downwards from the top by motorized scrapers,
estimate the surface level of the tip after completion. Check your answer
using an alternative method. [Salford]
Table 5.27
Contour level | 262 | 260 | 258 | 256 | 254 | 252 | 250

(m AOD)
Area in 0.468 | 0.712] 1.031| 1.509} 2.603} 4.066) 6.741

hectares
Answer 252.1 m AOD

20 A rectangular area 100 m by 80m has to be excavated on a
construction site. In order to assess the quantity of excavation a grid
of levels has been taken over the area at the corners of squares of side
20 m with values as follows (all in m AOD):
152.36 152.43 152.25 fev

ami| 151.92 151.76
152.18 152.21 152.07 151.84 151.61 151.41
152.02 152.08 151.85 151.56 151.24 151.04
151.89 151.86 151.62 151.28 150.93 150.67
151.78 151.75 151.45 151.12 150.72 150.26
The formation level for the excavation is 150.00 m AOD.
Calculate the volume of excavation assuming vertical sides. Check your
answer using an alternative method. [Salford]
Answer 13 254.7 m3
21 A dam is to be constructed across a valley to form a reservoir, and

the areas given in Table 5.28 enclosed by contour loops were obtained
from a plan of the area involved.
Table 5.28
Contour line Area enclosed

(metres AOD) (hectares)
640 5.2
645 9.4
650 16.3
655 22.4
660 40.7
665 61.5
670 112.2
675 198.1
680 272.4
(a) If the 640 m level represents the level floor of the reservoir, use
the prismoidal formula to calculate the total volume of water impounded
when the water level reaches 680 m.
(b) Determine the level of water at which one-third of the total capacity
is stored in the reservoir.
(c) On checking the calculations, it was found that the original plan
from which the areas of contour loops had been measured had shrunk
evenly by approximately 1.2% of linear measurement. What was the
corrected total volume of water? [Salford]
Answer (a) 29.693 x 10° m?; (b) 669.8 m; (c) 30.406 x 10° m3
22 The following spot height data (in m) apply in Fig. 5.15:

1 17.83; 2 18.19; 3 18.42
4 17.58; 5 18.01; 6 18.25
7 Liss 8 17.70; 9 17.96
10 17.06; 11 17.48; ize 17.63
# The area is to be graded with a uniform downgrade of 1 in 15 from line

1, 2, 3 towards line 10, 11, 12. Neglecting the effects of sideslopes and
bulking calculate the design levels at those lines such that cut and fill
are balanced. [London]
Answer 18.81 m; 16.81 m
23 A sewer is to be laid between two points having co-ordinates 12.0 m,

12.0 mand 85.0 m, 85.0 m respectively in Fig. 5.21, the depth of invert
being 1.5 m at each point. Using ‘end areas’ estimate the volume of
excavation for a trench, 1 m wide, taken to invert level between the
points.
Answer 149 m?
24 The plan of a very old chain survey, plotted to 1/500 scale on linen
cloth, was found to have shrunk so that a line originally 200 mm long
was only 197 mm. Furthermore, a note on the plan stated that the 30 m
chain used for the survey had been found to be 20 mm too long after
completion of the plot. If a certain area on the plan is measured by
planimeter as 0.225 m?, estimate the correct area on the ground in
hectares. Uniform shrinkage of the plan may be assumed. [Salford]
Answer 5.805 hectares
25 The following levelling was conducted over a stretch of ground

where it is required to excavate a trench 1 m wide with vertical sides
for carrying a pipe at a gradient of 1 in 50 from A to F. The bottom
of the pipe is to be 2 m vertically below A which is 100.00 m AOD.
Table 5.29
Distance
from A (m)
Reduce the levelling by the Rise and Fall method of booking, applying
all arithmetical checks, and calculate the volume of the excavation in
cubic metres.
[Eng. Council]
Answer 1459 m?

6 F
Curve ranging
Circular curves The circular curve, shown in Figs 6.1 and 6.2, connects two straights between
tangent points T, and T> at a constant radius R. The straights meet at the
intersection point I, crossing at angle 6 which is known either as the total angle
of deflection or the angle of deviation or the angle of intersection.
Intersection
point as
Tangent
point
Curve deflecting
right
T,P produced
Tangent at P
Figuré 6.2
Formulae for the design and setting out of this curve include the following.
Tangent length: IT, = IT, = R tan (6/2).
Curve length: T,T, = R@.
Chord length: T,P = 2R sin a.
er:
Offset from tangent: y=
2R
Offset from long chord: , 2.
b = V(R*—a— ie 2_
[RK {1112\?
:
: TyP
Tangential angle: a = 1718.9 os (minutes), where
T,P is less than R/10 and

preferably less than R/20.
2
Offset from tangent: P’P = Peed
2R
PP,
Offset from chord produced: P”P; = on (T,P + PP,).
Subtended angle: a, = 1718.9 2 (minutes).
Compound curves A compound curve has two or more curves contained between the two main
tangents or straights. The individual curves meet tangentially at their junction
points.
Reverse curves A reverse curve is one in which two curves change direction as shown in Fig.
6.3 so that I,I, is a common tangent to the curves.
Figure 6.3
Clothoid A clothoid is a curve whose radius decreases linearly from infinity to zero.
It is used in practice to ensure smooth progress between sections of different
radius, for example a straight and a circular curve or between two circular
curves. It will be apparent that some form of compound curve arises.
CURVE RANGING 191

Transition curve A transition curve is the part of the clothoid whose maximum radius occurs
at one junction point, and whose minimum radius, R, occurs at a second junction
point. These junction points can be the tangent points with the straights or
with a circular curve or another transition curve.
Tangent at T,’
1°
Radius = A
55 Radius = r
Radius = o
Figure 6.4
Transition curve
Figure 6.5
In Figs 6.4 and 6.5 for transition curve T,T,’

Ixr=LXxXR=K.
cL
Deflection angle of curve: o, = oe (radian).
: : 1800 1? ;
Deflection angle for a specific chord: 6 = ————— (minutes).
tRL
1800 L
6, = (minutes):
aR
= 2 (radians) when ¢,.is small.

7

Offset from tangent: y = | (1- ——
Crna
fF —— +...
10 216
II
hy I?
_ + Bs
40 K? 3456 K4
13 2 4
x= = ae Se
14 440
13 7 jl
+ 2
6K 336 K? 42 240 K*
¢ is the angle between tangent to curve point and T,I as in Fig. 6.17.
3
¥ mal x 6 LR (cubic spiral).
piral)
3
% 6 LR (cubic Ppparabola).)
2
Shift: Sa - :
24R
Tangent length: IT, = (R+S) tan (6/2) + L/2
Rate of change of The centrifugal force P acting on a vehicle of weight W as it moves along
radial acceleration 2 P
a circular curve at velocity V is given by P = ey in which ~ is known
8g
as the centrifugal ratio. By lifting (super-elevating) the outer edge of the road
or rail the resultant force can be made to act perpendicularly to the running
surface, Fig. 6.6. In practice to avoid large super-elevations an allowance (fB)
y2
for friction is made. Radial acceleration is given by the expression Ro
Reaction B = (P sina + W cosa)
(P cosa — Wsina) /
Figure 6.6
In the case of a transition curve it changes as the vehicle moves along the curve
because the radius is variable. For constant velocity V the rate of change of
radial acceleration (assumed uniform) is
CURVE RANGING 193

V2/R Vv?
a= = 7
L/V LR
Vertical curves Vertical curves are introduced at the intersection of two gradients, either as
summit curves or sag curves. Usually they are parabolic in form, and so in
Fig. 6.7
—(-q)|x 2
Vertical offset: y = Bl elles!)
400 L
- Gage:
400 L - ‘
Summit curve
Figure 6.7
In many published texts the term (p+q), or (p—q) in the case of gradients
of an equal sense, is replaced by one variable, G. For flat gradients it is normal
to assume that the length along the gradients equals the length of the curve
(2L) and that these in turn equal the long chord AC and its horizontal projection.
This assumption is not to be made in the design of horizontal curves.
Although the parabola is adopted for the vertical curve, it can be approxi-
mated by a circular curve in respect of radial (centrifugal) acceleration when
estimating the length of curve at the design stage. For the curve connecting
gradients of opposite sense, i.e. +p% and —q%
Curve length: 2L =
V*ptq) _ K (p+q).
100 f
Tables of K values are published by the Department of Transport for design
purposes, to satisfy different road conditions and velocities. Also for parabolic
summit curves:
+
Change of gradient over 2L = 2

100
+
Change over unit distance = Aaa

200 L
+
Slope of tangent at P pigs os dea LE

100 ' 200 L

6.1 Setting out a The centre line of a road is to be set out as part of a new development.
circular curve from A circular curve of radius 350.00 m, deflecting right through 32° 40’,
the tangent points is to be incorporated within its length and Fig. 6.8 shows its relationship
and control points with control points established previously. The chainage of the
intersection point I is 1029.35 m. Derive data for setting out the curve
indicating how the control system could be utilized.
960.89E
961.41N
G®
840.35E
940.22N 957.33E 1060.04E
eg 943.82N 924.52N
Figure 6.8
Solution
Curve length R60 = 350.00 x rar x 32.667

199.55 m.
Tangent length IT; = IT, = R tan 6/2
350 tan 16° 20’
= 102.57 m.
Chainage of T; = 1029.35 — 102.57
= 926.78 m.
Chainage of T, = 926.78 + 199.55
= 1126.33 m.
Now determine the co-ordinates of T, and T).
Easting of T; = 957.33 + 102.57 sin 258° 36’ 30” = 856.78 m.
Northing of T; = 943.82 + 102.57 cos 258° 36’ 30” = 923.56 m.
WCB of IT, = 78° 36’ 30” + 32° 40’ 00” = 111° 16’ 30”.
Easting of T, = 957.33 + 102.57 sin 111° 16’ 30” = 1052.91 m.
Northing of T, = 943.82 + 102.57 cos 111° 16’ 30” = 906.60 m.
Now we set out from the tangent point. The procedure is:
(a) locate T;, measured back 102.57 m from I; and
(b) calculate the deflection (tangential) angles using the formula
Gc
6 = 1718.9 7 minutes,
where C is the length of chord selected. It should be in excess of R/10 and
CURVE RANGING 195

Table 6.1
Chainage Tangential Total Angle set Angle set

(m) angle angle on 20” on 1”
(minutes) (minutes) theodolite theodolite
926.78 0.0 0.0 0.0

940.00 64.925 1°. 05* 00" 1° 04’ 55”
960.00 163.148 2° 43’ 00” 2° 43’ 09”
980.00 261.371 Ae 21"-20" AP 21 Ze.
1 359.594 5° 59’ 40” 5° 59° 36”
000.00
1 457.817 7% 37’ 40” 7° 37’ 49”
020.00
{ 556.040 9° 16° 00” 9° 16’ 02”
040.00
4 654.263 10° 54’ 20” 10° 54’ 16”
060.00
1 080.00 752.486 12? 32° 20" 12° 32’ 29°
1 850.709 14° 10’ 40” 14° 10’ 43”
100.00
{ 120.00 948.932 15° 49’ 00” 15° 48’ 56”
1 126.33 980.019 16° 20’ 00” 16° 20’ 00”
should preferably be of the order of R/20. Then the chord length is virtually
the arc length, and the sum of the individual chords is essentially the length
of the circular curve.
Notice (from Table 6.1) that curve points have been located in ‘running-
chainage’ form or ‘through-chainage’ form. This facilitates the levelling of
the longitudinal and cross sections over the complete length of road.
The following computer program will calculate data to set out a circular
curve from the tangent points. It is an extract from the complete program for
a compound curve listed with Example 6.5; the variables are defined with the
main program.
10 REM SET OUT A CIRCULAR CURVE FROM THE TANGENT POINTS

20 INPUT "DEFLECTION ANGLE DEG,MIN,SEC we M.S
30 Al = ((D * 3600) + (M * 60) + S) / 206264.8
40 INPUT "RADIUS OF CURVE M ", R
50 INPUT "CHAINAGE OF INTERSECTION POINT M", C
60 INPUT "SETTING OUT CHAINAGE INTERVAL M", I
70 Cl =C - R * TAN(Al / 2)
80 c2 = Cl + (R * Al)
90 PRINT "CHAINAGE", “POLAR D.", "SETTING OUT ANGLE"
100 PRINT Cl, PF, F; FF; F, “BIRST TANGENT POINT”
110 L3 = (INT(C1 / I) + 1) * I - C1
120VCS ala + CL
130 A4 = A4 + (L3 / (R * 2))
140 L4 = INT(2 * R * SIN(A4) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
150 A = INT(206264.8 * A4 + .5)
160 D = INT(A / 3600)
170 M = INT((A - (D * 3600)) / 60)
180 S = A - (D * 3600) - (M * 60)
190 IF C5 = C2 THEN GOTO 280
200 PRINT C5, L4, D; M; S
210 L3 = I
220 C5 = C5 +I
230 IF C5 > C2 THEN GOTO 250
240 GOTO 130
250 A4 = A4 + (C2 - C5 + I) / (2 * R)
260 C5 = C2
270 GOTO 150
280 PRINT C2, L4, D; M; S, “FINAL TANGENT POINT"
290 END

When setting out from the control points the polar method can be used to
establish all points on the centre line of the road. The control information is:
FG: length 122.39 m, bearing 80° 01’ 47”
GH: length 105.79 m, bearing 110° 24’ 30”.
In respect of T, whose co-ordinates are 856.78 E, 923.56 N, we have
856.78 — 840.35
bearing FT, = tan! (
923.56 — ee
135° 23’ 54”
length FT; = V{[(856.78 — 840.35)? + (923.56 — 940.22)?]
= 23.40 m.
In respect of point P (chainage 1000.00) the bearing of T,P is
78° 36’ 30” + 05° 59’ 36” = 84° 36’ 06”.
From Fig. 6.9
T,P = 2R sin 05° 59’ 36”
= 73.09 m.
Note that the chord length is used, not the curve length. Co-ordinates of P are
easting 856.78 + 73.09 sin 84° 36’ 06” = 929.55 mE
northing 923.56 + 73.09 cos 84° 36’ 06” = 930.44 mN.
Bearing GP Il
_, 929.55 — 960.89
930.44 — 961.41
= 225°.20' 25”.
110° 24’ 30”
Figure 6.9
A clockwise angle of (225° 20’ 25” — 110° 24’ 30”) = 114° 55’ 55” could
be set off at G from GH to give the required direction. In practice, the surveyor
would probably sight H and set the horizontal circle reading on the theodolite
to 110° 24” 30”, acircle reading of 225° 20’ 25” then gives the pointing on P.
Length GP = V[(929.55 — 960.89)? + (930.44 — 961.41)7]
= 44.06 m.
CURVE RANGING 197

6.2 Designing a Points A and B lie on straight 1 and points C and D are on straight
circular curve from 2 as shown in Fig. 6.10. A 200 m radius circular curve is to join the
the co-ordinates of straights. If the chainage of A is 1013.125 m, calculate data to set out
the straights the curve from control station P at through chainage intervals of 20 m.
Table 6.2
1020.123 742.194
1135.706 851.208
1297.041 863.197
1415.313 797.071
1198.827 794.213
| Straight 2
Straight 1
Figure 6.10
Introduction. This example illustrates the procedure of designing a circular

curve of known radius to fit between two straights. The particular curve in
question is right-handed and runs west to east. The procedure of the solution
is the same if the curve runs north to south, or is left-handed, but some of
the positive and negative signs are reversed.
Solution. This solution is worked around geometric principles and the co-
ordinates of points on the curve are individually derived from the co-ordinates
of the centre of the circle. The spacing of points on the curve is thus not
restricted to the */20 rule discussed in Example 6.1.
Each of the straights can be represented as a straight line in the form y =
mx-+c. At the intersection point the two lines must have the same x and y co-
ordinates (E;, N;) and it follows that
m, Ey + cy = m Ey +
Thus E; = a ts
m,—m)
Now,
mm, = Ne=Na _ _(851.208—742.194)

' Eg—-E, _ (1135.706— 1020.123)
= 0.9432
mm, joe= Noe
Ra ea_ _(797.071-863.197)
eS BL)
Ep-E. _ (1415.313—1297.071)
—0.5591
For the first straight at point A,
y=mxrt+e
742.194 = 0.9432 x 1020.123 + c,
Cc, = —219.986
For the second straight at point D,
797.071 = —0.5591 x 1415.313 + ¢
cy) = 1588.373
Thus from above,
a 1588.373 —(—219.986)
0.9432 —(—0.5591)
= 1203.727 mE
and N = mE; i Cy
= 0.9432 x 1203.727—219.986
= 915.369 mN
The deflection angle of the curve,
6 = tan~!(m,)—tan~
!(m))
tan~ !(0.9432)
—tan~ '(—0.5591)
72° 32403"
Note that if the curve had been in a north/south orientation @ would have been
obtained from the inverse of m, and mp.
6 can be positive or negative and in conjunction with the orientation of the
curve this indicates whether the curve is left-handed or right-handed.
The length to the tangent point, T, is given by
P=" tan oe
2;
Se5tM) Sn Vaewao OS
wv
= 146.738 m
The co-ordinates of point T can be obtained from those of I by comparing

the ratio of IT to IA
IA = V((E,—E)” + (Na—Np”)
= V((1020.123
—1203.727)* + (742.194 —915.369)")
= 252.389 m
TT. f=) _ Wr=N0
TA (E,x-E) (NaN)
Hence
23
— 1203.727)
Ey = 1203.727 + uN eLe x (1020.1
252.389
CURVE RANGING 199

1096.980 mE
Nr 915.369 + Wiech X (742.194 —915.369)

252.389
814.686 mN
We may now calculate data to set out this point from P
Ler = V((Np—Ny)’+ (Ep— Ey’)

= V¥ ((794.213 —814.686)? + (1198.827
— 1096.980)7)
V((—20.473)?) + (101.847)")
103.884 m *
WCBp; = tan! (-& | = —78° 38’ 03” (by calculator)

Nr—Np
Since line PT is in the second quadrant the WCB is obtained by
WCB = 360° — 78° 38’ 3”
me, 2849 21255)”
Next, calculate the co-ordinates of the centre of the circle.
WCB, = tan! Gcurce

N,—Nr
Tr (1208.727-—1086.980))
915.369
—814.686
= 46° 40’ 28”
The line joining the tangent point to the centre of the circle is perpendicular
to the straight. For this curve the centre of the circle will be to the south-east
of T and hence
WCBro 46° 40’ 28” + 90°
136° 40’ 28”
Eo Ey +R sin WCBro
1096.980 + 200 sin 136° 40’ 28”

1234.208 mE
No Nr + R cos WCBro
814.686 + 200 cos 136° 40’ 28”
669.193 mN
WCBor WCBro + 180°
136° 40’ 28” + 180°
316° 40’ 28”
Chainage of I = Chainage of A + IA
1013.125 + 252.389
1265.514 m
Chainage of T 1265.514 — IT
1265.514 — 146.738
7

1118.776 m
Chainage of U = 1118.776 + R@
$2. f2...03”
1118.776 + 200 x a ———— XK 7
180
1371.968 m
For running chainages at 20 m intervals the first curve point will be at chainage
1120.000. The curve length to this point is (1120.000—1118.776) = 1.224 m.
1.224
Angle subtended at O = = 0.00612 radians
200
= 21/2”
WCBo; = 316° 40’ 28” + 21’ 2”
=S17% 1" "50"
Ey Eo + R sin WCBo;
1234.208 + 200 sin 317° 1’ 30”

1097.872 mE
N, = No + Ros WCBo;
669.193 + 200 cos 317° 1’ 30”

815.523 mN
The setting out data from control point P is calculated in the same manner
as that for point T. Subsequent curve points are at 20 m centres and the
deflection angle to point 2 would be
zi.208 = 0.10612 radians

200
= ea. a0
WCB, = 316° 40’ 28” + 6° 04’ 49”

322-9) AL”
The data are presented in Table 6.3.
This problem can be solved by the following computer program. Data must
be input in a logical order progressing along straight 1 to straight 2. The
program is written for the general case and can be used for any orientation.
Because of this the co-ordinates of the centre of the circle are calculated using
both tangent points T and U (lines 280—370) which is slightly more complicated
than the method presented above.
Line 200 uses the logic functions AND and OR to determine if the curve
lies north/south or east/west. For computers that do not support these functions
the following routine should be inserted instead:
200 IF N6>N2 THEN GOTO 203
201 IF N6<N5 THEN GOTO 240
202 GOTO 210
CURVE RANGING 201

Table 6.3
1118.776 1096.980 814.686 20 tet or 103.884

1120.000 1097.872 815.523 281° 55’ 05” 103.177
1140.000 1113.164 828.401 291° 45’ 23” 92.233
1160.000 1129.663 839.690 303° 19’ 32” 82.775
1180.000 1147.207 849.275 316° 50’ 52” 75.475
1200.000 1165.620 857.061 332° 08’ 58’ 71.081
1220.000 1184.719 862.970 348° 24’ 15” 70.189
1240.000 1204.312 866.942 4° 18’ 45” 72.936
1260.000 1224.203 868.939 18° 45’ 25” 78.917
1280.000 1244.196 868.940 31° 15! 47" 87.421
1300.000 1264.088 866.945 41° 54’ 03” 97.719
1320.000 1283.681 862.974 50° 58’ 50” 109.217
1340.000 1302.780 857.067 58° 50’ 28” 121.478
1360.000 1321.194 849.283 65° 46’ 13” 134.188
1371.968 1331.810 843.758 69° 33” 59° 141.912
The logic function AND is also used in lines 390 and 630 and if necessary
this should be replaced by:
390 IF E9>E7 THEN GOTO 391
392 A4 = A4 4+2*P
with a similar routine at 630.
Variables
A WCB from control station to ES, NS Co-ordinates of 2nd point on
a point straight 2
Al Deflection angle E6, N6 Co-ordinates of intersection
A4 WCB from centre of circle to point
a point E7, N7 Co-ordinates of first tangent
C Running chainage point
Cl Chainage of first tangent E8, N8 Co-ordinates of second
point tangent point
C2 Chainage of second tangent E9, N9 Co-ordinates of centre of
point circle
D Output angle, degrees Gl ‘Gradient’ of straight 1
El, N1 Co-ordinates of control point G2 ‘Gradient’ of straight 2
E2, N2 Co-ordinates of 1st point on G3 ‘Gradient’ from first tangent
straight 1 point to centre of circle
E3, N3 Co-ordinates of 2nd point on G4 ‘Gradient’ from second
straight 1 tangent point to centre of
E4, N4 Co-ordinates of 1st point on circle
straight 2 of Chainage interval

K1, K2 Additive constants for Ql Left/right-hand curve
straights indicator
LE Length from a point on the Q2 Quadrant indicator (+ or —)
curve to the control station R Radius of the curve
Ul Tangent length S Output angle, seconds
L2, L3 Lengths along straights X, Y Co-ordinates of points on the
M Output angle, minutes curve
P T
10 REM CIRCULAR CURVE FROM CO-ORDINATES OF STRAIGHTS

20 REM
30 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF EDM STATION ", El, N1
40 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF FIRST POINT ON STRAIGHT 1 ", E2, N2
50 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF SECOND POINT ON STRAIGHT 1 ", E3, N3
60 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF FIRST POINT ON STRAIGHT 2 ", E4, N4
70 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF SECOND POINT ON STRAIGHT 2 ", E5, N5S
80 INPUT "RADIUS OF CURVE ", R
90 INPUT "CHAINAGE OF FIRST POINT ON STRAIGHT 1", C
100 INPUT "SETTING OUT CHAINAGE INTERVAL ", I
110 Ql=12
i208 02 = 1
130 P = 3.14159
140 Gl = (N3 - N2) / (E3 - E2)
150 G2 = (N5 --N4) / (E5 - E4)
160 Ki = N2 - (Gl * E2)
170 K2 = N4 - (G2 * E4)
180 E6 = (K2 - Kl) / (Gl - G2)
190 N6 = (Gl * E6) + Kl
200 IF (N6 > N2 AND N6 > NS) OR (N6 < N2 AND N6 < N5) THEN GOTO 240
210 Al = ATN(1 / G1) - ATN(1 / G2)
220 IF Al > 0 THEN Qi = -1
230 GOTO 260
240 Al = ATN(G1) - ATN(G2)
250 IF Al < 0 THEN Qi = -1
260 IF Al < 0 THEN Q2 = -1
270 Ll = R * TAN(Al / 2)
280 L2 = SQR((N6 - N2) * 2 + (E6 - E2) * 2)
290 E7 = E6 - (Li / L2) * (E6 - E2) * Q2
300 N7 = N6 - (L1 / L2) * (N6 - N2) * Q2
310 L3 = SQR((N6 - N5) * 2 + (E6 - E5) * 2)
320 E8 = E6 + (L1 / L3) * (E5 - E6) * Q2
330 N8 = N6 + (L1 / L3) * (N5 - N6) * Q2
340. °G3 = -1 / Gi
350 G4 = -1 / G2
360 E9 = ((G4 * E8) - (G3 * E7) + (N7 - N8)) / (G4 - G3)
370 N9 = ((G4 * N7) - (G3 * N8) + G3 * G4 * (E8 - E7)) / (G4 - G3)
380 A4 = ATN((E7 - E9) / (N7 - N9))
390 IF E9 > E7 AND N9 < N7 THEN A4 = A4 + 2 * P
400 IF N9 > N7 THEN A4 = A4 + P
eiOreClea Ct le = Ll
420 C2 = Cl + R * Al * Q2
430 PRINT "CHAINAGE CO-ORDINATES WCB DISTANCE"
440 PRINT " ™m mE mN m"
450 Cc = Cl
460 X = E7
470 Y¥ = N7
480 GOSUB 610
490 L4 = (INT(CL / I) + 2) * I - ca
500 C=C + L4
510 IF C > G2 THEN L4 = C2 - ¢ + L4: Cc = C2
520 A4 =A4 + Q1* L4/R
530 IF A4 > 2 * P THEN A4 = A4 - 2 * P
540 IF A4 < 0 THEN A4 = A4 + 2 * P
550 X = E9 + R * SIN(A4)
560 Y = N9 + R * COS(A4)
570 GOSUB 610
580 L4 =I
590 IF C = C2 THEN STOP
600 GOTO 500
610) f= SOR((X — Bl) 2) (Y= N21) 2)
620 A = ATN((X — El)./. (¥ = N1))
630 IF El > X AND N1 < Y THENA=2%* P+A
640 IF ¥Y < Nl THENA=P+A
CURVE RANGING 203

650 A=A * 180 /P
660 D = INT(A)
670 M = INT( (A = D) * 60)
680 S = INP (7 ( (A =D) * 60 = M) * 60)
690 PRINT Ce TAS (12). Xs. TAB(22)¢ Ys TAB (SZ) Dy TABI(ST) + Mr ‘TABLAZ) SS: TAB (48)
700 RETURN
6.3 Reverse curve Two parallel railway lines on the surface at a mine are to be connected
by a reverse curve, each section having the same radius. If the centre
lines are 50 m apart and the maximum distance between the tangent points
is 200 m calculate the maximum allowable radius that can be used.
[CEI]
Common tangent
at U
Vi
Figure 6.11
Solution.
By symmetry PQ = ST in Fig. 6.11

and QU = US = R tan 6/2.
Also, PU = UT = 2R sin 0/2 = V(257 + 1007)
= 25V17.
50 = QSsin 0 = 2R tan 6/2 X sin6
sin 0/2 .
—§—— xX sin 0
cos 0/2
_ 25V17 x 2 sin 6/2 x cos 6/2

cos 6/2
0 1
Therefore sin — = ——
oy Are
4 0
and so cos — = — and tan— = —
2 aia? >
But 2R sin 6/2 = 25V17 i

_ 25V17
Therefore R
™ eX 1
N17
= 212.5 m.
6.4 Setting out a Calculate the data needed to set out one of the curves of Example 6.3
circular curve from using offsets from the long chord.
the long chord
Figure 6.12
Solution. In Fig. 6.12

R? = (y + Ros 6/2)” + x’.
Therefore y = V(R? — x*) = R cos 6/2.
Note that x is measured from the mid-point of PU which must be located. In

this example
R cos 0/2 206.16 m
P
and R sin 0/2 5154.0" tay
2
Therefore y V(R?2 — x?) — 206.16 m.
Offsets can be tabulated as in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4
212.13
CURVE RANGING 205

6.5 Compound curve A compound curve, shown in Fig. 6.13, consisting of a circular curve
— setting out from with transition curves at each end, is to connect two straights having
the tangent points a total deflection angle of 32° 24’ 00”. The radius of the circular curve
is 1000 m and the transition curves are to be designed for a rate of change
of radial acceleration of 0.3 m/s? and a velocity of 110 km/h.
Determine:
(a) the chainages of the tangent points on the straights given that the
chainage of the intersection point is 1350.468 m;
(b) offsets required to locate the first transition curve; and
(c) setting-out data, using theodolite and tape, for the transition curve
at 20 m intervals and the circular curve at 50.m intervals.
Tangent
at A,
Circular
ea | curve
=
\ R= 1000m R= 1000m
\
Figure 6.13
Solution. First calculate the curve lengths and the tangent lengths. The rate
of change of radial acceleration (a) is related to the design velocity (V) by
v3
Of ees
LR .
where L is the length of the transition curve and R is the radius of the circular
curve (and the transition curve) at A.
V = 110 km/h = 30.556 m/s.

3
Therefore 0-32= PELeach
L x 1000
L = 95.097 m.
Shift ee L2 = 95.097 2
24R 24 x 1000
= 0.377 m.
Tangent length IA = (R+S) tan 6/2 + L/2
(1000.377) tan 16° 12’ + cad

338.185 m. i

L?2
Now o, = —— radian
2LR
95.097?
2 X 95.097 x 1000
0.047 548 5 radians.
Therefore o, = 02° 43’ 28”
26, = 05° 26’ 56”.
Therefore angle subtended by circular curve = 32°24’00” —05°26' 56”
26° 57’ 04”
26.9511°.
Length of circular curve = R x 6
= 1000 x —— x 26.9511
180
= 470.385 m.
(a) We can now determine the chainages of the tangent points:
Chainage of intersection point = 1350.468 m
Deduct tangent length = 338.185 m
Chainage of tangent point A = 1012.283 m

Add transition length = 95.097 m
Chainage of junction point A; = 1107.380m

Add circular curve length 470.385 m
Chainage of junction point B} = 1577.765 m

Add transition length 95.097 m
Chainage of tangent pointB = 1672.862 m

(b) Determine data for setting-out the transition curve by offsets from the
straight AI. The expression for offsets to locate a transition curve of cubic
spiral form is
13
x=-—
6LR
in which x is the offset from the main straight, and / is the distance along the
transition curve approximated by the sum of the chord lengths.
6 LR= 6 X 95.097 x 1000
570 582
13
—cmnmqememees 6
570 582
The chord lengths used for setting out the transition curve may be taken as
one-half to one-third of the corresponding chord to set out the circular curve
(say R/20 m). Since R = 1000 m a chord length of 20 m is acceptable for
the transition curves. The required offsets can be tabulated as in Table 6.5.
CURVE RANGING 207

Table 6.5
Chainage Chord length

(m) (m)
1012.283
1020.00
1040.00
1060.00
1080.00
1100.00
1107.38
(c) Determine data to set out the curve with theodolite and tape. For the
transition curve the deflection angle is
_ 1800 1?
= 0.006 025 J” min.
a LR
For the transition curve from A the data can be tabulated as in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6

(m) (m)
1012.283
1020.000 a tir
1040.000 04’ 38”
1060.000 13’ 43”
1080.000 27? 38"
1100.000 46’ 21”
1107.380 54’ 29”
For the circular curve,
6 = 1718.9 = 1.7189 | min,
where / is the chord length. Although 50 m chords satisfy the requirements

of R/20, 20 m chord lengths would normally be adopted. This example is
illustrative and the use of 50 m chords ensures that the table of setting-out
data (Table 6.7) is not too long.
The final transition must be set out from tangent point B. The data can be
tabulated as follows in Table 6.8, 6 values being set off from BI anti-clockwise.
This problem can be solved by the following computer program. The output
data is in the form of a table and may need reformatting for computers with
a limited screen display. The polar distance from the tangent point to the point

Table 6.7

(m) (m)
1107.380 0.0 0.0
1150.000 ims Pasee Ais 16"
1200.000 1% 28° 56.7" 2° 39°12"
1250.000 1*%-28" 56.7" 4° 05’ 09”
1300.000 4% 25% 56.7" 5° 31° 06”
1350.000 1) 2a, 56.7° 6° 57’ 02”
1400.000 1° 25’ 56.7” 8° 22° 59”
1450.000 1 25.256.7" 9° 48’ 56”
1500.000 aes. 56.7” 11° 14°52"
1550.000 Ag ee POO. 12° 40’ 49”
1577.765 47’ 43.5” 13° 28’ 33”
Table 6.8

(m) (m)
1580.000 51’ 57”
1600.000 31’ 59”
1620.000 16’ 50”
1640.000 6’ 30”
1660.000 1* 00?
1672.862 0.0
in question is also output so that setting out can alternatively be carried out
with an EDM.
Variables
A Angle for DMS subroutine I Setting out chainage interval
Al Total angle of deflection of the Ll Length of the transition curve
curve, 0 L2 Length of the circular curve
A2 Deflection of the transition curve, L3 Running curve length on transition:
> chord length on circular curve
A3 Deflection of the circular curve, Setting out polar length
9-29, Input/output angle, minutes
A4 Setting out angle, 6 Radius of the circular curve
(6 Chainage of the intersection point Input/output angle, seconds
Cl Chainage of the first tangent point Shift
C2 Chainage of the second tangent Tangent length (IT)
point Design speed
GS Chainage of the third tangent point x<4nnwer
Offset of the transition from the
C4 Chainage of the final tangent point tangent
C5 Running chainage Offset at the tangent point
D Input/output angle, degrees see Offset of the transition along the
F Variable with value zero for output tangent
a Offset at the tangent point
CURVE RANGING 209

10 REM SET OUT A COMPOUND CURVE FROM THE TANGENT POINTS
20 INPUT "DESIGN SPEED KM/H gue. ay
307°Vis Vos
40 INPUT "DEFLECTION ANGLE DEG,MIN,SEC it, D, M, Ss
50 Al = ((D * 3600) + (M * 60) + S) / 206264.8
60 INPUT "RADIUS OF CIRCULAR CURVE M ", R
70 INPUT "CHAINAGE OF INTERSECTION POINT M", C
80 INPUT "SETTING OUT CHAINAGE INTERVAL M", I
90 Ll = % 3 (ash * R)
1.00, Si = le 2.7(24.* R)
110 T = (L1 / 2) + (R + S1) * TAN(Al 7 2)
120 K= Ll * R
130, Xie =) (id * 3/7. (60% K)) = (Ldet Peso (336 * K 4 3))
140 Yl = Ll - (L1 * 5 / (40 * K * K))
150 A2 = 3 * ATN(X1 / Y1)
160 A3 = Al - (A2 * 2)
170 L2 = R * A3
180 Cl=c-T
190 C2 = Cl + Li .
200ncs = C2 4 12
210) C4) = C3 + Li
220 PRINT "CHAINAGE", "POLAR D.", "SETTING OUT ANGLE"
230 PRINT Cl, F, F; F; F, “FIRST TANGENT POINT"
240 L3 = (INT(C1 / I) + 1) * I - Cl
250 C5 = Cl + L3
260 GOSUB 550
270 L3 = L3 + I
280 C5 = C5 + I
300 GOTO 260
310 A = INT((206264.8 * A2 / 3) + .5)
320 GOSUB 660
330 L4 = INT(SQR((X1 * X1) + (Y1 * Y1)) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
340 PRINT C2, L4, D; M; S, "SECOND TANGENT POINT"
350 L3 = C5 - C2
360 A4 = 0
370 GOSUB 600
380 L3 = I
390 C5 = C5 +1
410 GOTO 370
420 A4 = A4 + (I - C5 + C3) / (2 * R)
430 L4 = INT(2 * R * SIN(A4) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
440 A = INT(206264.8 * A4 + .5)
450 GOSUB 660
460 PRINT C3, L4, D; M; S, “THIRD TANGENT POINT"
470 L3°= Lie= (C5 --c3)
480 GOSUB 550
490 L3 = L3 - I
500 C5 = C5 + I
520 GOTO 480
530 PRINT C4, F, F; F; F, "FINAL TANGENT POINT"
Soe = (L373 7 (@ * Kj} = (L3 *°F7_7 (336 * K « 3))
560 Y = L3 - (L3 * 5 / (40 * K * R))
570 L4 = INT(SQR((X * X) + (¥Y * Y)) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
580 A4 = (ATN(X / Y))
590 GOTO 620
600 A4 = A4 + (L3 / (R * 2))
= INT(2 * R * SIN(A4) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
620 A = INT(206264.8 * A4 + .5)
630 GOSUB 660
640 PRINT C5, L4, D; M; S
650 RETURN
660 D = INT(A / 3600)
670 M = INT((A - (D * 3600)) / 60)
680 S = A - (D * 3600) - (M * 60)
690 RETURN

6.6 Compound curve A circular curve of radius 540 m leaves a straight at through-chainage
— setting out the 740.40 m and meets a second circular curve of radius 450 m at chainage
transition curve with 1192.95 m and terminates on a second straight at chainage 1365.90 m.
offsets from the The compound curve is to be replaced by one of 660 m radius with
tangent transition curves 120 m long at each end.
Calculate the chainages of the two new tangent points and the quarter-
point offsets for the transition curves. [London]
6 = 70° 02’ 16”
9,
Figure 6.14
Solution. Determine the existing tangent lengths. For the first circular curve
R, 6; = 1192.95 — 740.40 m
452.55 m
Since R; = 540m
6, = 0.838 055 6 rad
= 48° 01’ 01”
Therefore tangent length AA; = R, tan @);/2 = 240.52 m.
For the second circular curve
R> 6) = 1365.90 — 1192.95

172.95 m.
Since R, = 450 m
92 II 0.384 333 3 rad

male At 15".
Therefore tangent length CC, = R, tan @,/2 = 87.56 m.
Next determine the distance from the first tangent point to the intersection point.
The length of the common tangent A,C; at the junction point of the two
existing circular curves
ll240.52 + 87.56
II328.08 m.
Also 6 = 0, + 0 = 70° 02’ 16”.
By the sine rule
CURVE RANGING 211

TA, AC)
sin 6> sin 109° 57’ 44”
sim2Z2".01" 15%
Therefore IA; = 328.08
sin 109° 57’ 44”
130.87 m.
IA 130.87 m + 240.52 m
371,39.m
Next determine the chainages of the new tangent points. The chainage of the
existing tangent point A is 740.40 m.
Therefore chainage of I = 740.40 m + 371.39 m
1111.79 m.
L2
The shift of the transition curve
24R
1207
24 x 660
0.91 m.
|7oron48"
Therefore new tangent length = (660+0.91) tan + 120
523.10 m.
Therefore chainage of new tangent point = 1111.79 — 523.10
588.69 m.
Now ¢, =
Bog SP = 0.090 909 1 rad
2LR 2 x 120 x 660
mS oS deol.
Therefore the angle subtended by new circular curve at its centre is

70° 02’ 16” ae (2 x 05° 12’ a1”, 59° aye 14”
59.6206°.
Therefore length of new circular curve = 660 x ae x 59.6206
= 686.78 m.
Chainage of second tangent point Il 588.69 + 120.00 + 686.78
+ 120.00
1515.47 m.
Now calculate offsets to locate the quarter points on the transition curve.
The equation of the offsets to the transition curve is
13
~~ 6LR ‘
6.7 Locating a A curve, wholly transitional, is to be set out in a built-up area. At
transition curve from the preliminary survey and design stage it is found that the intersection
a traverse point I is inaccessible. A and B, E and F lie on the two straights and
they are linked with a traverse survey as shown on Fig. 6.15. The data
in Table 6.10 were obtained.
Table 6.10
Horizontal Horizontal
distance clockwise angle
(m)
196° 11’ 40”
189° 45’ 20”
204° 23’ 20”
193° 19’ 40”
Assuming the design value for the rate of change of radial acceleration
to be 1/3 m/s? for a velocity of 50 km/h determine the positions of the
tangent points.
Figure 6.15
CURVE RANGING 213

Solution. From the traverse survey, let the bearing of ABI be 00° 00’ 00”.
Angle ABC 196° 11’ 40”

196° 11’ 40”
Deduct 180° 00’ 00”
Bearing BC 16° 11’ 40”

Angle BCD 189° 45’ 20”
P48ee Mag AA
Deduct 180° 00’ 00”
Bearing CD 25° 57’ 00”

Angle CDE 204° 23’ 20”
230° 20’ 20”

Deduct 180° 00’ 00”
Bearing DE 50° 20’ 20”

DEF 193° 19’ 40”
243° 40’ 00”
Deduct 180° 00’ 00”
Bearing IEF 63° 40’ 00”

From this we obtain the values in Table 6.11. Thus in Fig. 6.16 El; =
94.21 m, BI, = 151.96 m and I,IE = 63° 40’ 00”.
Table 6.11
Line sal Lk Sci Easting Difference | Northing Difference

_T sin 0 | cos 6
50.34 | 16° 11’ 40” 14.04 48.34

op 69.27 | 25° 57’ 00” 30.31 62.29
DE 64.76 | 50° 20’ 20” 49.86 41.33
94.21 m 151.96 m
For the transition curves. The curve is to be wholly transitional and therefore,
by symmetry, for each of the two transition curves
os ae = 31° 50’ 00” = 0.555 596 5 radians.

° 40’ 00”
When the curve turns through an angle of this magnitude the first-order
equations used between ¢, and (63° 40’ 00”)/2 in previous examples are not
valid. In Fig. 6.17 we can write dx = dl sin ¢ and dy = dl cos ¢.
3 5 2 4
dx =-(¢-$-+4)a eer:
3! 5! !
Figure 6.17
]2 1° j}0 14 18
= (—— — ah 5} dl Os, fcTyee, sees oh enor,
2K 48K 3840K 8K 384K
Integrate
13 ]7 pl
=— — + —————
6K 336K? 42240K°
and
E i}?
= — + ————.,
40K2 3456K4
There are no constants of integration since ¢ = 0 when / = O. If L is the
length of each transition curve and the minimum radius at junction point T
is R, then
o, = 0.555 5965 =
50 ma
y3 3600
also LR. a me Sn dee
Therefore LR = 8037.55 = K.
Since Tae 1 LI 193k
R = 85.05 m
and L = 94.50 m.
CURVE RANGING 215

94.50°
Thus = 94.50 — :
3 40 x 8037.552
= 91.58 m
94.507 94.50’
and x7 = - ;
6 X 8037.55 336 X< 8037.55
= 17.11 m.
Tangent length T,I = T,I = yy + x7 tan 31° 50’ 00”
= 91.58 + 17.11 tan 31° 50’ 00”
= 102.20 m.
From Table 6.9 EI, = 94.21 m. y
94.21
From Fig. 6.16 EI = — = 105.12 m
sin 63° 40’ 00”
and II, = 105.12 cos 63° 40’ 00” = 46.63 m.
Therefore IB = 151.96 — 46.63 = 105.33 m
From this we can locate the tangent points since

BT, = 105.33 — 102.20 = 3.13 m
and ET, = 105.12 — 102.20 = 2.92 m.
6.8 Transition A circular curve of radius 950 m is to be connected to a further circular

between two circular curve of radius 550 m by a transition curve such that the rate of change
curves of radial acceleration-is 0.333 m/s? when the velocity is 100 km/h.
Determine the length of the transition curve and derive setting-out data
for that curve.
Common tangent
at S
Circular
curve
Transition curve
Circular
curve
Figure 6.18

Introduction. Figure 6.18 shows the transition curve ST connecting the two
circular curves. The tangent at S;, common to the circular curve of radius
R, and curve ST, is also shown making an angle of @ with the tangent to
transition curve ST produced back to its origin at P. This particular tangent
is needed for design purposes only and not for the actual setting out.
Curve ST can be set out either from the common tangent at S or by offsets
from the circular curve, radius R,, produced to U for final offset UT. Note
that effectively just part of a whole transition curve is being laid down.
Solution. First establish the length of transition curve ST and the angle
contained between the tangent at P and the common tangent at S. From the
properties of the cubic spiral we have
Ir = LR =K =1,R,
where L is the total length PT, and /, is the length PS, the radii there being
550 m and 950 m, respectively.
The rate of change of radial acceleration
V3
[0AN i Spear
K
Now100 km/h = 27.78 m/s,
AR Ee
thereh L _ Ley
ee yy O8p. AT 550
Therefore 1, = 67.70 m and L = 116.94 m.
Therefore ST = 116.94 — 67.70 = 49.24 m.
Also LR = K = 64 315.84.
l,? :
Therefore @ = —’— = 0.035 631 6 rad
ie 67.702 310 288.73

and x, = = =
6K 6 X 64 315.84 385 895.04
= 0.804 m.
Table 6.12
2474.00 0.0 0.0

2480.00 0.0388333 0.0032017 00% TT 00"
2490.00 0.0447500 0.0091184 00° 31’ 21”
0.0510769 0.0154453 00° 53’ 06”
2500.00
0.0579444 0.0223128 01° 16’ 42”
2510.00
0.0653261 0.0296945 01° 42’ 05”
2520.00
0.0678310 0.0321994 01° 50’ 42”
2523.24
CURVE RANGING 217

Now calculate the data for setting out from the common tangent at S. Inspection
of Fig. 6.18 will show that be
9 = ~—*! radian, in which PA = 1,

cont J
and the angle to be set off from the common tangent = 0 — 9. If the chainage
of S is 2474.00 m, say, we get the values in Table 6.12.
The data for setting out from the circular curve produced is derived as
follows. Offset A,A = offset from common tangent to transition curve minus
offset from common tangent to circular curve
(l—1,)?
= (@—¢)
(6—¢) (-l,) d-h) - ————
OR, .
ms x—Xx heres (i=).= l=L9?a

Pet
II, 2K 2R,
d-1 31,01—1,)"
= (x—-x,) - a id) since R, = =
2K 6K 61,
ae ie ee Se 31,(1—1,)”
6K 6K 6K 6K
. @-1)
6K
Whence we get the values in Table 6.13.
Table 6.13
Station Chainage
(m)
2474.00
2480.00
2490.00
2500.00
2510.00
2520.00
2523.24
6.9 Replacing a A circular curve of radius 1600 m connects two straights having a total
circular curve with a deflection angle of 65° 30’. It is to be shifted to allow a cubic spiral
compound curve transition curve of length 125 m to be inserted at each end, the total route
length remaining unchanged.
Calculate the distance between the new and the previous tangent points.

Give data:
(a) for setting out the transition curve using 20 m chords;

(b) for locating the centre point of the new curve from the intersection
point (I) of the straights whose chainage is 5264.50 m.
Existing
tangent
point
New
tangent
point
R = 1600m
Existing curve
Figure 6.19
Solution. First determine the existing curve parameters.
Curve length T,;T, = R,@ 1600 x —— x 65.50

180
1829.11 m.
° 0.”
IT, = R; tan Cag 1600 x 0.643 22

1029.15 m.
Centre of
Figure 6.20
CURVE RANGING 219

For the new curve, Fig. 6.20, from the properties of the cubic spiral transition
oy) = ——
: radian,
di
pets
where R is the radius of the new circular curve.
New curve length

re
ee a Saas OO 2
180 2R
L
=2L + (1.143 100%) — =)R.
L?2
Shitts: = ———,
24R
where L = 125.00 m. Therefore new tangent length
Ve
IT,’ = ze + (R+S) tan 32° 45’
5 ce
= — <2 |R + ——) tan 32° 45°.
2 24R
The total curve length T,’T,’ has to equal the length of the existing circular
curve plus 2T,’T}, since the total route length must remain unchanged. Thus
L
1829.11 + 2T,T,’ =2L + (1.143 1907 = ae
L £2
But “T|T,” = me + (x+ Smal tan 32° 45’ — 1029.15
125.007
and so 1829.11 + 125.00 + 2(R+ | X 0.643 221 6
— 2058.30 = 250.00 + (1.143 1907 — lk
Therefore R? — 1599.90R + 5846.53 = 0 and R = 1596.24 m.
La 125.007
Now shift S = = 0.41 m.
24R = 24 x -1596.24 m
Therefore (R+S) 1596.24 + 0.41 = 1596.65 m.
125.00
IT,’ = bate + 1596.65 tan 32° 45’

Table 6.14
Chainage
(m)
4180.00 0’ 04”
4200.00 1’ 47”
4220.00 5’ 49”
4240.00 12’ 08”
4260.00 20’ 45”
4280.00 31° 41”
4300.00 44’ 52”
1089.50 m.
Therefore T,T,’distance between the new and existing tangent points
1089.50 m — 1029.15 m
60.35 m.
Chainage of T,’ 5264.50 — 1089.50
= 4175.00 m.
(a) To set out transition curve T,’T,” deflection angle (6) can be calculated
for chord lengths (/) using the expression
1800/7,
= min
a RL
0.002 871 5 77 min in this case.
(b) Calculate data to locate X, the centre point of the curve (Fig. 6.20).
i (Karo ) = : + 4 0.41
1596.24 = 1898.43m
cos 32° 45’ cos 32° 45’
Therefore IX, = 1898.43 — 1596.65 = 301.78 m

and IX = 301.78 + 0.41 = 302.19 m.
Point X can be located from I by setting out an angle of 122° 45’ from T,’‘I
produced and measuring distance IX. Note that the centre point of the existing
curve is 0.22 m further away from I.
6.10 Compound A new road with a 100 km/h design speed has two straights joined
curve set out from by a curve consisting of two transitions and a 500 m radius circular curve.
control points The rate of change of radial acceleration on the transitions is limited
to 0.3 m/s?. The co-ordinates in Table 6.15 have been fixed.
CURVE RANGING 221

Table 6.15
Remote control station A 1392.906 802.285

Remote control station B 1554.951 833.074
Intersection point of straights 1553.203 770.889
Tangent point with first straight (T) 1298.179 719.840
Tangent point with second straight (U) 1778.662 641.230
Calculate the setting out angles at A and B,related to line AB, for
the mid-point of the curve. [Salford]
Introduction. Most major roads are now set out from control points using
either two theodolites and intersecting rays or, more usually, an EDM with
a bearing and distance as indicated in Example 6.1. The computer program
at the end of this problem allows suitable data to be calculated for the case
of a compound curve.
Solution. First calculate the details for the transition curve.
Design speed 100 km/h

100 x 1000
3600
27.778 m/s.
y3
g=-——,
LR
27.78?
sO Li=
0.3 x 500
142.890 m.
LE 142.89
$)
2R 2.x 500
II 0.142 89 radians = 8° 11’ 13”.
This value of ¢, is significantly large to warrant the inclusion of second-order

terms in the formula for the offsets to the transition curve.
L? by
Xx = ——, — -~—__. (see Fig. 6.21)
6LR —336(LR)
_ 142,80° - _142"89°
6 x 500 336 x 500°
= 6.796 m. :

7
Ve = | ae
40(LR)?
3
ee a
40 x 500?
= 142.598 m.
Calculate the co-ordinates of tangent point T,. For the transition curve at T,
6.7
6; = tan! eee
142.598
= 2° 43’ 43”.
and length TT, = V(6.7967 + 142.5987)
= 142.760.
From the co-ordinate data
1553°203' = 1298.179
WCB of TI = tan!
770.889 — 719.840
78° 40’ 50”.
WCB of TT, 78° 40’ 50” + 2° 43’ 43”
Bios ao. 5
E co-ordinate of T, 1298.179 + 142.760 sin 81° 24’ 33”
1439.338 m.
N co-ordinate of T, 719.840 + 142.760 cos 81° 24’ 33”
= 741.165 m.
Next find the deflection angle of the curve from the co-ordinate data.
meet 770.889 — 719.840
Deflection angle of curve
1553.203 — 1298.179
770.889 — 641.230
+ tan~!
1778.662 — 1553.203
II PLP 19S 10 Se 28 54 1G
= 41° 13’ 20”.
41° 13720"
Deflection angle of mid-point, M = 20° 36’ 40”.
2
Deflection angle of circular curve to M 9d ad | sh: Uae teeect IS I
weal IAN ee Wie Odi
le SR
WCB of T,M (Fig. 6.21) = 81° 24’ 33” + $,—6,+
2
= $1524 soa, ern il? 13” —2° 43’ 43" + 6° 12° 43”
i.e. WCB of T;|M = 93° 04’ 46”.
Length of T;|M = 2 R sin a
CURVE RANGING 223

81° 24’ 33”
12°25. 27
2
hoe 25' 277° Mid-point

ks eae of whole
he curve
L
Figure 6.21
Male 22) 27
= 29s A) Sit
= 108.209 m
Co-ordinates of M:
Easting = 1439.338 + 108.209 sin 93° 4’ 46”

= 1547.391 m;
Northing = 741.165 + 108.209 cos 93° 4’ 46”
Joon dae Wi
Now compute the setting-out data from the control points. In the triangle ABM:
AB = V[(1392.906 — 1554.951)* + (802.285 — 833.074)*]
164.944 m;
AM V[(1392.906 — 1547.391)* + (802.285 — 735.352)7]
168.362 m;
BM V[(1554.951 — 1547.391)? + (833.074 — 735.352)7]
98.015 m.
By cosine rule
AB? + AM2 — BM?
cos (
2 x AB x AM
)
164.9447 + 168.3627 — 98.0152
Il cos~! (
2 X 164.944 x 168.362
34° 11’ 02”
)
164.9442 + 98.0152 — 168.362
ost (
2 xX 164.944 x 98.015
74° 49’ 06”
The following computer program will calculate the setting-out data for a
compound curve located from two control stations. Co-ordinates of the control
stations, the intersection point of the straights and the tangent points with the
straights must be known. The data is output in a table and readers with

programmable calculators will need to reformat the output. On computers that
do not support the logic functions AND and OR lines 190 and 200 must be
replaced by:
190 IF X4 = X3 THEN 210

191 IF X4 > X3 THEN 200
192 IF Y4 > Y3 THEN A4 = P+A4
193 GOTO 210
200 IF Y4 < Y3 THEN A4 = 2+ P+A4
201 IF Y4 > Y3 THEN A4 = P+A4
A similar routine is required to replace lines 620 and 630.
Variables
Al Deflection of the whole curve, 0 L6, L7 Length from control points to
A2 Deflection of the transition curves, points being calculated
> L8 Length of a chord to the transition
A3 Deflection of the circular curve, curve
6—2¢, Output angle, minutes
A4 WCB of first tangent/final tangent qT
AS WCB of chord to transition curve QHve
‘S’ in the triangle formed by
A6 Setting-out angle for the circular control points 1 and 2 and the
curve point being calculated
A7 WCB of chord to the circular 2 Constant term in the expression for
curve the angle
A8 , A9 Component of Al Radius of the circular curve
GC Chainage of the intersection point Output angle, seconds
Cl Chainage of the first tangent point —HnDX offset of the transition from the
C2 Chainage of the second tangent tangent
point Y offset of the transition along the
Chainage of the third tangent point tangent
Chainage of the final tangent point Road design speed
C6 Chainage of the current Sin~' of the angle at the control
position point
Output angle, degrees Xx X co-ordinate of current point
+ counter X1 X co-ordinate of control point 1
Setting out chainage interval X2 X co-ordinate of control point 2
L1 * R for the transition X3 X co-ordinate of intersection point
Length of transition x4 X co-ordinate of tangent point with
Length of circular curve first straight
Running curve length X5 X co-ordinate of tangent point with
Length of a chord to the circular exit straight
curve ye Y co-ordinate of current point
L5 Distance between control points Y1—Y5 Y co-ordinate as above
10 REM SET OUT A COMPOUND CURVE FROM REMOTE CONTROL POINTS

20 H=1
30 P = 3.14159
40 INPUT "DESIGN SPEED KM/H "Vv
50 Viney 3 6G
60 INPUT "RADIUS OF CIRCULAR CURVE M ", R
70 INPUT "CHAINAGE OF INTERSECTION POINT M Wy eee:
80 ~NPUT "SETTING OUT CHAINAGE INTERVAL M eee
90 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF CONTROL POINT 1 ao KL a
100 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF CONTROL POINT 2 He aNDvD
CURVE RANGING 225

110 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF INTERSECTION POINT i Xa av
120 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF TANGENT TO FIRST STRAIGHT ", X4, Y4
130 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF TANGENT TO EXIT STRAIGHT ", X5, Y5
140 L5 = SQR((X1 - X2) * 2 + (Y¥1 - ¥2) * 2)
150 Ud =) Vee Sie ane R)
160 K = Ler
170 A2 = Gly/e(2 0" RB)
180 A4 = ATN((X3 - X4) / (¥3 - Y¥4))
190 IF X4 > X3 AND Y4 < Y3 THEN A4 = 2 * P + A4
200 IF (X4 > X3 AND Y4 > Y¥3) OR (X4 < X3 AND Y4 > Y3) THEN. A4 = P+ A4
210 A8 = ABS(ATN((Y3 - Y4) / (X3 - X4)))
220 A9 = ABS(ATN((Y¥3 - Y5) / (X3 - X5)))
230 Al = A8 + A9
240 AS = Aje- (Aa.* 2)
250 2 k* AS
260 Cl = ¢ = SOR((X3 - X4) * 2 + (Y3 = ¥4) * 2)
270 C2 Clet Ll
280 G30= G2 + £2
290 C4 =.c3 + Li =
300 C6 = INT(C1 * 1000 + .5) / 1000
310 ny ee)
320 PRINT "CHAINAGE CO-ORDINATES DEST. 2 ANG. 1 DI:
330 PRINT " FIRST TANGENT POINT"
340 GOSUB 840
350 ite} cope (Gedo YA mejy es Sl) Ce age eienl
360 C5 5Cl eas
370 Co.= INT (ES: * 2000) + 35) / 1000
380 GOSUB 800
390 ily oeeish. ce ae
400 CSe= CS
420 GOTO 370
430 ey = deel
440 C6 = INT(C2 * 1000 + .5) / 1000
450 PRINT " SECOND TANGENT POINT"
460 GOSUB 800
470 3 = ¢€5 — c2
480 Kou
490 VGu—ey
500 C6 = INT(C5 * 1000 + .5) / 1000
510 GOSUB 870
520 13) =Sb3) 405
530 Chu= (5 + 1
550 GOTO 500
560 Wey Se)
570 cé = INT(C3 * 1000 + .5) / 1000
580 PRINT " THIRD TANGENT POINT"
590 GOSUB 870
600 H = -1
610 A4 = ATN((X3 - X5) / (¥3 - Y5))
620 IF X5 > X3 AND Y5 < Y3 THEN A4 = 2 * P + A4
630 IF (X5 > X3 AND Y4 > Y3) OR (X5 < X3 AND Y5 > Y3) THEN A4 = P + A4
640 XAr= XS
650 Y4 = Y5
660 L3 = Ll - (C5 - C3)
670 cé = INT(C5 * 1000 + .5) / 1000
680 GOSUB 800
690 L3 = L3 - I
700 Con= e541
720 GOTO 670
730 L3t=) 0
740 C6 = INT(C4 * 1000 + .5) / 1000
730 PRINT " FINAL TANGENT POINT"
760 x = x4
770 Vanya
780 GOSUB 920
790 END
800 P= 1(L3 * 3/66. kak) aaCbsen Peefa(sae *) K* 3)
810 U=iL35 = (03% 507 (40) * Kee K)))
820 A5 = A4 + H * ATN(T / U)
830 L8 = SQR((T * T) + (U * U))
840 X = INT((X4 + L8 * SIN(A5)) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
850 Y = INT((Y4 + L8 * COS(A5)) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
860 GOTO 920
870 A6é = L3 / R “

880 A7 = A4 + A2 + (A6 / 2)
890 L4 2 * R * (SIN(A6 / 2))
900 X = INT((X6 + L4 * SIN(A7)) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
910 Y = INT((Y6 + L4 * COS(A7)) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
920 L 6 = INT(SQR((X1 - X) * 2 + (¥1 - ¥) * 2) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
930 L ia, INT(SOR((X2,- X) * 2 + (¥2 - Y) ~ 2) * 1000 + .5) / 1000
940 Q = (L5 + L6 + L7) / 2
950 Q1 = (Q - L5) / L5
960 PRINT C6; TAB(11); X; TAB(22); Y;
970 W = SQR((Q - L6) * Ql / L6é)
980 GOSUB 1040
990 PRINT TAB(33); L6; TAB(44); D; M; S;
1000 W = SQR((Q - L7) * Ql / L7)
1010 GOSUB 1040
1020 PRINT TAB(60); L7; TAB(71); D; M; S
1030 RETURN
1040 A = INT(206264.8 * 2 * ATN(W / SQR(1 - W * W)) + .5)
1050 D = INT(A / 3600)
1060 M = INT((A - (D * 3600)) / 60)
1070 S = A - (D * 3600) - (M * 60)
1080 RETURN
6.11 Compound A compound curve on an existing railway track is to be realigned to

curve — checking a give two 100 m long transition curves and a circular curve of radius
railway curve by the 900 m. A surveyor has measured versines from a 20 m chord and
‘versine’ method recorded the following data (in mm).
0, Otp, 10, 15, 18, 20, 23, 29, 37, 39, 46, 58tp, 62, 60, 61, 62, 62,
63tp, 59, 46, 36, 32, 21, 17, 15, 10, 6, tp, —1, 0,
where tp indicates a tangent point on the curve. Calculate the necessary
slew of the track using the moment method.
Introduction. In the UK there is very little new railway construction and

the main job of the permanent way engineer is to maintain the alignment of
the existing track. Since variations from the correct alignment are usually small
the rail can be used as a datum. The standard procedure is to select a chord
length appropriate to the design speed of the track, then set out regular intervals
of half a chord length. Two offset devices, ‘knives and forks’, are attached
to the track at the full chord points, and a wire is tensioned between them.
The offset from the wire to the track at the mid-point of the chord (the versine
of the chord) is measured. The wire is held 25 mm inwards from the correct
alignment to ensure that zero and negative readings can be detected, and
measurement is normally made with a Hallade rule that allows for this offset.
Once the measurement has been made the apparatus is moved down the track
by half a chord length and the measurement repeated (see Fig. 6.22).
Solution. The versine of the circular curve can be approximated by

Mad is 2
LOT epi Ra Lees 55.8 mm,
2R 2 x 900
where c is the chord length.
For the transition curve a similar expression can be used.
cl (x 20)7
= 0.000 56 /
2RL 2 x 900 x 100
CURVE RANGING 227

Amended curve
é chord
points
Versine at 4 amended
by half the slew at 5
Figure 6.22
where L is the transition length and / is the running transition length. Note
that the versine is a constant for the circular curve and for the cubic parabola
transition curve it increases at a uniform rate.
Calculate the versines for the new curve. It is standard railway practice to
ease the entry and exit from the transition by applying a versine at the tangent
to the straight equal to 1/6 of the increase and by reducing the value at the
tangent to the circular curve by the same amount.
Increase in versine for + chord = 0.000 56 x 10 = 5.6 mm.

toy
Thus first versine = — = 0.9 mm
6
Versine at 10 m = 5.6 + 0.9 = 6.5 mm
Versine at 20 m = 6:5 + 5.6 = 12.] mm
Versine at 90 m = 45.7 + 5.6 = 51.3 mm

Versine at 100 m = 55.8 — 0.9 = 54.9 mm.
To correct the data by the method of moments a tabular format is used where:
Difference Required — Actual versine;
L difference Sum of differences;
Moment Sum of 2 differences;
Slew —2 X moment (sign convention outwards +ve,
inwards —ve). !

Table 6.16
Measured Required Difference Y difference

versine versine
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
tS)
6
7
8
9
Note that from Fig. 6.22 a slew movement at point 5 amends the versine at
points 4 and 6 by half of the slew, and the method of moments carries this
correction cumulatively around the curve.
The 2 mm slew required for the exit straight would in practice be run out
evenly at the end of the transition and the start of the straight.
6.12 Sag vertical Two straights AB and BC falling to the right at 1 in 10 and 1 in 20,
curve respectively, are to be connected by a parabolic vertical curve 200 m
long. Given that the chainage and reduced level of B are 3627.00 m and
84.64 m, respectively, design the vertical curve.
What is the sighting distance for a car whose headlights are 0.70 m
above road level and the beams are inclined upwards at an angle of 1°?
CURVE RANGING 229

Solution. First determine the design parameters. A sag vertical curve, Fig.
6.23, is required to connect the two gradients. Conventionally, a falling gradient
is indicated by a Bpeaave sign and the gradient of 1 in 10 can be written in
Percents terms as ie % % = 10%; similarly, that of 1 in 20 can be written
as IN % = 5%.
ee point
A
A1
P =-10%
Figure 6.23
The general expression for the offsets (y) from a tangent to locate the curve is
(p—q) x’
400 1
where x is the distance from a tangent point; and / is the length of a tangent
(half the length of the curve). Therefore for this vertical curve
_ (1-9)
400 x 100
5,
ip
400 x 100’
when we ignore the negative sign. It is usual to take the curve length to be
equal to the total length of the tangents and, for gradients of this order, to
assume that they are equal to the horizontal lengths. When x = 100 m
PRD ie eee cee 1002 e125,

400 x 100
Next establish the curve levels. The chainage of B has been given as
3627.00 m and, accordingly, the chainage of tangent point A, will be 3627.00
— 100.00 = 3527.00 m. The reduced level of A, will be that of B plus 100
x tom, acknowledging that a length of 100 m is being covered at a gradient
of 1 in 10. eared we can say that a gradient of 1 in 10 is equivalent
to an angle of th
4 radian with the horizontal and this results in a change in
x
level of — m over the distance of 100 m.
The reduced level of A, is therefore 84.64 m + 10.00m = 94.64 m.

Similarly, the reduced level of C, will be
84.64 — 100x 1, = 79.64m. ,

Table 6.17
Chainage Grade level Offset Curve level

94.64—(x/10) | x/8000
(m) (m) (m) (m)
3527.00
3540.00
3560.00
3580.00
3600.00
3620.00
3627.00
3640.00
3660.00
3680.00
3700.00
3720.00
3727.00
The offsets can be evaluated from both tangents or from either tangent,
produced as necessary. The second alternative will be adopted in this example
and tabulated in Table 6.17 using running chainages at 20 m intervals. Offsets
must then be added to the corresponding grade (tangent) levels.
With the car at tangent point A,, the headlight beams will strike the road
surface at a point where the offset is (0.70 + x tan 1°), x being the distance
from A,. Thus
5
0.70 +.0.0175x = ————— x?
400 x 100
and x = sighting distance in this case
= 172.47 m.
6.13 Summit vertical Two straights PB and BQ are to be connected at a summit by a parabolic
curve vertical curve. P, reduced level 108.25 m, lies on the gradient rising
to the right at 1 in 60 at chainage 1862.00. Q, reduced level 106.85 m,
lies on the gradient falling to the right at 1 in 50 at chainage 2174.00.
The vertical curve must pass through R, reduced level 109.68 m and
chainage 1986.00.
Design the curve and determine the sighting distance between two
points 1.05 m above road level.
Solution. First determine the length of the curve. Let horizontal distance
PB = x, in Fig. 6.24.
Then level of B = level of P + >
CURVE RANGING 231

Figure 6.24
(2174— 1862 —x))

= level of Q +
Q 50
312—
Therefore 1082504 - 26s 4
and x; = 132.00 m.
Chainage of B is 1862.00 + 132.00 = 1994.00 m. R lies at chainage 1986.00

and is thus 8.00 m from B and 124.00 m from P.
124.00
Grade level at this chainage = + 108.25
=l10. 32m:
Curve level at R = 109.68 m.
Therefore offset at R = 0.64 m.
If the tangent length is /

+
Sidney if ay.
4001
in which p = 42% and q = “4%.
Therefore / = 84.72 m, say 85 m for design purposes, and so the chainage
of T is 1994.00 — 85.0 = 1909.00 m.
Table 6.18
(m)
1909.00
1920.00
1940.00
1960.00
1980.00
1994.00
2000.00
2020.00
2040.00
2060.00
2079.00

The design data can be tabulated as in Table 6.18. All the values are based
on horizontal distances and vertical offsets.
The level of a point on the curve above T is given by the expression
Pre ew?!
100 4001
’
where x is the horizontal distance from T. By differentiating we can determine

the position of the highest point on the curve.
ae nie a
100 4001
ae 2p |
max (p+q)
2 X 10/6 x 85
= = 77.27 m.
10/6 + 2
At this point the grade level is 110.32 m AOD
(10/6 + 2)
and the offset = x (77.27)? = 0.64 m.
400 x 85
Therefore the highest point has a reduced level of 109.68 m.
Finally calculate the sight distance.
The offset AB at B = 0.78 m
= ING?
The sight line can be taken as the tangent to the vertical curve at A (Fig.
pl ql
100 100
6.24). It is parallel to TU whose slope is rad.
21
The angle contained between the tangent TB and chord TU at T is
P gep P ad) ) GeRt4 radian,

100 200
|
Toe AB ee es Ria ee
+
200
s; = 14.73 m.
Therefore total sight distance = 2 (85.00 + 14.73)
= 200 m, say.
Note, as mentioned previously, curve lengths can be established in practice
using an expression of the type:
L = 21 = K (p+q) = KG,
in which K depends upon the value of centrifugal acceleration chosen for a
CURVE RANGING 233

particular design velocity and G is the ae change in gradient. In this
particular example we have :
i = 85m
LE = 170m
60 50
Therefore K = 46.4.
Problems .
1 A circular curve of radius 600 m is to connect two straights having

a deviation angle of 11° 58’. The chainage of the intersection point is
2573.250. Tabulate the data needed to set out the curve by theodolite
and chain using 20 m chords.
Explain carefully why 20 m chords are appropriate for setting out the
curve. [Bradford]
Answer Curve length 125.315 m; Tangent length 62.886 m
2 (a) Describe a method for setting out a circular curve of small radius,
such as a minor road kerb line or a boundary wall, using only a chain
and tape. You should derive any necessary formulae from first principles.
(b) Tabulate the data required to set out, by chain and 20” theodolite,
a circular curve of radius 500 m to connect two straights having an
intersection angle 15° 20’ 00”. You may assume that the chainage of
the intersection point is 2100.00 m and that the curve is to be defined
in 20 m intervals. [Salford]
Answer Chainages of tangent points 2032.69 m, 2166.50 m
3 Two straights AB and BC which have whole circle bearings of 45°

and 7°, respectively, are to be connected by a circular curve passing
through a point, 29 m from B, which lies on the bisector of angle ABC.
Calculate the length of that curve.
If the chainage of the intersection point B is 4715 m determine (i) the
chainages of the tangent points on AB and BC, and (ii) the deflection
angles required to set out the first two points on the curve at through
chainages of 20 m, using a theodolite reading to 20 seconds set up at
the tangent point on AB.
Also find the length and bearing of a third straight which is tangential
to the curve at chainage 4680 m. [CE]]
Answer (i) 4541.70 m, 4875.50 m; (ii) 358° 57’ 20” , 357° 49’ 20”.
Length 168.58 m; 29° 15’ 17”
4 Straights UV and VW are to be connected by a circular curve. As

V is inaccessible a point X was chosen on UV between U and V and
a point Y on VW between V and W. The distance XY was 97.62 m.

The following angles were measured: UXY = 164° 48’, XYW = 129°
12’. If X is used as a tangent point calculate the radius of the curve.
Calculate the distance from Y to the tangent point on that straight.
[Bradford]
Answer Radius = 127.52 m; 54.79 m
5 Two straight sections of road intersect at chainage 2539.10 m. The

straights are to be joined by a curve consisting of two transitions and
a circular curve radius 500 m. If the transition curves are 56.32 m long
and the tangent to the first curve is at 2417.20 m, what is the deflection
angle of the whole curve and the chainage of the tangent point of the
circular curve and second transition? [Salford]
Answer 21° 13’ 34”; 2602.43 m
6 (a) Name the purposes which a transition curve serves in road design
and discuss briefly the factors which influence the length selected for it.
Establish the formula
“ie /gR (tan at+p)

1—p tana
for the speed limit on a road curve, defining the terms on the right-hand
side of the equation.
(b) One of the four loops of a ‘cloverleaf’ at the junction of two roads
at different levels is to have a centre line formed by two symmetrical
clothoids (intrinsic equaton ¢ = /7/2RL). The springing points of these
clothoids have the same plan position and the horizontal angle between
the approach and exit tangents is 110°. The maximum superelevation
on the carriageway of the loop is specified as 1 in 10. The design speed
is 40 km/h and the maximum coefficient of lateral friction is taken to
be’ OFS.
Calculate the total length in horizontal projection between the springing
points along the centre line. Aide mémoire: g = 9.81 m/s*
[London]
Answer 501.90 m
7 A wholly transitional curve with a constant rate of change of radial

acceleration is to be inserted to connect two straight sections of highway
AI and IB which intersect at I. The intersection point I is inaccessible
and two points X and Y are established on AI and IB, respectively.
The co-ordinates of X and Y are 1693.41 m E, 1888.47 m N and
1904.07 mE, 1973.25 mN, respectively. The angle AXY is measured
as 163° 15’ 20” and XYB as 151° 12’ 00”. If the design speed of the
road is 100 km/h and the minimum radius is to be 400 m, calculate:
(i) the total length of the curve;

(ii) the rate of change of radial acceleration; and
(iii) the co-ordinates of the two tangent points.
[Leeds]
CURVE RANGING 235

Answer (i) 635.92 m; (ii) 0.17 m/s; (iii) 1555.08 mE, 1777.78 mN;
2141.12 mE, 1944.66 mN =
8 The co-ordinates of two survey stations relative to a station A are
B E 500.00 N 550.00
CE 1300.00 N 700.00
Calculate the radius of the circular curve passing through the three stations
and the co-ordinates of the centre of curvature.
Describe briefly how such a circular curve could be set out below
ground. [CEI]
Answer 1223.67 m; 1112.67 mE, 509.25 mS
9 Two underground drivages AO and BO, on bearings of 117° 32’

30” and 57° 06’ 00”, respectively, are to be connected by a curve of
radius 350 m by means of nine equal chords. Compute
(i) the common chord length,
(ii) the bearing of each chord, and
(iii) the tangent length.
If the co-ordinates of A are 56.9 mW, 1120.2 mN and the distance AO =
2230.5 m, compute the co-ordinates of the centre of the curve.
[CET]
Answer (i) 81.0 m; (ii) 5th chord 177° 19’ 15”; (ii) 600.9 m;
1226.2 mE, 56.4 mN
10 A transition curve is required to join a straight to a circular curve

of radius 450 m such that the maximum rate of change of radial
acceleration = 0.3 m/s*. The deflection angle of the curve at chainage
3634 m is 6’ 20” and at 3664 m is 50’ 45”. What is the design speed
of the curve in km/h?
Answer 69.6 km/h
11 Two straights AI and IB have bearings of 37° 15’ 00” and 48°
19’ 40”, respectively, and are to be connected by means of a wholly
transitional curve with a rate of change of radial acceleration of
0.3 m/s*. If the design speed of the road is 100 km/h and the co-
ordinates of point I are 2664,83 m E, 2742.88 m N calculate
(a) the minimum radius of the curve

(b) the total length of the curve and
(c) the co-ordinates of the two tangent points. [Leeds]
Answer (a) 332.96 m; (b) 128.75 m; (c) 2625.78 mE, 2691.53 mN;
2713.02 mE, 2785.77 mN
12 Two tangents intersecting at an angle of 35° at chainage 1450.361

are to be connected by means of a circular curve with a radius of 1000 m
i

having similar transitions at each end. The transitions are to be cubic
parabolas designed for a speed of 100 km/h and a rate of gain of radial
acceleration of 0.25 m/s’.
Calculate the chainage at the beginning of the first transition and the
tangential angles for the first three points on the curve using 20 m
increments. [Bradford]
Answer 1092.098 m; 02’ 40”; 10’ 42”; 24’ 03”
13 A curve connecting two straights which deflect through an angle

of 8° is transitional throughout, and the junction of the two parts is 6.00 m
from the intersecting point of the straights. Determine, from first
principles, the total length of the curve, the tangent length and the rate
of change of radial acceleration at a velocity of 110 km/h. [Salford]
Answer 514.58 m; 257.58 m; 0.6 m/s°
14 A vertical parabolic summit curve is to be inserted to connect an
upwards gradient of 2.4% to a downwards gradient of 1.0%. The height
of the tangent point on the 2.4% gradient is to be 212.840 m above datum,
and because of site restrictions, it is necessary that the height of the curve
should be 215.070 m at a point 126.4 m from this tangent point. The
k-value for the curve is 50 and it is to have equal tangent distances.
Calculate:
(i) the length of the curve,
(ii) the height of the highest point on the curve and its distance from
the tangent point on the 2.4% gradient,
(iii) the heights of points on the curve at 50 m intervals measured from
the tangent point on the 2.4% gradient.
Show that the curve satisfies the required design standard.
[Leeds]
Answer (i) 337.82 m; (ii) 215.701 m
15 Ona new road with an 80 km/h design speed, a summit joining

an up grade of 1:50 to a down grade of 1:60 takes place on a horizontal
curve consisting of two transitions and a 500 m radius circular curve.
The road has been arranged so that the tangent points A and B between
the transitions and the straights are also the tangent points for the vertical
curve. Tangent point A, at chainage 2356 m, lies on the 1:50 gradient
and is at level 300.62 m. A sight distance between two points 1.05 m
above the road surface is to be 300 m and the rate of change of radial
acceleration on the transition is limited to 0.3 m/s°.
(a) You have a theodolite set up on the tangent point between the first
transition and the circular curve, on the 1:50 side of the summit. Calculate
the data needed to reference the theodolite from tangent point A and then
set out the horizontal position of the highest point on the curve. Pegs
have already been placed at through 20 m chainage intervals.
CURVE RANGING 237

(b) What is the road level at the tangent point between the circular
curve and the transition at end B?
(Assume constant gradients.) [Salford]
Answer (a) 2570.29 m; (b) 302.25 m
16 A, B, C and D are four points marked on the centre-line of an

existing straight road. From A to B and from C to D there are uniform
rising gradients of 1 in 10 and 1 in 50, respectively. These gradients
are connected smoothly by a vertical parabolic curve which extends from
B to C. The through chainage of B, C and D measured from A are
240.0 m, 320.0 m, and 400.0 m respectively.
Visibility is to be improved over this length of road by connecting
the existing gradients with a new parabolic curve 160.0 m long.
Compute the differences in level between the existing and new road
surfaces at 20.0 m intervals of through chainage.
What will be the range of visibility on the new curve for a driver whose
eyes are 1.25 m above the road surface? [CEI]
Answer Sight distance 141.42 m
17 A vertical summit curve is to be inserted to connect an upwards

gradient of 2.5% to a downwards gradient of 2.0%. The height of the
tangent point on the 2.5% gradient is to be 166.24 m above datum and,
because of site restrictions, it is necessary that the height of a point 64.4 m
along the curve, measured from the tangent point on the 2.5% gradient,
must be 167.55 m above datum. Calculate
(i) the total length of the curve,
(ii) the position and height of the highest point on the curve, and
(iii) the height of the tangent point on the 2% gradient.
If the k value for the road is 50, show that the curve complies with
the requirements in so far as sight distance is concerned. [Leeds]
Answer (i) 311.05 m; (ii) 172.80 m, 168.40 m; (iii) 167.02 m
18 An up gradient of 2% is to be joined to a down gradient of 1:75

by a vertical curve. A sight distance of 200 m at 1.05 m above ground
level is required. If the highest point on the curve is at chainage
2532.00 m and level 100.23 m, what is the chainage and level of the
two tangent points? [Salford]
Answer 2443.20 m; 2591.20 m; 99.34 m; 99.83 m
19 A vertical parabolic sag curve is to be designed to connect a down-

gradient of 1 in 20 with an up-gradient of 1 in 15, the chainage and
reduced level of the intersection point of the two gradients being
2659.00 m and 278.48 m respectively.
In order to allow for necessary headroom, the reduced level of the
curve at chainage 2649.00 m on the down-gradient side of the intersection
point is to be 280.00 m.
1

Calculate:
(a) the reduced levels and chainages of the tangent points and the lowest
point on the curve,
(b) the reduced levels of the first two pegs on the curve, the pegs being
set at the 20 m points of the through chainage. [ICE]
Answer (a) 2605.92 m, 281.13 m; 2651.39 m, 264.90 m; (b)
280.54 m, 280.07 m
20 Derive an expression for the versine of a chord on:

(a) a circular curve
(b) a transition curve.
21 The gradient of a straight length of rail track sloping at —1 in 150

is to be changed to a gradient of +1 in 100, the intervening curve being
400 m in length. Assuming the curve to start at a point A on the negative
gradient, calculate the reduced levels of pegs at 50 m intervals which
you would set out in order to construct the curve, assuming the reduced
level of A to be 100 m AOD. [CE]]
Answer 99.719; 99.541; 99.469; 99.500; 99.635; 99.875; 100.219;
100.667
22 The bearings of two straights AI and IB are 15° 26’ 12” and 36°
19’ 20” respectively. The co-ordinates of the intersection point I are
2440.43 mE, 2336.94 mN. The two straights are to be connected by
a wholly transitional curve with a rate of change of radial acceleration
of 0.15 m/s?. If the design speed of the road is 120 km/h, calculate the
minimum radius of the curve, the co-ordinates of the two tangent points
and the co-ordinates of the point on the curve 100 m from the tangent
point on AI. [Leeds]
Answer R = 823.021 m; co-ordinates of T, 2359.95 mE,
2045.48 mN; co-ordinates of T, 2619.53 mE, 2580.55 mN
23 Two straights on a road with a 40 km/h design speed intersect at

point I. Point A on the first straight is to be joined to point B on the
second straight by a 100 m radius circular curve and two transition
curves. The rate of change of radial accleration on the transitions is
limited to 0.3 m/s*. Two control stations X and Y are located off the +
line of the road. The following co-ordinates are known:
X FS78i2Z29 49281503
VO105 2275" 937212
I 1118.313 915.746
A 1061.579 892.347
B 1176.206 895.387
The intersection point I is at chainage 1827.921 m.
Calculate the co-ordinates of the tangent points on the curve and the
intermediate points at a through chainage interval of 25 m.
CURVE RANGING 239

You are in charge of the setting out of the curve and have two
theodolites. Calculate the data needed to set out the curve from X and Y.
Answer T, 1104.949, 906.495, 8° 25’ 31”, 147° 20’ 14”;
T, 1132.082, 907.214, 7° 40’ 29”, 156° 45’ 11”
24 A reverse circular curve is required to link two parallel straight pipe-

lines 500 m apart. ;
The curve is to be formed from two circular arcs with a common
tangent point, and a common radius of 1000 m. Calculate the following:
(a) the deviation angle
(b) the tangent lengths
(c) the total arc length of the double curve
(d) the tangential angle for setting out a 20 m chord.
[Salford]
Answer (a) 41° 24’ 34.6”; (b) 377.96 m; (c) 1445.50 m; (d) 34’ 23”
25 Two straights XB and BY are to be connected at a summit by a

parabolic vertical curve. The reduced level at B is 68.18 m above mean
sea level, and its chainage is 1078 m.
The gradient of XB and BY are +3% and —2%, respectively. If the
vehicular design speed is 80 km/hour and the allowable vertical radial
acceleration is 0.2 m/s” find
(a) the length of vertical curve required,
(b) the chainage and reduced levels of the tangent points A and C to
the vertical curve,
(c) the chainage and reduced level of the highest point of the curve,
(d) the sight distance provided for a driver whose eye level is 1.05 m
above the road surface:
If a level is set up at A and the staff is held with its base on the road
surface at chainage 1130 m find the minimum height of the the telescope
above the road surface which will enable the taking of a reading on the
staff. What is the reading? [Salford]
Answer (a) 123.457 m; (b) A, 1016.272 m, 66.328 m, C, 1139.728 m,
66.945 m; (c) 1090.346 m, 67.439 m; (d) 144.017 m. Instrument height
1.111 m, Reading 319 mm
26 On a proposed road alignment, AT, and TB are straights that

intersect at I, C,C, is a circular curve and T,C, and T,C, transition
curves of length L. Using the co-ordinates contained in Table 6.19, a
maximum acceptable rate of change of radial acceleration of 0.75 m s°,
Table 6.19
Point Easting Northing
A 278 634.213 4 283 262.304

I 278 739.213 4 283 444.169
B 278 984.959 4 283 616.242

a design speed of 90 km h and a minimum radius of curvature R =
300 m, compute
(i) a suitable value of L and
(ii) the length of the circular arc C,C) [London]
Answer 69.44 m; 61.45 m
27 Points A and B lie on straight 1 and points C and D lie on straight

2. What are the co-ordinates of a point at chainage 1200 m on a 100 m
radius circular curve joining the straights if the chainage of point A is
723.127 m?
Table 6.20
Point mE mN
1031172 610.129
924.031 809.142
956.138 1025.836
1129.776 1221.781
Answer 884.826 mE, 911.486 mN
CURVE RANGING 241

T a
Setting out and point location
Setting out The procedure adopted to ensure that a specific design feature, i.e. a building,
a road, a pipeline, etc., is correctly positioned at the construction stage is known
as setting out. Control is provided by stations whose positions were fixed during
the original survey or by subsidiary stations located by ‘intersection’, or by
‘resection’ from such stations. Setting out is thus the reverse of detail surveying
in that the control stations are used to place points on the ground in their relative
positions. If the setting out is referred to a control system based on National
Grid co-ordinates the local scale factor should be considered.
Control points If two control points A and B are known, a third point can be located in a
number of ways (see Fig. 7.1).
B B B B
f)
ee C 0
Cc Cc
A A A A
(a) (6) (c) (d)
Figure 7.1
(a) Set off angle 6 and distance AC.

(b) Set out distance AP and then perpendicular distance PC.
(c) Set off angles 6; and 4).
(d) Set out distances AC and BC.
Intersection Figure 7.1(c) shows the method of intersection by which C can either be co-
ordinated by observing 6, and 6, or be located if its co-ordinates are known,
since 6, and 6, can be calculated.
Resection By the method of resection a station or point can be located after pointings
have been made on at least three known stations. This technique is very useful
7

when setting out because it allows the instrument to be sited close to the
proposed works and its co-ordinates to be obtained from two angle observations.
The alternative task of trilateration, where distances are measured to the control
points, is discussed in Example 8.13.
Tunnelling — the Generally, plumb wires are used to transfer directions underground. Essentially,
transfer of alignment the plumb wires produce a vertical reference plane and on the surface the plane
below ground can be placed in the line of sight of a correctly oriented theodolite; below
ground, the line of sight can be directed into that plane. This is known as ‘co-
planing’ and the line of sight when established can be used to set up floor or
roof stations within the tunnel.
Weisbach triangle In an alternative approach the theodolite is positioned out of the vertical plane
so that, in plan, each wire and the vertical axis of the theodolite form a triangle
— the Weisbach triangle. The small angle subtended at the theodolite is
measured and its value is included with other measurements to determine either
the orientation of the vertical plane at ground level or the fixing of reference
points below ground. Instrument positions can be changed (also when co-
planing) to improve accuracy, and in deep shafts more than one pair of plumb
wires can be put down.
7.1 Setting out by The four corners A, B, C, D of a rectangular building are to be set out
bearing and distance from control station P by a total station instrument. Using the co-ordinates
in Table 7.1, what whole circle bearing and distance is required to
establish each of the corners?
Table 7.1
102.731
67.376
17.879
53.234
Introducton. Setting out by bearing and distance, or by polar rays as it is

often referred to, is a common task using modern equipment. When working
with computers and electronic calculators care must be taken to ensure that
the values obtained for the angle are the WCB and not angles reduced to the
north—south axis as indicated below. If the WCB is always calculated by sub-
tracting the northing and easting values of the point where the line starts from
SETTING OUT AND POINT LOCATION 243

the point being aimed at, then positive and negative signs of the angle obtained
will be correct. aa.
Solution. Consider each of the corners in turn
For A,
WOBpr=xtan.- (fa)
Na-N,p
- (102,731=95.150
= tan ——
81.707
—70.192
a (=e ) “i
= tan
11.515
= 32° 25’ 43”
PA. = V((E,—E,)” + (Na-N,)”)
= V(7.601? + 11.515’)
= 13.797 m
For B,
E,—E
WCBpz = tan7! (2-2)
Ng—N,
Se h(i SR
117.062 — 70.192
et (<2)
= tan ——
46.870
= —30° 37’ 54” (on a calculator)
This is not the WCB of the angle because a WCB cannot be negative. A
calculator presents angles from trigonometric functions relative to the north—
south axis with positive and negative values dependent upon the quadrant
containing the angle. For the case of tangent values the first and third quadrants
are positive and second and fourth quadrants negative. In this case the northing
of B is greater than the northing of P so B is in the second quadrant relative to P.
B
>N
A
, —30° 37’ 54”
D
i
Figure 7.2
From Fig. 7.2,
WCBp3 = 360°—30° 37’ 54”
= 329° 22’ 06”
PB = V((—27.754)? + 46.8702)
= 54.471 m
For C,
WCBpo = tan7! (42-82 95.150 )

67.565 —70.192
hh (=725!)
—2.627
88° 03’ 08” (on a calculator)
This is not the WCB of PC because both the easting and northing of C are
less than those of P as indicated by the negative signs on the top and bottom
of the calculation for tan~' (compare this to the two positive signs obtained
for corner A). The angle is thus positive but in the third quadrant.
B
D Figure 7.3
From Fig. 7.3,
WCBpc = 180 + 88° 03’ 08”

='268° 3" 8"
PC = V((—77.251) + (=25627)")
= 77.296 m
For D,
En—E
WCBpp PD = tan! (Fo)
Np—N,
es (B26a 0)
32.210 —70.192
abe (cis)
— 37.982
47° 48’ 18” (on a calculator)

This is also in the third quadrant.
WCBpp = 180° + 47° 48’ 18”
= 277° 48’ 18”
PD = V(—41.896)" + (—37.982)*)
= 56.550 m
Had one of the corners been in the fourth quadrant the angle value obtained
from tan~' would have been negative and the WCB would be given by 180°
— angle.
The following computer program will calculate setting out data from co-
ordinate information.
x
Variables
A WCB in radians E2, N2 Co-ordinates of the point
A$ Control variable L Output length
D Output angle, degrees m Output angle, minutes
El, Nl Co-ordinates of the control p T
station S Output angle, seconds
10 REM BEARING AND DISTANCE

20 P = 3.14159
30 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF THE INSTRUMENT STATION ", El, Nl
40 INPUT "CO-ORDINATES OF THE POINT ", E2, N2
50 L = INT((SQR((E2 - El) * 2 + (N2 - N1) * 2)) * 1000) / 1000
60 A = ATN((E2 - El) / (N2 - N1l))
70 IF E2 > El THEN GOTO 90
80 IF N2 > Nl THEN A =A +2 * P
90 IF Nl > N2 THEN A = A + P
95 A =A * 57.29578
100 D = INT(A)
110 M = INT((A - D) * 60)
120 S = INT(((((A - D) * 60) - M) * 60) + .5)
130 PRINT "WCB = "; D; M; S, "DISTANCE =", L; "m"
140 PRINT
150 INPUT "IS THIS THE LAST POINT 2? Y ORN", A$
160 IF A$ = "N" THEN GOTO 40
170 END
7.2 Intersection A new control station C is to be located from two stations A and B,
the horizontal clockwise angles recorded being BAC = 49° 27’ 18”
and ABC = 322° 45’ 24”. Determine the co-ordinates of C given that
those of A and B are:
A 950.00 mE 1200.00 mN
B 983.50 mE 1340.00 mN
Introduction. Derive the standard expression. The co-ordinates of C can be

derived readily by trigonometry as shown below. However, if many points
are to be fixed it is useful to have recourse to general formulae.
Solution. In Fig. 7.4 let the co-ordinates of C be Ec and No, etc.
Nc = Np — CD sin 0
AD (FE, —Ea)
teers
Ne me (Ne
Ne ea) 0|A DD) ee, on

Figure 7.4
But AB AD + DB = CD cot ¢, + CD cot ¢).

Na cot o2+Nz cot ?| —(Eg— Ea)
Therefore Ne ee ot g )
1 2
Ex, cot ¢.+Eg cot ¢;+(Ng—Na)

also Ec
cot ¢,;+cot ¢>
Next determine the co-ordinates using the above expressions. From the data,
go, = 49° 27’ 18”
$2 = 360° —322° 45’ 24”
= 37° 14’ 36”
Ep—-E, = 983.50— 950.00 = 33.50 m
Ng—Na = 1340.00—1200.00 = 140.00 m.
Whence Nc =
1200.00 cot 37°14’ 36” + 1340.00 cot 49°27’ 18” —33.50
cot 37°14’ 36” +cot 49°27’ 18”
1239.74 m,
950.00 cot 37°14’ 36” +983.50 cot 49°27’ 18” + 140.00
and Ec =
cot 37°14’ 36” +cot 49°27’ 18”
1027.69 m.
Alternatively, the problem can be solved by trigonometry.
_,; 983.50—950.00
Bearing AB = ——— eke ad 25"
1340.00— 1200.00
Bearing AC = 13° 27’ 25” +49° 27’ 18” = 62° 54’ 43”
AB = V(33.507+ 140.007) = 143.952 m.
AB be AC
sin (180°—37° 14’ 36” —49° 27’ 18”) sin 37° 14’ 36”.
Therefore AC = 87.264 m.
Ec—E, = AC sin 62° 54’ 43” = 77.693 m
Nco—Na = AC cos 62° 54’ 43” = 39.737 m.
Hence Ec = 950.00+77.693 = 1027.69 m
Nc = 1200.00+39.737 = 1239.74 m.

The following computer program will solve this problem:
“
Variables
Al Angle from station A E1, N1 Co-ordinates of station A
A2 Angle from station B E2, N2 Co-ordinates of station B
Cl, C2 Cot of Al, Cot of A2 E3, N3 Co-ordinates
of the point
D Input angle, degrees M Input angle, minutes
S Input angle, seconds
10 REM INTERSECTION
20 INPUT"INPUT OBSERVATION ANGLE FROM STATION A IN DEG,MIN,SEC ",D,M,S
30 Al=((D*3600)+(M*60) +S) /206264.8
40 INPUT"INPUT OBSERVATION ANGLE FROM:STATION B IN DEG,MIN,SEC ",D,M,S
50 A2=((D*3600)+(M*60) +S) /206264.8
60 INPUT"INPUT CO-ORDINATES OF A ",E1,N1 -
70 INPUT"INPUT CO-ORDINATES OF B ",E2,N2
80 C1=ABS (1/TAN(A1) )
90 C2=ABS(1/TAN(A2) )
100 E3=INT((((E1*C2)+(E2*C1)+N2-N1) /(C1+C2) ) *100+0.5)/100
110 N3=INT((((N1*C2)+(N2*C1) +E1-E2) /(C1+C2) ) *100+0.5) /100
120 PRINT"COORDINATES ARE ",E3,N3
130 END
7.3 Setting out by The co-ordinates of two survey stations F and G are:
intersecting rays
Station F 3812.07 mE 1631.32 mN
Station G. 3669.35 mE 1746.89 mN
It is required to establish a subsidiary station H having co-ordinates

3700.00 mE, 1675.00 mN. Determine the angles to be set out at F and
G to locate H, together with distances FH and GH for checking purposes.
Introduction. In the previous example an existing point was co-ordinated

using the method of intersection. This example illustrates the reverse process
in that a point has to be positioned on the ground, the setting out information
being derived from its known co-ordinates. In the first instance the required
angles at F and G will be evaluated directly from the given co-ordinates,
together with the distances FG and GH. In addition reference will be made
to the formulae used in the previous example to give a supplementary solution.
Solution. First calculate bearings of FG, FH and GH (Fig. 7.5).
Figure 7.5:

Table 7.2
Line FG Easting Northing

(m) (m)
Station F 3812.07 1631.32

Station G 3669.35 1746.89
From F to G
Easting difference = — 142.72 m

Northing difference = +115.57 m
— 142.72
tan 6 = ———— = —1.234 922 6.
115.57
Therefore bearing of FG = 308° 59’ 58”.
Table 7.3
Line FH Easting Northing

(m) (m)
Station F 3812.07 1631.32
Station H 3700.00 1675.00
From F to H
Easting difference = —112.07 m
Northing difference = +43.68 m
— 112.07
Therefore bearing of FH = tan! Gacane 2OVGtr 31.
Table 7.4
Line GH Easting Northing

(m) (m)
Station G 3669.35 1746.89

Station H 3700.00 1675.00

From G to H
Easting difference = +30.65 m

Northing difference = —71.89 m
30.65
Therefore bearing of GH tan~* + '="156"54" 33”:
+ 71.89 2
Next determine the angles to be set out at F and G. At F
Bearing of FG = 308° 59’ 58”
Bearing of FH = 291° 17’ 37”
Angle HFG = 17° 42’ 21”

The angle will be set out with respect to line FG and so the clockwise angle
GFH = 360°—17° 42’ 21” = @,
oa le SO”
A+G
Bearing of GH = 156° 54’ 33”
Bearing of GF = 128° 59’ 58”
Angle FGH = 27° 54’ 35” = @).

As an alternative to calculating and then setting off the clockwise angles at
F and G the calculated bearings can be used directly. For instance, at G the
horizontal circle can be set at 128° 59’ 58” when pointing on F, then when
the circle reading is 156° 54’ 33” the line of sight of the theodolite will be
directed on to H. This method is particularly advantageous when many point-
ings are being set out from one station.
It is good practice to check that the calculations are correct. At H
Bearing of FH = 291° 17’ 37”
Bearing of GH = 156° 54’ 33”
GHF = 134° 23’ 04”

+HFG 17 note i"
+FGH = 27° 54’ 35”
180° 00’ 00”
Finally, determine distances FG and GH. As a check on the fix for H given
by the intersection of the lines of sight of theodolite(s) at F and G, the distances,
measured by EDM say, can be compared with the theoretical distances
determined below.
Line FH
Easting difference = 112.07 m
Northing difference = 43.68 m.
Therefore Ley = V(112.077+43.687)
= 120.28 m.
Check AFry = 120.28 sin 291° 17’ 37” = —112.07 m

Line GH
Easting difference = 30.65 m

Northing difference = 71.89 m.
Therefore Loy = V(30.65?+71.897)
78.15 m.
Check ANcoy = 78.15 cos 156° 54’ 33” = —71.89 m
Any differences between theoretical distances and measured distances should
lie within limits specified for the work.
As an alternative the angles can be derived by standard formulae. The purpose
of this section is to show how the general formulae given in the previous
example can be used in this case. The formulae were derived on the assumption
that A, B and C were laid down in a clockwise direction as shown in Fig.
7.2. Thus in Fig. 7.3, it is necessary to work in the direction G to F to H
so that G effectively replaces A and F replaces B in the quoted expressions.
Hence for this example.
No cot $2 +Ne cot | — (Ep —Eg)
Ny =
cot ¢,+cot
Eg cot $2 +Ep cot o, +(Ng—No)

Ey —
cot ? +cot >
1746.89 cot $+ 1631.22 cot ; — (3812.07

—3669.35)
Thus 1675.00
cot $;+cot >
3669.35 cot ¢2+3812.07 cot ¢;+(1631.32 — 1746.89)

and 3700.00
cot d,+cot o> ,
The reader can check that the values of ¢; = 27° 54’ 35” and @) = 17°
42’ 21” satisfy the above equations.
7.4 Monitoring A small dam is being monitored for movement by observations on to

movements a target, C, attached to the wall of the dam. A and B are two fixed
concrete pillar stations, sited to the north-west of the dam, upon which
a theodolite can be mounted. The co-ordinates of the pillar tops are:
A 1120.351 mE, 759.787 mN, 130.721 m AOD
B 1271.782 mE, 861.592 mN, 131.152 m AOD
A theodolite was mounted on each pillar, the collimation height being
403 mm above the pillar top, and angles were observed on the target
as shown in Table 7.5. Assuming that the height of C is given by the
mean of observations from A and B determine its movement after the
dam is filled.

Table 7.5
Station Before filling After filling
Horizontal BAC Bel acoe ibe nj Weed

Vertical O52933" 127 O5°733"5 06"
Horizontal ABC 48° 31’ 18” 48° 31’ 05”

Vertical 04° 54’ 42” 04° 54’ 38”
Introduction. This example illustrates the task of measuring small

movements either during deformation surveys or in industrial measurement
systems. When a structure, such as a dam, is loaded it will move, and accurate
theodolite observations on to a target attached to the structure can be used to
measure this movement. The horizontal position of the target can be calculated
by the process of intersection which is described in detail in Example 7.2 whilst
the vertical movement is calculated by tangent trigonometry.
Solution. Before filling, from Example 7.2 and Fig. 7.4,

E, cot $+ ER cot o,+Ng—Na
E, =
cot @,+cot 2
1120.351 cot 48° 31° 18" +1271.782. cot 35° 11° 23%+
861.592— 759.787
coLds” 31 4418* cot 35° 11° 23”
1251.477 mE
- Na cot o2+Npg cot @, —EgtE,
cot d;+cot o>
159.787 cot 48° 31” 18* +861.592 cot 55° 11’ 23” —
1271.782 + 1120.351
cords 311s" Fcor gs” 11’ 23”
708.722 mN
Next calculate the vertical position of C.
From A,
Hac = V((Ex— Ec)? + (Na—Nc)’)

Il V((1120.351 — 1251.477° + (759.787 —708.722))
ll 140.718 m
If 6,\is the vertical angle at A,
Zc = Z, + height of instrument + Hac tan 6,

130.721 + 0.403 + 140.718 tan 5° 33’ 12”
144.8058 m !

From B,
Hpc = V((1271.782
— 1251.477)2 + (861.592 —708.722)*)
=9154.213 m
Zc = Hg + height of instrument + Hgc tan 6)
= 131.152 + 0.403 + 154.213 tan 4° 54’ 42”
= 144.8074 m
Hence,
mean height of C = (144.8058 + 144.8074)/2

= 144.807 m
The next stage is to repeat the calculations for the case when the dam is full
of water.
L1ZO035 licotASle3d/ St 1277 82ycot 55° 11’ 127+

861.592
—759.787
Ec =
cot 48° 31’ 5” +cot 55° 11’ 12”
= 1251.469 mE
759.787 cot 48° 31’ 5” +861.592 cot 55° 11’ 12” —
a 1271.782 +1120.351
2 cot 48° 31’ 5”+cot 55° 11’ 12”
= 708.734 mN
From A,
Hac = V((1120.351 —1251.469)? + (759.787 —708.734)’)

= 140.707 m
Zc = 130.721 + 0.403 + 140.707 tan 5° 33’ 6”
= 144.8006 m
From B,
Hgc = V((1271.782— 1251.496)? + (861.592 —708.734)”)

= 154.198 m
Zc = 131.152 + 0.403 + 154.198 tan 4° 54’ 36”
= 144.8031 m
Hence, mean height of C 144.8006 + 144.8031
= 144.802 m
Finally calculate the movement
6E = 1251.477 — 1251.469
= 0.008 m i.e. 8 mm west
dN = 708.722 — 708.734
= 0.012 m i.e. 12 mm north
Total horizontal movement in a north-westerly direction
= V(8? + 127)
= 14mm

6Z 144.807 — 144.802
0.005 m i.e. 5mm down ~~
7.5 Setting out Two stations on a traverse conducted in an urban area have co-ordinates
using the of 950.00 mE, 1200.00 mN and 983.50 mE, 1340.00 mN, respectively.
perpendicular A manhole is to be located at a point whose co-ordinates are 975.00 mE,
1266.00 mN. It is known that neither direct sightings nor measurements
can be made from the two stations and accordingly the engineer decides
to locate the manhole by linear measurements along and perpendicular
to the traverse line. Determine those measurements.
Introduction. Use of the method of intersection, either by setting off angles

g, and @ or by measuring distances AC and BC, is precluded by sighting
conditions. Thus the approach indicated in Fig. 7.1(b) is to be adopted, D
is located and perpendicular DC set out afterwards.
Solution. Initially, we shall derive standard expressions. In the previous

examples two expressions of the form
Na cot o2+Np cot > — (Ep — Ea)
Ne =
cot $,+cot
E, cot ¢.+Eg cot ¢,+(Ng—Na)

and Ee
cot ¢,+cot 2
were stated; A, B and C being lettered in clockwise direction. These can be

rearranged to eliminate ¢, and ¢).
From above Nc(cot ¢,+cot $2) = Na cot ¢.+Ng cot ¢;—(Eg—Eag).

Thus cot 9 (Ng —Nc)+cot oy) (Na —Nc) == (Eg — Ea)
AD
but cot om = —
CD
and cot dD = —
poy, in |SpFig.
CD te
g a7.2.
AD (AB— AD)
And so —cp (Ng-—Nc)
“8 c) + ———Cp (N,—-N,-)
(Na—Nc) == (Ern—E
(Ep—Ea)
or AD (Ng —Na)+AB (Na — Nc) = CD (Eg —Ea),
AD CD
whence ——
Ge (Ng—Na)—
(Np — Na) —
; (Fp—E,)
(Eg — Ea) = No—N,.
fom is’
wy AD CD
Similarly a (Ep — E,)+ Fie (Ng—Na) = Ec—Esg.
Thus AD and CD can be estimated provided that the three points have been
co-ordinated. i

Next calculate lengths AD and CD. In Fig. 7.4 we have
(Fg—E,) = 983.50— 950.00 = 33.50m

(Ng—Na) = 1340.00—1200.00 = 140.00m
(Ec—E,x) = 975.00— 950.00 = 25.00m
and (Nc—N,) = 1266.00—1200.00 = 66.00 m.
Also
AB = V[(Eg—E,)?+(Np—Na)?]
143.95 m.
Substituting in the two expressions
140.00 CD :
33.50
= = 66.00
143.95 143.95
and AD Sia + CD Kipaa = 25.00

143.95 143.95
and so AD = 70.01 m
CD = 8.95 m.
By setting out a length of 70.01 m from A along AB, and then setting off a
perpendicular of length 8.95 m from that position the manhole is located.
An alternative approach is as follows:
E,—E
Bearing of AB = tan~! —B——4-
=113°.20 25.3.7.
Ec—E
Bearing of AC = tan~! —S—4
Nc—Na
= 20°44" 45.9".
Whence BAC = 07° 17’ 20.6”,

also AC = V[(Ec—Ea)? + (No—Na)*1
= 70.58 m.
Therefore AD = 70.58 cos 07° 17’ 20.6”
= 77/001 m:
And He = 70:58 sin 07° 1720.6"
= 8.95 m.
7.6 Resection In order to set out the centre line of a bridge it is required to establish
the point D which lies 115.00 m due south of the peg A, across the river.
Stations B and C were established and referred to A by subtense
tacheometry. Field notes were as in Table 7.6.

Table 7.6
Target bearings
269° 03’ 00” 270° 00’ 00” 27097" 00"

: 284° 13’ 30” 284° 30’ 00” 284° 46’ 30”
A peg was positioned at P which was thought to be close to D. At P

the following angles were measured:
CPB = 20° 54’ 00”, BPA = 28° 36’ 00”.
Calculate the bearing and distance PD. [Bradford]
Introduction. In this example P is being located by resection. At least three

control stations have to be fixed in position for the application of this method.
Observations are then made on these stations so that there are at least two known
horizontal angles 6, and 6, as in Fig. 7.6. It is essential that P does not lie
on the circle circumscribing C, B and A or be near to it, because then 6, and
6, would be subtended thereon by CB and BA, respectively, whatever the
position of P, i.e. there would be a ‘failure of fix’.
3 ses Station
Sg ei
Possible ae eae
locations of
Pp
Figure 7.6
Solution. First derive a general expression. Consider triangles CBP and

BPA in Fig. 7.7 in which CB, BA and CBA will be known. By the sine rule,
BC BP BA BP
—
sin 6,
= —
sin a
and —
sin 05
= ——.
sin B
BC sina _ BA sin B
Therefore BP = : = ;
sin 6; sin 0,

Figure 7.7
: BA sin 6, ;
si o = —-————— Xam6.
BC sin 0,
: BA ;
Therefore - ae x - = k, say,
sin 6 BC sin 65
but at+pB 360° — CBA — 6, — 0;
o, which is known.
BA sin 0;
Therefore sina ar oe m4 Se
X sin (6—a).
BC sin 65
This expression allows the determination of a, and hence 8. There is now
sufficient information to calculate lengths CP, BP and AP, allowing P to be
fixed in position.
Calculation of lengths CB, BA and angle CBA. The lengths have been
determined by subtense measurements. Assuming that a bar length 2 m was
used (Fig. 2.4 refers)
b 2
AB — =
2 tan 6/2 Patan’ 57)”

since O61 270 00 29269 2034.00"
SS ste ee
1
AB = —————_-
0.016 582 1
= 60.306 m.
2
Also AC =
2 tan-l6" 304%
since for this observation
6 = 284° 46’ 30” — 284° 13’ 30”

Ea (07:

1
Therefore AC
0.004 799 6
208.351 m.
The readings on the centre targets imply that
BAC = 284° 30’ 00” — 270° 00’ 00”
14° 30’ 00”.
Cc
~N
sS 208
B 60.306 4
Figure 7.8
From triangle CBA (Fig. 7.8)

BC? = AC? + AB? — (2 x AC X AB cos BAC).
Therefore BC = 150.724 m,
AC CB
Also ———— :
sin CBA sin 14° 30’ 00”
Therefore sin CBA = pelt sin 14° 30’ 00”

150.724
sin CBA = 0.346 108 9
Therefore CBA = 159° 45’ 02”.
External angle CBA =.200° 14’ 58”
Next calculate length PA. The relationship
; BA sin 6, ‘
sia = —— xX — X sin(¢@—a)
BC sin 0,
has been derived in a previous section.
Now 0) ll 360° — CBA — 0, — 0,
360° —200° 14’ 58” —20° 54’ 00” —28° 36’ 00”
LO ho es
60.306 sin 20” oe OD"
Therefore sin a Xsin (110° 15’ 02” —a)
150.724 sin 28° 36’ 00”
= 0.298 175 1 (sin 110° 15’ 02” cos a —cos 110° 15’ 02” sin a).
Therefore cot a = 3.205 762 8
a = 17° 19’ 29”,
whence wet 92% 35" 33”.
In triangle BAP
ABP = 180°—92° 55’ 33” —28° 36’ 00”

=58?.28' 27"
AP
and = BS
Sit 8a 2o0 21 sin 28° 36’ 00”
Therefore AP = 107.39 m.
Finally calculate length and bearing of PA. With respect to A:

Northing of P = 107.39 cos (92° 55’ 33” — 90°)
— 107.25 m,
Easting of P 107.39 sin (92° 55’ 33” — 90°)
= +5.48 m.
But D lies 115.00 m south of A, and accordingly is 7.75 m south and 5.48 m
west of P.
Therefore length PD = V(5.48? + 7.757)
9.49 m.
_1 75:48
Bearing of PD = tan
—7,75
215° 15’ 50”.
In the general case the three lengths PA, PB and PC can be calculated using
the sine rule and P can be located on a plan by ‘striking arcs’. If those lengths
are measured directly by an EDM a three co-ordinate solution is possible for
P providing such information is known for A, B and C. In this case P is fixed
using three equations of the type
(Xp—Xa)? + (Yp—ya)? + p—Zay? = V?

to determine x,, Yp» Zp:
7.7 Resection — Point P was established within the triangle formed by control stations
Tienstra’s method A (1020 mE, 2560 mN), B (1360 mE, 2520 mN), C (1150 mE,
2070 mN), such that angles APB = 128° 20’ 20” and BPC =
135° 47’ 40”. What is the distance of point X (1200 mE, 2450 mN)
from P and what is the WCB of XP? [Salford]
Solution. From the co-ordinate information,
AB = V[(1360 — 1020)? + (2520 — 2560)7] = 342.345 m

BC = V{(1360 — 1150)? + (2520 — 2070)7] = 496.588 m
AC = vV{[(1150 — 1020)? + (2070 — 2560)7] = 506.952 m
In addition, using the cosine rule in triangle ABC
‘ _, (AC? + AB* — BC?
BAC = cos
2 x AC xX AB
_,[506.9527 + 342.345? — a
‘O
m 2 x 506.952 x 342.345
68° 25’ 54”
: _, (342.345? + 496.5887 — 506.952?
CBA = cos
2 x 342.345 x 496:588
= 71°4I34"
‘ 496.5882 + 506.9527 — 342.3457
ACB = cos~! os
2 x 496.588 x 506.952
BOeso2 32
Check: 68°.257-54" + 71° 41° 34” + 39° 52’ 32” = 180° 00° 00”.
Also from the data
CPA = 360° — 128° 20’ 20” — 135° 47’ 40%

= 95° 52’ .00”
Next determine the co-ordinates of P by means of Tienstra’s formulae which

state
K,E, + K2Eg + K3Ec
Ep =
rae Tey A
K,N, + K,Ng + K3Nc
Np =
Kae
Ky tka
In the above
1
K, — A A
(cot BAC — cot BPC)
1
eS - = 0.702 537
(cot 68° 25’ 54” — cot 135° 47’ 40”)
K, = She eee aoe

(cot CBA — cot CPA)
1
a = 2.306 219
(cot 71° 41’ 34” — cot 95° 52’ 00”)
i 1
> (cot ACB — cot APB)
1
a = 0.503 049
(cot 39° 52’ 32” — cot 128° 20’ 20”)
Whence K, + Ky + K3 = 3.511 81
Therefore
me (0.702 537
x 1020) + (2.306 219x 1360) + (0.503 049x 1150)
3 3.511 81
= 1261.900 m 4

(0.702 537
x 2560) + (2.306 219 x2520) + (0.503 049
x 2070)
Np
3.511 81
2463.538 m
We can now calculate the required distance and bearing using the co-ordinates
of X and P.
XP = V[(1261.900 — 1200)? + (2463.538 — 2450)2]

= 63.36 m
ai (1261:900 — 1200)
Bearing
(2463.538 — 2450)
77° 39’ 47”
Note. Angles are registered in a clockwise direction, as in Fig. 7.6, when
being paired for the determination of K,, etc. When P lies outside triangle
ABC, as in Fig. 7.5, APB = 360° — 4).
The co-ordinates of P can be calculated using the following computer program.

The angles input must be the clockwise angles as indicated in Fig. 7.6.
Variables
Al Clockwise angle between El, N1 Co-ordinates of station A
stations A and B E2, N2 Co-ordinates of station B
A2 Clockwise angle between E3, N3 Co-ordinates of station C
stations B and C E4, N4 Co-ordinates of point
A4, A6 Clockwise angles in K1, K2, K3 Tienstra’s coefficients, i.e.
triangle ABC 1/(cot CAB—cot CPB)
Bl, B2, B3 Bearings of the lines in K4 Sum of Kl + K2 + K3
triangle ABC for denominator
Cl to C6 cot of angles 1 to 6 M Input angle, minutes
D Input angle, degrees S Input angle, seconds
10 REM RESECTION
20 INPUT"INPUT ANGLE BETWEEN STATIONS A AND B ",D,M,S
30 Al=((D*3600)+(M*60) +S) /206264.8
40 C1=1/TAN(A1)
50 INPUT"INPUT ANGLE BETWEEN STATIONS B AND C ",D,M,S
60 A2=((D*3600)+(M*60)+S) /206264.8
70 C2=1/TAN(A2)
80 C3=1/TAN(3.14159-A1-A2)
90 INPUT"INPUT CO-ORDINATES OF A ",E1,N1
100 INPUT"INPUT CO-ORDINATES OF B ",E2,N2
110 INPUT"INPUT CO-ORDINATES OF C ",E3,N3
120 B1=ATN((E1-E3) /(N1-N3) )
130 B2=ATN((E2-E3) /(N2-N3) )
140 B3=ATN((E1-E2) /(N1-N2) )
150 A4=B2-Bl
155 C4=1/TAN(A4)
160 A6=B3-B2-3.14159
170 C6=1/TAN(A6)
180 C5=1/TAN(3.14159-A4-A6)
190 K1=1/(C6-C3)
200 K2=1/(C4-C1)
210 K3=1/(C5-C2)
220 K4=K1+K2+K3
230 E4=INT((((K1*E2)+(K2*E3)+(K3*E1) ) /K4) *100+0.5)/100
240 N4=INT((((K1*N2) +(K2*N3)+(K3*N1) ) /K4) *100+0.5) /100
250 PRINT"CO-ORDINATES ARE ",E4,N4
260 END

It is recommended that the reader evaluates the co-ordinates of P in Fig. 7.7,
assuming those of A, B and C to be respectively 1026.600 mE, 2570.590 mN;
960.294 mE, 2570.590 mN; 818:886 mE, 2622.757 mN.
7.8 Weisbach Two surface stations P and Q, having co-ordinates 1250.00 mE,
triangle 1200.00 mN and 1300.00 mE, 1350.00 mN, were observed during the
installation of plumb wires in a shaft. The readings in Table 7.7 were
recorded by a theodolite set up at a surface station A near to line XY.
Table 7.7
P 273° 42308,”
Q 93° 43’ 54”
Plumbwire X 08"=00" 50"
Plumbwire Y G7° 585102
Distances AP and AX were measured to be 78.855 m and 8.374 m,

respectively, and XY was measured as 5.945 m. Determine the bearing
of XY given that X was the nearer of the wires to A.
Figure 7.9
Introduction. This example illustrates the principles of the Weisbach triangle

which may be used on the surface, as here, or below ground to establish the
underground control system. In such a triangle a theodolite, reading directly
to one second, is set up just off the line of the plumb wires X and Y (see Fig.
7.9) and angle XAY measured as accurately as possible: this angle should be
very small, i.e. not greater than a few minutes. Although distances XA, YA
and XY should be measured, often the assumption is made, since XAY is very
small, that XY + XA = YA if only XY and XA have been measured, as
in this example. PAQ also forms a Weisbach triangle when A lies near PQ
since the angles at P and Q and the external angle at A will be small. Mention
is made in the next worked example of the Weisbach triangle in an underground
situation.
Solution. In Weisbach triangle PAQ the bearing of plumb plane XY will

be derived from information obtained from the ground control points P and

Table 7.8
Station N
(m)
1250.00 1200.00
1300.00 1350.00
Q, station A tying the two Weisbach triangles together. In Fig. 7.9 we have
the values in Table 7.8.
Therefore length PQ (50.007 + 150.007)
158.114 m.
_, 50.00
Bearing of PQ = tan
150.00
18° 26’ 05.8”.
Also, from the circle readings at A we have the values in Table 7.9.
Table 7.9
Horizontal circle readings
273° 42’ 08”

93° 43’ 54”
Therefore clockwise angle QAP = 179° 58’ 14”
Length PQ = 158.114 m (calculated)

PA = 78.855 m (measured).
Therefore QA = 79.259 m (assuming PA+QA = PQ).
sin PAQ _ sin POA
Furthermore
158.114 78.855 |
eae 179° 58’ 14” sin 01’ 46”. _ sin PQA

si. Comat 158.114 158.114 78.85
For small angles we can write
sin 01’ 46” = sin 106” = 106” x sin 1”
and sin PQA = PQA” X sin 1”.
_ 106” x sin 1” — PQA” X sin 1”
a 158.114 78.885

fil TRANS aeIOG!
POA
Q 158.114 -
= 52.9”
and QPA = 106” — 52.9”
= 53.1”.
Therefore bearing of PA ll bearing of PQ—QPA
1s 2603.8" —53.1L,
= Reed AZ.
Weisbach triangle AXY.

From the circle readings at A we get the values in Table 7.10.
Table 7.10
08° 00’ 50”

O07? 56" 107
Therefore clockwise angle XAY = 02’ 40” = 160”
This is an internal angle in triangle AXY.

sin XAY & sin XYA
Now
XY AX
Therefore sin 160” _ sin XYA

5.945 8.374
Therefore ROY AAI Ay REAR. Sin |
6 8.3 74 x 160”
XYA ae
5.945
= 225.4”.
Also, from the circle readings, we get the values in Table 7.11.
Table 7.11
; Horizontal circle reading
X é 8° 00’ 50”
P 273° 42’ 08”
Therefore clockwise angle PAX = 94° 18’ 42”

Now the bearing of PA = 18° 25’ 12.7”
Therefore the bearing of AP = 198° 25’ 12.7”
PAX = 94° 18’ 42”
Therefore the bearing of AX ll 292° 43 oe

But the external angle at X in triangle AXY is
XYA + XAY = 225.4” + 160”
385.4” = 6’ 25.4”.
Therefore ARY = 179° 53’ 34.6”.
Now bearing of AX = 292° 43’ 54.7”
add 179° 53’ 34.6”
ae oT 29.3”
deduct 180° 00’ 00”
Bearing of XY 292° 37’ 29.3”

= 292° 37’ 29”, say.
7.9 Weisbach A length of sewer CD is to be constructed in a tunnel at a bearing

triangle and of 255° 00’ 00” from C, whose co-ordinates are 1942.00 mE,
co-planing 1281.80 mN. Two control points A and B are in the vicinity, and no
site obstructions exist. Plumbwires X and Y, 3.640 m apart, were put
down after the shaft at C had been excavated, the method of co-planing
being adopted on the surface to achieve direction CD.
Theodolite station U was then established below ground, lying close
to line YX produced and 5.295 m from nearer wire X. Horizontal circle
readings for pointings on X and Y were 23° 20’ 12” and 23° 15’ 35”
respectively.
Given that U is generally to the west of YX and that XC = CY, derive
data for setting out:
(a) points on centre line CD 12.00 m and 25.00 m, respectively, from
C;
(b) a reference station R, underground, having co-ordinates
1930.00 mE, 1280.20 mN.
Co-ordinates of A and B are:
A 1850.75 mE, 1270.40 mN

B_ 1990.24 mE, 1310.66 mN.
Introduction. This example illustrates the use of a Weisbach triangle in

an underground situation, but it also allows the alternative method of co-planing
to be reviewed. As mentioned previously, when co-planing the vertical plane
formed by the plumb wires is placed in the line of sight of a theodolite (above
ground) or the line of sight is placed in the vertical plane (below ground).

eae 34.8"
|
195°.53" 25.2%
Figure 7.10
Solution. First consider the surface control (Fig. 7.10). The co-ordinates
of control points A and B have been given, so a ground point corresponding
to C could be located by methods previously discussed. For AB (Fig. 7.10)
we have the values in Table 7.12.
Table 7.12
Station Ee N
(m) (m)
A 1850.75 1270.40
B 1990.24 1310.66
Length of AB = V(139.497 + 40.267)

= 145.184 m.
_; 139.49
Bearing of AB
40.26
ood I,
For AC we get the values in Table 7.13.
Table 7.13
e N
(m) (m)
A 1850.75 1270.40
Cc 1942.00 1281.80
Length of AC = V(91.25? + 11.407)

= 91.959 m. 4

By 81.25
Bearing of AC an * ————
11.40
S2mo2 43.87.
For BC we obtain the values in Table 7.14.
Table 7.14
Station E N
(m) (m)
B 1990.24 1310.66
C 1942.00 1281.80
Length of BC = V(48.24? + 28.867)

= 56.214 m.
48.24
Bearing of CB = tan! sie
28.86
Il 59° 06" 34.8."
Thus BAC = Bearing of AC — Bearing of AB
= §2°'52",43.8° — 73° 34” 02.3"
= 08° 58’ 41.5”.
And ABC = Bearing of BA — Bearing of BC
253" B40025" — 239° 06’ 34.8*
= 14° 47’ 27.5".
These are rather small angles for the purposes of intersection and it would
be more satisfactory to locate C by a perpendicular offset from AB. This offset
has a value of 91.959 sin 08° 58’ 41.5”, i.e. 14.351 m and it would be taken
at a distance of V(91.959* — 14.3517) m, i.e. 90.832 m from A.
Setting out line CD on the surface. Initially line CD (Fig. 7.10) could be
set out on the surface by ‘turning off’ clockwise angle BCD, with clockwise
angle DCA as a check since A should be intersected.
Clockwise angle BCD Bearing CD — Bearing of CB

255° 00’ 00” — 59° 06’ 34.8”
LOS? G86 25224,
Clockwise angle DCA = Bearing CA — Bearing of CD
= 262° 52” 43.8” — 255° 00’ 00”
a 0 ae A
Stations could be established along CD at convenient locations, the nearest

being just clear of the shaft sides to ensure no disturbance, say 7 m to 10 m
from C. Pegs could also be positioned on DC produced. In this way the surface
alignment CD can be recovered at anytime. When co-planing, the plumb wires

Figure 7.11
X and Y are to be brought into this line. The greatest of care has to be exercised
and observations should be made from both sides of the shaft to obtain the
best positions.
Next establish the underground control. Figure 7.11 shows the disposition
of the underground station U as it forms a Weisbach triangle with plumb wires
X and Y, now suspended within the shaft. The relevant horizontal circle
readings are given in Table 7.15.
Table 7.15
Pointing on Circle reading
20-120 12%
2a” 15° 35°
Therefore YUX = 04’ 37” = 277”
In triangle YUX
sin YUX _ sin UYXx
XY Ux
YU sm” UY sin 1”
3.640 5.295
uUgX = a 29S I2T7

3.640
= 402.9”.
Therefore external angle at X = 402.9” + 277” = 679.9”
= 11’ 19.9”
UX, = 5.295 sin 11’ 19.9”
= 0.0175 m, i.e. 17.5 mm.
Line UU; (parallel to YX produced) can be obtained by setting off an angle

of 179° 48’ 40.1” from UX. This could be used as a reference line if suitably
‘pegged out’. i

Also Bearing of XU Bearing of YX + External angle at X
255° 00% O02 + 11’ 819.9”
ano b1’ 19.0%,
Now we find the co-ordinates of X ‘ae = 1.82 m from c).
Easting = Easting of C + 1.82 sin 255° 00’ 00”

1942.00 — 1.758
1940.242 m, say 1940.24 m;
Northing Northing of C + 1.82 cos 255° 00’ 00”
1281.80 — 0.471
1281.329 m, say 1281.33 m.
The co-ordinates of U (which is 5.295 m from X) are:
Easting = Easting of X + 5.295 sin 255° 11’ 19.9”

1940.242 — 5.119
1935.123 m, say 1935.12 m;
Northing Northing of X + 5.295 cos 255° 11’ 19.9”
1281.329 — 1.354
1279.975 m, say 1279.98 m.
The co-ordinate values have been ‘rounded off’ to be in accordance with those
of the control stations.
Next locate the centre line stations at 12.00 m and 25.00 m from C. The
first of these will be 10.18 m from X along the centre line. In triangle PUX
UX = 5.295m
PX = 10.180 m
and UXP = 679.9”.
Assume that UP + UX = PX
Therefore UP = 10.180 — 5.295

= 4.885 m,
sin 679.9” sin UPX
whence SS > See
UP UX
679.9” sin 1” _ UPX sin 1”

4.885 5.295
Therefore UPX = 737.0”
2012817"
and Pie] 1180" =r 1970 19" — 11.7 19.9"
= 179° 36% 23.1”.
Horizontal circle reading for pointing on P = Reading for pointing on X +

NS eli Ts BS PM
75 ee thie 30. ook
= 202° 56’ 35”, say.
The co-ordinates of P are:

Easting Easting of X + 10.18 sin 255° 00’ 00”
1940.242 — 9.833
1930.409 m, i.e. 1930.41 m;
Northing = 1281.329 + 10.18 cos 255° 00’ 00”
II 1281:329 =" 2,635
1278.694 m, i.e. 1278.69 m.
Similarly, to locate station Q 25.00 m from C (or 23.18 m from X) a distance
of (23.18 — 5.295) = 17.885 m could be set off from U at a horizontal circle
reading of 203° 05’ 31”. The co-ordinates of Q are 1917.85 mE, 1275.33 mN.
Having fixed stations U, P and Q the tunnel can be extended.
The second part of the question concerns the location of stations not on the
centre line. Consider point R, co-ordinates 1930.00 mE, 1280.20 mN, in Table
7.16.
Table 7.16
Station Easting Northing

(m) a (m)
1930.000 1280.200
1935.123 1279.975
Difference
Hence length UR = V
(5.1237 + 0.2257)
5128 m:
$= 55.123
Bearing UR = tan
0.225
272° 30’ 53.3”
Since the bearing of XU = 255° 11’ 19.9”
clockwise angle XUR = 197° 19’ 33.4”
But the horizontal circle reading for pointing on X is 23° 20’ 12”. Therefore
the horizontal circle reading for pointing on R
= 23° 20% 12” -+.197° 19’ 33.4”

= 220° 39’ 45”, say.
A series of points could be set out now in a similar manner, using directions
UR, UP or PR, to establish a reference line having a bearing of 255° 00’
00” through R, which actually lies 1.5 m from the centre line.
7.10 Construction A rotating construction laser is being used during the setting out of
lasers a car park and a reading of 0.913 m was obtained on to a TBM at level
44.13 m.
If the car park has a crossfall of 1 in 1000 longitudinally and 1 in 200 |

transversely, determine the offsets from the laser beam to the corners
of a construction bay, 6 m longitudinal by 30 m transverse, the lowest
corner having a level 44.320 m.
Introduction. A rotating construction laser produces a horizontal plane of laser

light. This may be manifest as a line on a staff or, in the case of infra-red
instruments, located by a photo-electric cell mounted on the staff. The
equipment allows the task of setting out levels to be carried out by one person
and the calculations involved are essentially the same as those for a levelling
exercise (see Examples 1.1 and 1.2).
Solution. The first task is to calculate the levels of the four corners of the
construction bay.
Transverse rise = ay = 0.150 m
Longitudinal rise = 76m = 0.006 m

Level of lowest corner = 44.320 m
Level of transverse corner = 44.320 + 0.150
= 44.470 m
Level of highest corner = 44.470 + 0.006
= 44.476 m
Level of longitudinal corner = 44.320 + 0.006
= 44.326 m
Check calculation
Level of highest corner = 44.326 + 0.150

= 44.476 m Checks OK
Offsets from the beam are obtained by subtracting the required level of the
corners from the level of the beam.
Level of TBM = 44.130 m
Level of beam = 44.13 + 0.913
= 45.043 m
Offset to lowest corner = 45.043 — 44.32
= 0.723 m
Offset to longitudinal corner = 45.043 — 44.326
= 0.717 m
Offset to transverse corner = 45.043 — 44.47
= 0.573 m
Offsets to highest corner = 45.043 — 44.476
= 0.567 m
7.11 Sight rails for a A sewer is to be laid between two points P and Q, 80 m apart. Levels
sewer were taken to establish the longitudinal profile, and the bookings in Table
7.17 obtained. Invert level at P is to be 120.750 m AOD and the sewer
is to fall towards Q at a gradient of 1 in 120.

Table 7.17
0.633 OBM RL 124.82 m AOD

GL at P
0.633
rs
At the setting-out stage the level was set up close to its previous position
and a backsight of 0.587 m was recorded on a staff held at the bench
mark.
(a) Suggest a suitable length for the ‘traveller’.
(b) Determine:
(i) the staff readings required for the fixing of sight rails at P and Q;
(ii) the heights of those rails above ground level at P and Q.
Introduction. The sight rails are positioned so that the line connecting their
upper edges reflects the gradient of the trench bottom or the pipe invert, as
applicable. A boning rod, or traveller, of correct length is held with the upper
edge of its horizontal sight bar just in the line of sight given by the sight rails;
in this position its lower end stands at the required level (Fig. 7.12). The
horizontal sight rails are nailed to stout uprights, firmly installed on alternate
sides of the trench. These uprights must be well clear of the sides of the trench.
Frequent checking of their integrity is essential.
Sight rail
Traveller
Sight rail
Boning
rod
or
traveller
Sight rail
Figure 7.12

Table 7.18
Height of RL Distance
collimation (m)
125.453 124.820 BM
122.528 Point P
122,796
122.893
122.538
122.433 Point Q
0.633 124.820 BM
Solution. First determine the existing ground levels. The level bookings
may be reduced as follows in Table 7.18.
Next calculate the length of boning rod. Invert level at P is to be 120.750 m
and the gradient of PQ is to be 1 in 120 falling towards Q, 80 m from P.
Therefore invert level at Q 120.750.— 8

120.083 m AOD
whence we obtain the values in Table 7.19. The line of sight given by the
sight rails is to have a gradient of 1 in 120 and it must have clearance above
ground level. For convenient sighting one of the rails should be about 1 m
or so above ground level. Consideration of the above differences between invert
and ground levels shows that a boning rod length of 3 m would be satisfactory.
Table 7.19
Point Distance Invert Ground Difference

(m) level level (m)
120.750 122.528
55 120.583 122.756
40 120.416 122.893
60 120.250 122.538
80 120.083 122.433
Hence the levels of the sight rails are to be

At P_ 120.750 + 3.000 = 123.750 m AOD
At Q 120.083 + 3.000 = 123.083 m AOD.
The staff readings for the positioning of the sight rails can now be calculated.
Since the backsight observed by level on to the bench mark is 0.587 m when
setting up the sight rails, the corresponding height of collimation
124.820 + 0.587
= 125.407 m AOD.

Therefore staff reading for rail at P=125.407 — (120.750 + 3.000)
1.657 m
and staff reading for rail at Q 125.407 — (120.083 + 3.000)
= 2.324 m.
The staff could be moved up and down the uprights to give readings of 1.657 m
and 2.324 m respectively at P and Q, marks made thereon corresponding to
the base of the staff. The sight rail is then nailed in position and checked.
Alternatively, the tops of the uprights could be levelled and measurements made
down the uprights to locate the ‘finished’ levels of 123.750 m and 123.083 m.
The heights of the sight rails above ground level are:
At P rail height = 123.750— 122.528 x
Il 1.222 m above ground level;
At Q rail height 123.083 — 122.433
= 0.650 m above ground level.
Observations could be made quite conveniently from P towards Q.
7.12 Embankment An embankment is to be constructed on ground having a transverse

profile boards cross fall of 1 in 9. At a certain cross-section the formation level will
be 267.50 m AOD, ground level at the centre line being 261.98 m AOD.
Side slopes of 1 vertical in 2 horizontal have been specified together
with a formation width of 20 m. How could profile boards be established
to control the construction?
Inner upright
yr nN Outer upright
met t +,
ne i. ting
link
1.0m qd, qd, 1.0m

Figure 7.13
Introduction. The profile boards are nailed to two uprights which are firmly
driven into the ground near the toes, A and C, of the embankment (Fig. 7.13).
The inner uprights need to have clearances from the toes of the order of 1.0 m
to prevent disturbance. The inner and outer uprights can be spaced up to 1.0 m
apart, since the sloping boards reflecting the side gradients need to be of
reasonable length for sighting purposes. A traveller is used in conjunction with
the upper surface of the boards to achieve the gradients.
Various configurations are discussed in this example.

Solution. First establish the side widths and levels. As discussed in Chapter
5 the side widths, d, and d,, can be determined from the expressions
b
d, = (— + sh i
2 k-s
and d= ra + sh oS
2 k+s
where b is the formation width; h is the height of embankment at centre line;
s is the side slope of the embankment; and k is the transverse cross fall.
Now h = 267.50—261.98 = 5.52 m
d, = (10+11.04) (4) = dy = (10+ 11.04) 4)
= 27.05 m = 17.21m
The reduced level of B = 261.98 m AOD
and fall from B to A = oe = 3.01m
Therefore reduced level of A = 258.97 m.
Also, rise from B to C = = = 1,91 m,
Therefore reduced level of C = 263.89 m.
Figure 7.14
A and C can be set out by direct measurement from B, either sloping lengths
of 27.22 m and 17.32 m, respectively, being measured or the above horizontal
distances being set off perpendicular to the centre line. Alternatively, a trial
method using a level can be adopted as in Fig. 7.15. Say that a reading of
2.44 m was obtained when the staff was held at B, the level being in any suitable
position, not necessarily on the line of the cross-section. The staff man is now
moved along BC until the reading of 0.53 m is attained, i.e. to realize the
level difference of 1.91 m previously calculated. This position fixes C.
Next determine the profile board configuration. The two major considerations
are the length of the traveller and the relationship between the profile board,
existing ground and proposed slopes. In the first instance assume a traveller
of length 1.25 m with the centre lines of the uprights at 1.00 m and 2.00 m,
respectively, from toes A and C.
At A the sight line must be at an altitude of 1.25 + 258.97 = 260.22 m.
Thus at the uprights the corresponding altitudes of the sight line will be

260.22 — 1.00 x += 259.72 m
and 260.22 — 2.00 x >
The ground levels at the uprights will be
258.97 — 1.00 x 5 = 258.86 m
and 258.97 — 2.00 x % = 258.75 m.
Thus there is a reasonable height difference at each upright (0.86 m and 0.47 m,
respectively) to allow the boards to be fixed. At C, the altitude of the sight
line will be 1.25 + 263.89 = 265.14 m. Thus for uprights spaced as at A
we have the values in Table 7.20.
*
Table 7.20
Cc Inner Outer
upright upright
Altitude of sight line 265.14 264.64 264.14

Ground level 263.89 264.00 264.11
0.03 m at the outer upright is too small, but if the spacing of the uprights
is reduced to 0.60 the difference at the outer upright becomes 264.34 — 264.07
= 0.27 m, and this difference should be considered to be a minimum, allowing
for the width of the board itself. Alternatively, if the traveller is made 1.5 m
long, which is probably a maximum for convenience, the values in Table 7.21
apply when the uprights are 1.0 m apart.
Table 7.21
A Inner Outer
upright upright

Ground level 258.97 258.86 258.75
At C C Inner Outer
upright upright

Ground level 263.89 264.00 264.11
[_Diterenceim| ts0_| age | oe

If the spacing of the uprights is reduced to 0.60 m the difference becomes
0.52 m at the outer upright at C. It will be seen that the setting-out engineer
has some options open to him at this cross-section. However, several cross-
sections may need consideration at a particular time and, for convenience, one
length of traveller selected.
Problems
1 The co-ordinates of two stations A and B are 434 762.19 mE,

376 592.83 mN and 435 476.80 mE, 377 404.35 mN, respectively. At
A and B clockwise angles BAC and ABC are measured as 44° 29’ 35”
and 313° 32’ 43”, respectively. Determine the co-ordinates of C.
Answer 435 544.02 mE, 376 649.43 mN
2 List the various types of lasers used for mine surveying purposes.
Describe the particular applications they can be used for, and what their
limitations are both economically and practically.
With the aid of a neat sketch, show a suitable arrangement for the
use of an alignment laser in tunnelling.
[Eng. Council]
3 Control station X lies inside triangle PQR such that PXQ = 128°
23’ 24” and QXR = 97° 10’ 11”. Calculate the co-ordinates of point
X if the co-ordinates of
P are 1798.2 mE 7643.2 mN
Q are 2534.8 mE 6327.1 mN
R are 1531.7 mE 6215.6 mN
[Salford]
Answer 1916.7 mE, 6701.6 mN
4 Two survey stations S and T have been established in stable ground

in the vicinity of a reservoir. Observations from these survey stations
to a set of target stations, which have been inserted into the retaining
wall of the reservoir, are to be conducted periodically. The co-ordinates
of S and T are given in Table 7.22.
Table 7.22
Station Easting (m) Northing m |
7063.122 1110.126
7632.157 827.553
Target station V1 has experienced movement due to instability. Precise

horizontal angles observed with a first-order theodolite, prior to and after
movement of V1, are as follows:

Prior to movement TSV1 70° 19’ 33”
STV 1) 5212" 23°
After movement TRV le
SIVIis. Soceie. aes
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the movement of V1 which is
to the north-east generally of survey stations S and T.
[Eng. Council]
Answer (0.352 m on bearing 196° 28’ 53”
5 (a) During the setting out of a tunnel the observations in Table 7.23
were made by theodolite at a surface station I near to a vertical shaft.
Table 7.23
Pointing Horizontal Distance from

circle theodolite
reading
Station A 193° 18’ 12” 446.35 m

Station B 13° 7, 56%
Plumbwire P 106° 50’ 20”
Plumbwire Q 106° 50’ 29”
The plumb wires down the shaft were 5.345 m apart, P being the nearer
of the two to the theodolite at I. If the whole circle bearing of PQ was
307° 47’ 24” deduce that of AB.
(b) Explain briefly two methods of using the gyro-theodolite to
determine the azimuth of AB. [Salford]
Answer 214° 14’ 50”
6 An approach ramp of 1 vertical to 10 horizontal is to be supported

by a single line of vertical columns based at 15 m intervals measured
along a true curve plan of radius 30 m. The ramp starts at tangent point
T on the flat and then rises with its centre line connecting columns A,
5, Geet.
(a) Calculate the data to set out the first three columns from T using
a theodolite and steel tape.
(b) If the theodolite axis was set up 0.90 m vertically above T and
the columns terminated at 0.6 m below the ramp surface, calculate the
vertical angles required to check the stopping-off heights of the three
column heads. [I. Struct. E.]
Answer Chords 14.84 m long, deflection angles 14° 19’ 26” , 28° 38’
52” and 42° 58’ 18”; vertical angles 00° 00’ 00” ,02° 59’ 06”, 04°
143"
7 Surveys connecting base lines of known azimuth with a vertical shaft

plumb line (W) have been conducted on the surface and underground
at a deep mine as part of a correlation survey. From the information
given below calculate the National Grid co-ordinates of the survey stations
which are all to the east generally of the shaft.

National Grid co-ordinates of shaft plumb line (W):
E 460 257.664 N 350 258.130
Underground survey stations: U,, U, and U;
Surface survey stations: S,, S, and S;
National Grid azimuth U3; to U, = 237° 20’ 00”
National Grid azimuth S; to S; = 308° 17’ 52”
Horizontal angles measured in a clockwise direction:
S,-8,-S, = 136° 20’ 21”

S,—§,-—W = 217° 15’ 17”
U;—0,—-U, = 232° 49’ 45”
U,-0,-—W = 199° 39’ 40”
Horizontal distances:
S; toS, = 410.257 m U3; to U,

= 700.157 m
S, to S; = 400.135 m 405.316 m
U, to U;
S; to W = 350.685 m = 690.334 m
U,; to W
[Eng. Council]
Answer U3, 461 757.742 mE, 350 054.226 mN
8 The co-ordinates of three stations A, B and C are given in Table 7.24.
Table 7.24

(m) (m)
24 078.31 29 236.48
26 266.48 31 493.20
28 377.67 29 661.04
A point O is set up inside the triangle, and the observations in Table

7.25 are taken. Calculate the co-ordinates of station O. [Leeds]
Table 7.25
142° 48° 32”

92° 12° 22”
124° 59° 06”
Answer 25 960.42 mE, 30 547.89 mN
9 Observations were taken from a boat (X) to three shore stations A,

B and C, lying to the west, in order to resect its position. If the co-
ordinates of A, B and C were 5280.16 mE; 6213.40 mN, 3297.95 mE;
4502.75 mN and 5001.23 mE; 2987.46 mN, respectively and the angles
on the boat were recorded as AXB = 50° 27’ 30” and BXC = 46°
25’ 25”, show why this would produce a poor fix without attempting
to calculate the co-ordinates of the boat.

Explain why modern hydrographic surveying has adopted automated
techniques more rapidly than land surveying and why the use of
electronics is more vital for hydrographic surveying. [Leeds]
Answer B+X = 179° 20’ 00”
10 Two stations X and Y on a street traverse and three manholes A,
B, and C ona sewer, to be constructed in heading, have thé co-ordinates
Table 7.26
E ~ OW’
(m) (rm) :
x 1000.0 1000.0
4 1300.0 1500.0
A 1100.0 1050.0
B 1180.0 1200.0
Cc 1325.0 1400.0
Determine (a) the co-ordinates of station D on XY such that DB is

perpendicular to XY, and (b) angles DBA and DBC. Thence describe
how lines BA and BC could be established underground. [CEI]
Answer (a) 1135.9 mE, 1226.6 mN; (b) 92° 54’, 94° 58’
11 A, Band C are three control points which lie in a straight line and
have co-ordinates given in Table 7.27. The horizontal circle readings
on a theodolite stationed at T,, a point to the east of the line AC, were:
From T,: to A 360° 00’; to B 40° 00’; to C 70° 00’.

Calculate the co-ordinates of T).
Table 7.27
Station
550 610 690

550 700 900
T, is the tangent point on the leading end straight of a circular curve

which has a bearing of 312° 15’. If the circular curve has a radius of
2000 m and a deviation angle of 13° 05’ to the right (+ ve) calculate
the co-ordinates of the second tangent point. [Bradford]
Answer 776.2 mE, 565.0 mN; 476.0 mE, 907.8 mN
12 The co-ordinates of three stations A, B and C are as given in Table

eee
Table 7.28

(m) (m)
11 264.69 21 422.30
12 142.38 21 714.98
12 907.49 21 538.66
a

Two unknown points X and Y lie to the southerly side of AC with
Y on the easterly side of point X. The following angles are recorded:
AXB = 38° 15’ 47”

BXC = 30° 38’ 41”
Chea 33°. 52° 06"
CYX = 106° 22’ 20”
Calculate the length and bearing of the line XY. [Leeds]
Answer 1013.27 m, 68° 10’ 10”
13 Two surface reference stations X and Y having co-ordinates of

1000.00 mE, 1000.00 mN and 1300.00 mE, 1500.00 mN respectively
were observed during a shaft plumbing exercise. A theodolite was set
up at surface station A near to the line XY and the readings in Table
7.29 recorded.
Table 7.29
Pointing direction Horizontal circle reading
xX 273° 42’ 24”

y. 93° 42’ 08”
Plumb wire P 98° 00’ 50”
Plumb wire Q 98° 00’ 40”
The distances from the theodolite to X and P were 269.12 m and

8.374 m respectively, whilst P and Q were 5.945 m apart, P being nearer
to A than Q. Estimate the bearing of PQ. [Salford]
Answer 35° 16’ 00”
14 A and B are points on the centre line of a level mine roadway and
C and D are points on the centre line of a lower roadway having a uniform
gradient between C and D. It is proposed to connect the roadways by
a drivage from point B on a bearing of 165° 35’. Given the data in Table
7.30, calculate
(i) the actual length and gradient of the drivage, and

(ii) the co-ordinates of the point at which it meets the lower roadway.
aly Oe
Table 7.30
Northing Easting Reduced level
(m) (m) (m)
2653
2763
2653
2671
Answer (i) 104.57 m, 1:3.6; (ii) 1443 mE, 2665 mN
15 During redevelopment in a city area, a block of flats rectangular

in plan is to be built with the long elevation orientated due east—west.

Table 7.31
Line Whole circle Horizontal

bearing distance (m)
AP 251° 00’ 80.69

PQ 283° 00’ 20.64
The building, which is to measure 86 m long by 21 m wide, is located

initially by means of a peg at the south-east corner (point A, 1,200 mE,
600 mN). The remainder of the building cannot be set out as existing
properties have not yet been demolished and it is essential to check its
clearance from a proposed new building line. The observations in Table
7.31 are therefore made. :
Point Q is located on the proposed building line which is straight with
a WCB of 13° 30’. Calculate the minimum distance from the proposed
development to the new building line. [Salford]
Answer 0.54 m
16 Three points P, Q and R have the following co-ordinates:

P 950.00 mE 1200.00 mN
Q 983.50 mE 1340.00 mN
R 1027.69 mE 1239.74 mN
Locate point S on PQ from which a perpendicular SR can be set out
to establish R. What is the length of that perpendicular?
Answer PS = 56.73 m; SR = 66.31 m
17 State the advantages to be gained in correlating engineering surveys

to the National Grid.
The National Grid co-ordinates of two survey stations A and B are
as follows:
Station AE 323 679.35 - N 340 431.32
Station BE 324 022.07 N 342 846.89
The grid distances from a third survey station C to the east generally
of A and B are CA 1901.624 m and CB 1388.901 m. Compute the
National Grid co-ordinates of station C. [Eng. Council]
Answer 324 967.91 mE, 341 829.82 mN
18 It is required to establish some planimetric control in an area where

the only existing control visible is three intersected points, Stopworth
Church Spire, the Drill Hall and Buckton Castle. A station is established
at Rowley Mount, to the south of the line joining Stopworth Church Spire
and Buckton Castle. The following angles are observed:
Stopworth Church Spire — Rowley Mount — The Drill Hall
27° 43’ 49”
The Drill Hall — Rowley Mount — Buckton Castle 26° 52’ 24”
The co-ordinates of the three intersected points are as in Table 7.32.

Table 7.32
Easting Northing
(m) (m)
Stopworth Church Spire 1264.93 1421.26

The Drill Hall 1483.71 1390.29
Buckton Castle 1701.83 1430.02
Calculate the co-ordinates of Rowley Mount. [Leeds]

Answer 1480.00 mE, 1002.46 mN
19 A small control survey network contains four stations A, B, C and

D. The stations C and D lie to the east of line AB. Given the following
data calculate the co-ordinates of D. Check each stage of the calculation.
Co-ordinates: A 4763.252 E, 6372.156 N; B 2477.361 E, 1544.789 N.
Angles: CAB AD: 26.415" BCA’ GS* 37° 3a"
Lengths: AD 4366.890, CD 3632.471, both reduced to horizontal.
[Bradford]
Answer - 8777.247 mE, 4652.396 mN
20 The National Grid co-ordinates of three survey stations C, E and

R are as follows:
Station C E 322 393.384 N 343 016.705

Station E E 323 048.449 N 343 362.094
Station R E 324 022.141 N 342 846.959
Horizontal angles observed from a fourth station G to the south generally
of stations C, E and R are as follows:
CGE = 27° 54’ 10” and EGR = 42° 52’ 29”

Compute the National Grid co-ordinates of station G and the azimuth
of the line G to R. [Eng. Council]
Answer 323 117.992 mE, 341 782.834 mN; 40° 21’ 12”
21 Anembankment is to be constructed on ground which can be taken

to have an effective transverse gradient of 1 in 12, the reduced ground
level at the centre line being 49.53 m AOD. The side slopes of the
embankment are to be 1 vertical in 2 horizontal and the reduced level
of the formation, width 20 m, is to be 54.33 m. Profile boards are to
be set up, the centre lines of the uprights nearest to the toes of the
embankments being 1m therefrom. The setting-out engineer is
considering using a travelling rod 1.5 m long in conjunction with pairs
of uprights 0.8 m apart at the lower toe C and 0.6 m apart at the higher
toe A.
Determine the difference between the heights of the sight rails and
ground level at each of the four uprights. If a level be set up such that
a staff reading of 1.02 m is given at the centre line what would be the
staff readings at the uprights when positioning the sight rail near C?
Answer 0.75 m, 1.08 m at C; 0.92 m, 0.57 m at A; 2.06 m, 2.46 m

22 The co-ordinates of three control stations A, B and C are given in
Table 7.33. =e
Table 7.33
Station E N Hy
(m) (m) (m AOD)
A 393.38 2016.70 107.22

B 1048.45 2362.09 123.44
Cc 2022.14 1846.96 95.37
An EDM is set up at station P and the lengths of AP, BP and CP are

measured to be 1431.22 m, 1581.46 m and 1396.49 m respectively.
Estimate the co-ordinates of P. :
Answer 1117.99 mE, 782.83 mN, 77.35 m AOD
23 During levelling operations carried out in connection with the

construction of a proposed sewer, the consecutive staff readings given
in Table 7.34 were obtained.
Table 7.34
Staff reading Distance Remarks

(m) (m)
ut
1.40 OBM 34.20 m AOD
1.90 0 Ground level at outfall
1.19 40 Ground level
1.15 120 Ground level Change point
2.96 120 Ground level Change point
1.68 _ TBM 35.73 m AOD
Details of the proposed sewer are given in Table 7.35.
Table 7.35
Chainage Manhole Invert level | Remarks

(m AOD)
0 | Outfall 31.98 Gradient of outfall to MH

‘A’ to be 1 in 140
100 ‘A’ ?
150 ‘B’ Outside diameter of
sewer is 0.400 m
200
(a) Book and reduce the levels carrying out appropriate arithmetical
checks.
(b) Draw a longitudinal section of the ground.
(c) Calculate the invert level of MH ‘A’ and the gradients of sewer
runs from MH ‘A’ to MH ‘B’ and MH ‘B’ to MH ‘C’, and show this
information on the section. Determine the minimum cover to the sewer.
(d) A traveller 3.0 m long was used when the trench was excavated.

Calculate the staff readings adopted when setting out the sight rails at
the manholes and the outfall, and state from which instrument position
the readings were obtained. Assume that the level was set up exactly
as it was in (a).
Answer (c) 32.69, 1 in 61.7, 1 in 26.3, 1.04 m say; (d) 0.62 mat outfall
from first position, 1.72 mat A, 0.91 mat B, —0.99 mat C from second
position
24 A section of sewer is to be laid between two manholes, 12 and 13,

which are 100 m apart. Sight rails have been established, based on the
staff readings given in Table 7.36. The distance refers to the lengths
of sight from the instrument.
Table 7.36
BS IS FS Distance Remarks
(m)
1.480 50 BM RL 48.290
0.855 75 Sight rail at MH 12
2.105 40 Sight rail at MH 13
1.480 50 BM.-RL 48.290
If the sewer is to be constructed using a travelling rod of length 3.25 m,

determine the invert levels at the manholes and the gradient of the sewer
as designed.
At a later date it was found that the tilting level was out of adjustment
and the gradient of the sewer was actually 1 in 78. What was the error
in collimation of the level?
Answer 45.655 m, 44.415 m; 0.0009 rad (upwards)
25 The plan centre line P QR S of a bridge over a river lies on a 300 m

radius curve. The bridge has three spans PQ, QR, and RS, P and S being
the centres of the faces of the abutments and Q and R the centres of the
piers. The faces of the piers and the abutments are parallel and the length
of each span, measured square to those faces, from abutment to pier,
pier to pier, and pier to abutment respectively is 40.500 m.
The chainage of P, the centre of the face of the first abutment, is
8539.800 m and the angle of skew between that face and the tangent
to the curve at P is 74° 00’ 00”. Calculate (i) the angles of skew at
Q, R, and S, (ii) the chainages of Q, R, and S.
If the chainages of the tangent points A, near P, and B, near S, on
the main straights are 8525.650 m and 8675.250 m respectively,
determine (iii) length AQ and clockwise angle BAQ to locate Q, and
(iv) length BR and clockwise angle ABR to locate R. [London]
Answer (i) 81° 54’ 55”, 89° 40’ 37”, 97° 25’ 58”; (ii) 8581.244 m,
8621.884 m, 8662.406 m; (iii) 55.515 m, 351° 01’ 23”; (iv) 53.296 m,
Sond>23"
26 During the setting out of a tunnel, the observations given in Table

7.37 were made at a shaft, the instrument stations being established

Table 7.37
Theodolite at surface station
Pointing Circle reading Distance from theodolite

(m)
Reference station P 288° 31’ 10” 140.32

Reference station Q 108° 31’ 19” 476.24
Plumb wire X 196° 08’ 18” 8.825
Plumb wire Y 196° 08’ 35”
al a
Theodolite at underground station
Pointing Circle reading | Distance from theodolite

(m)
Plumb wire X 54° 31’ 30” 7.263 a

Plumb wire Y 54° 31’ 54”
Reference station R 224° 34’ 34” 27.68
Reference station S 44° 34’ 17” 24.35
L es
eastwards of the plumb wires and with X the nearer in each case. The
plumb wires were 6.250 m apart and the whole circle bearing of PQ
was 210° 17’ 22”. Determine the bearing of SR. [Salford]
Answer 107° 57’ 08”
27 You are employed as a surveyor by a company engaged in the

construction of a tunnel about 3 km long, with a depth between 30 m
and 80 m. Vertical shafts are being sunk along the line of the tunnel
and it is intended to connect the bottom of each shaft by tunnelling
outwards in both directions.
Discuss:
(a) the correlation of the surface and underground surveys;
(b) the problems of maintaining plan and height control underground.
[RICS]
28 State the factors to be considered in designing the survey stations

and the conditions to be satisfied in setting out control networks for
precise deformation surveys.
Two fixed and stable stations, A and B, have been set out to facilitate
Table 7.38
Before excavations commenced
Reduced horizontal distances Horizontal angles
AtoB = 123.9065 m B-A-—w9 = 29° 04’ 40.4”

AtoW9 = 138.7447m W9—A—W46 = 42° 18’ 50.4”
A to W46 = 56.0792 m
After excavations completed
Reduced horizontal distances Horizontal angles
AtoB = 123.9065 m B-A-W9 == 29° 04" 27.6"

AtoW9 = 138.7486m wa-A-W46 = 42° 18’ 22.9"
Ato W46 = 56.0895 m |

the location of two stations, W9 and W46, on top of a diaphragm retaining
wall. The measurements in Table 7.38 were recorded, before and after
deep excavations were made adjacent to the diaphragm wall, in order
to detect any movement of the wall.
Calculate the horizontal movement of the stations W9 and W46. List
the equipment and instruments required to measure the vertical movement
of the stations on the diaphragm wall. [Eng. Council]
Answer 9.5 mm, 15.0 mm

8 é
Observations and adjustments
Error types A constant error, such as an incorrectly standardized tape, has the same
influence throughout the programme of observations, whilst a systematic error,
like the influence of field temperature on the length of that measuring tape,
can be of varying magnitude and changing sense. Accidental errors, such as
instrument imperfections, are of a random nature and could be said to be second-
order errors when compared to the types just mentioned.
In this chapter a number of examples are solved on the assumption that the
observations are free of all errors other than accidental errors. In other words,
the work has been carried out carefully, with as many checks as possible to
eradicate mistakes and, in addition, corrections have been applied to eliminate
any constant errors and systematic errors.
Accidental errors Accidental errors are unavoidable in so far as the observer is concerned. They
usually occur with positive and negative values of the same size and frequency,
the larger errors occurring less frequently than the small errors. If a number
of measurements of the length of a line are repeatedly made under similar
conditions a spread of values will be obtained and the difference between the
largest and the smallest values is defined by the term ‘range’. The values can
be placed into groups or classes having specified limits, the number of measures
in each group being termed the class frequency. If these numbers are expressed
as a percentage of the total then proportional frequencies are obtained.
Alternatively, the numbers themselves, taken in conjunction with their
respective classes, give the frequency distribution of the whole set of
measurements.
Probability If a very large number of measurements has been taken the frequency
distribution distribution could be considered to be the probability distribution. The normal
distribution is usually assumed for survey observations, being expressed by
the equation,
1,
1
ie Lene e 7M —p)*/20? dx
“. o V(2n)
where dp is the probability that value x will lie between the limits of x, and
(x; +dx); p is the true mean of the population; and o is the standard deviation.

Most probable value In practice, a limited number of observations of a quantity, such as the length
of a line or the magnitude of an angle, will be taken and this set is effectively
a sample; » and o are unknown. Accordingly, we calculate the most probable
value of the quantity from that sample and estimate the standard deviation of
the population. If the measurements are of equal reliability, or precision, the
arithmetic mean (<) of a set of observations is taken to be the most probable
value of that quantity. The difference between the value (x) of one of the
measurements and the most probable value of the quantity, i.e. (tc —*), is termed
the residual (or the residual error). Had we known yp, the true error would
be known to be (x—).
Standard deviation Standard deviation is a measure of the spread of a distribution and for the
population, assuming the readings are of equal reliability,
deg Ee] n
However, y cannot be determined from a small sample of readings. Instead,

the arithmetic mean (%) is accepted as the most probable value and the
a [PP
population standard deviation is estimated as
n—1
in which n is the number of observations and
ne ax
n
Confidence limits Having established the sample mean as an estimate of the true value of the
quantity, the observer might wish to state the range of values within which
that true value should lie for a given probability. This range is termed the
confidence interval, its bounds being the confidence limits. Having calculated
the standard deviation for a set of observations, confidence limits can be
established for that stated probability, statistics tables being available for this
purpose. Frequently, a figure of 95% is chosen, and this implies that nineteen
times out of twenty the true value will lie within the computed limits. If normally
distributed small random errors obtain, the presence of a very large residual
suggests an occurrence to the contrary. Such an observation can be rejected
if its residual error is larger than three times the standard deviation.
Standard error The standard error of the mean (s;) is given by

Ss
Ss. = + —
. Vn
and hence the precision of the mean is enhanced with respect to that of a single
observation. There are n deviations (or residuals) from the mean of the sample
and their sum will be zero. Thus, knowing (n — 1) deviations the surveyor could
OBSERVATIONS AND ADJUSTMENTS 289

deduce the remaining deviation and it may be said that there are (n — 1) degrees
of freedom. This number is used when estimating the population standard
deviation.
Weight When the measurements are not of equal reliability weights (w) are applied
to the individual measures to reduce them to one standard. The most probable
value is then the weighted mean.
The relationship w, 5,7 = w, s.2> =... = s’ applies, in which w, and
s; are the weight and standard error for observations 1, w, and sy are the
weight and standard error for observations 2, whilst s is the standard error
for the observations having unit weight. Hence .
s? s? ‘
Wi = >) Wo Se CIC,
512 592
Wi sy”
and = > ete.
W2 Sy
Thus the weight of an observation can be taken to be inversely proportional
to the square of its standard error. The most probable value of the weighted
mean (%,,) of weighted observations is
“wy Xj
Ww = Ed
“wy
in which x, is observation 1, etc.

The other formulae given above are modified as follows:
(a) Standard deviation of an observation of unit weight
mee | ial
m=)
(b) Standard deviation of an observation of weight w,,
= ot
|See
Ew, (x—%,)?
Te GC
w,(n—1)
(c) Standard error of the weighted mean
Dwi (x —X,)"
= + Se ai i
(n—1)<xw,
Method of least This is a widely used method of determining the most probable values of
squares observed quantities, assuming that only accidental errors are present. It states
that the sum of the weighted residuals squared will be a minimum,
i.e. L[weight x (residual)”] is to be a minimum.
For n observations
Wy Tye Wola? ke Wats” + — + Wh Tn?
is to be a minimum. Thus

hae ae ed a Wi VO 0 ry
pah4)”- 0 5 eee
or r'Wr is to be a minimum. Note that the alternative form of L(Vw, 1)?
can be minimized.
8.1 The distribution The following readings were repeated on the same angle
ofa set of
of readi
eadings 73° 40’ plus (22 152, 09”, +42. 10*. 1*" 16°. is
ED? ai Lo
Determine:
Vy }™
(a) the most probable value of the angle, Cm
—
(b) the range, ped hh, "

(c) the standard deviation, —— > >>
(d) the standard error of the mean, and
(e) the 95% confidence limits.
Solution. To calculate the mean value of the sample of 10 observations

it is convenient to tabulate the data as in Table 8.1.
(a) Most probable value = < = 73° 40’ 14”.
(b) Range = 73° 40’ 18” — 73° 40’ 09”
= 9".
~ SY
Table 8.1
73° 40’ 12”

15”
09”
14”
10”
18”
16”
13”
15”
18”
ae Oe ae
n

(c) Standard deviation
ae = +
E(x —%)”
fear ©
=
, } \ . 2 :
) ee Je = re ~~ 84
rh a mS = 9
i = + 3.1”
S
(d) Standard error of the mean = +
Vn
or
an
=)
eha MME Ares
" 1 Ce} . ; t W) ch 34
vane, ai
Cr . tats
rie a
Most a ee
Proboble oe
Vlog ok/10 .
= + 1.0”.
(e) 95% confidence limits:
aie ix s
The lower confidence limit = % —
Vn
Pea bX S
The upper confidence limit = *+
Vn
t is selected from statistical tables for a given value of n. When n = 10,
t = 2.26 and so
be ak
| = 2.26 x ——
Vin V10
= 2.2”.
The 95% confidence limits are 73° 40’ 14.0” + 2.2”.
It is common practice in surveying to reject any observation that differs from
the most probable value by more than three times the standard deviation.
8.2 Relative Prove that the mean value of a set of observations satisfies the least
precision squares condition.
The length of a line was measured using two different EDM instruments
A.and B with the following results:
Table 8.2
EDM B
785.546 785.545
785.538 785.549
785.535 785.543
785.550 785.546
785.542 785.545
785.547 785.550
785.547
785.543

Assuming that conditions were identical for both sets of readings,
determine the relative precision of the two instruments. What is the most
probable length of the line based upon the results? Work in millimetres.
[Bradford]
Solution. (a) Let ¥ be the arithmetic mean of a set of measurements x),

X2, -.., X» Made on a certain quantity, and let a be any other value assigned
to that quantity. Residuals of (x,—+), (x) —%), etc., and (x, —a), (x) —a), etc.,
respectively, then arise.
U(x—a)*—L(ax—#)? = Lx? —2adx+La?—
Lx? +2eEx — D(z)?
x. Ee
~2aEx+na2+2 —- x Lx—n ee )
n n
(for n measures)
xx \2
nia — :
n
which is always positive. Hence the sum of the squared residuals based on
the arithmetic mean is always less (i.e. a minimum) than the equivalent based
on any other value.
Table 8.3
Measurement (x —x) (x—x)?

ae
785.546
785.538 7ws i
785.535 —8 64
785.550 +7 49
785.542 ay ‘s
785.547
(b) Consider A and B in turn.

The standard deviation of the measures by A
eee “be
+ 5.73 mm.
Standard error of the mean
Ws
= Sj = beeet + 2.34 mm.
v6
Similarly standard deviation Sg,

Table 8.4
Measurement (x —x) (x — x)?

(mm)
785.545
785.549
785.543
785.546
785.545
785.550 ah,
785.547
785.543 —
o-n-O00O
Lix—#)" 46
Sp= + ee +
n—-1 g~1
+ 2.56 mm.
Standard error of the mean
2.56
eae
= + 0.91 mm.
Next calculate the relative precision. The length of the line given by EDM
A is 785.543 m with a standard error of 2.34 mm, whilst by EDM B it is
785.546 m with a standard error of 0.91 mm. Now
i a sa? * 0.917
Wp sa’ 2.34?
frout |
6.6
This ratio is a measure of the relative precision of the instruments.
Finally calculate the most probable length of the line. The most probable
length of the line is the weighted mean of the two observed lengths. Now
es LW x
Lw ;
In this example
a Wa ON te WR Iz
ww ’
Wa + Wp
in which La, and Lg are the mean lengths recorded by EDM A and EDM B,
respectively.

Hence <,,
Wa X 785.543 + wy X 785.546
Wa + Wp
“v4 x 785.543 + wp X 785.546
WB
——«= W
6.6 4
785.5456 m.
Xy could be written as 785.546 m to the nearest millimetre, in accordance
with the observed measurements. In practice, the arithmetic mean and standard
deviation or error may be expressed to one decimal place further than that
to which the measurements had been made.
8.3. The distribution An angle was measured as follows

of weighted readings
73° 40’ 12” weight 2
73° 40’ 15” weight 3
73° 40’ 09” =weight 1
73° 40’ 14” weight 4
73° 40’ 10” weight 1
73° 40’ 18” weight 1
73° 40’ 16” weight 2
73° 40’ 13” weight 3
Determine
(a) its most probable value;

(b) the standard deviation of an observation of unit weight;
(c) the standard deviation of an observation of weight 3; and
(d) the standard error of the weighted mean.
4% <7,
Table 8.5
Measure Weight Residual

(w) r= (x-X,)
73° 40’ 12”
73° 40’ 15”
73° 40’ 09”
73° 40’ 14”
Ta? 40°c10"
73° 40’ 18”
73° 40’ 16”
73° 40’ 13” WD
f=
oOon-—-

Solution. Tabulating the data and weighted residuals working from a datum
of 73° 40’ we get the values in Table 8.5.
“wy, x,
(a) The most probable value = x, = Datum + ————
Wi
233
= 73° 40’ + ——
A
73° 40’ 13.7”.
(b) Standard deviation (s) of an observation of unit weight
Lw) (x; —%,)?

5 + See > Te ee «x
n—1
TIS ;
s=t (since n = 8)
(S=1)
= + 3.33”.
(c) Standard deviation of an observation of weight 3.
Since Wiis} UW, SO =

if w3 = 3
3 isetemus’ = 13.394
Therefore $3 = + =
= + 1.92”.
(d) Find the standard error of the weighted mean.
The weight of this mean = Lw, = 1the

Therefore standard error
in ee ‘e an
(n—1) L“w,
+
| SS
77.53 |
(8-1) x 17
= + 0.81’,
or, since We Sn eo"
S 3133
Sm = Rit = + orl
= + 0.81”.
8.4 Probability Taking the standard deviation o of a single measure in Example 8.1
distribution to be +3” calculate:
(a) the magnitude of the deviation likely to occur once in every two
measurements; i

(b) the probability that a single measurement may deviate from the
true value by +6”;
(c) the probability that the mean of nine measurements may deviate
from the true value by +1.5”.
Introduction. The expression for the normal distribution is
dp =
1 e ~ @1-#)"/20? dx.
P wN2n
Bic X— pb ,
On writing u = the expression becomes
oO
dp = we en"2 dy,
V20
This is the standardized form of the above expression, and the relationship
between dp/du and uw is illustrated in Fig. 8.1.
Figure 8.1
The curve is symmetrical and its total area is 1, the two parts about u =
having areas of 0.5. The shaded area has the value
oe ——e du
_» V20
and it gives the probability that u lies between — oo and +1, i.e. less or equal
to u;. The unshaded area gives the probability that u will be larger than +1).
Since the curve is symmetrical, the probability that u takes up a value outside
the range +u, to —u, is given by the two areas indicated in Fig. 8.2.
The values of the ordinates of the standardized form, and the corresponding
definite integrals, have been determined for a wide range of u. These have
been tabulated and are available in various publications. Typical values used
in this example are given in Table 8.6.
Solution. (a) For a deviation to occur once in every two measurements
a probability of 50% is implied. Thus in Fig. 8.2 the two shaded parts have
areas of 0.25 each and the shaded area is 0.5.

Table 8.6 "
Bearing in mind that |*%! is the shaded area in Fig. 8.1, we require a value
of u in the table such that
+u; +u
ee = 0.25, ice. | = 0.75.
—oc —o
By inspection, u lies between 0.6 and 0.7, for which the integral has values
of 0.7257 and 0.7580, respectively. Hence the value u for the integral to be
0.75 is 0.6745.
Now u=——" = 0.6745.

o
Therefore deviation (x—p) = 0.67450
+ 2.0”
since o is given as 3”.
The term probable error may be encountered, rather than standard deviation;
for measurements of equal reliability it is estimated as
=\ 2
0.6745 {= |
n—-1l
(b) For a deviation (x—p) of +6” for a single measure

x—p 6
uw = — = —
0 3
= 2.0”. f

For u + 2.0
+2.0
| = 0.9772.
( +2.0
Hessel | =-1-09772
= 0.0228.
For the deviation to lie at the limits of, or outside, the range +6” to —6”
the probability is 2 x 0.0228 = 0.0456, or 4.6%.
(c) The standard deviation of the mean of nine observations
ae O54 A ip 3.0
J V9 3
= + 1.0”.
For a deviation of +1.5”
x—p |
Va
—— = ——
o 1.0
= Si?
1.5
whence | == (9332
—o
1.5
l— | = 0.0668.
Therefore the probability of assuming a deviation of +1.5”

= 2 X 0.0668
= 0.1336, or 13.4%.
8.5 Combinations of The co-ordinates of two surveying stations A and B are given below,
errors together with their standard deviations. Calculate the length and the
standard deviation of AB determined from these values.
Station A Easting 456.961 m + 20 mm,
Northing 573.237 m + 30 mm
Station B Easting 724.616m + 40 mm,
Northing 702.443 m + 50 mm
If an independent measurement by taping gives the length of AB to be
297.426 m + 70 mm and separate determination by EDM to be 297.155
+ 15 mm, calculate the most probable length of the line using all the
available information. What is the standard deviation of this value?
[Bradford]

Introduction. The surveyor might require to know the precision of a quantity
which has been determined from other quantities of known precision, i.e. the
horizontal length of a line calculated from measured slope length and angle
of slope. There are various rules allowing the necessary combinations to be
effected.
Let d= }(0,c.0, . 2)
2 af\2 af\2
Then OG, of o, +(—) «2 + (= Be aes
0b dc dd
af\2 ee af\2
In practice
ti s2 =(—)
(sn) s?
‘ + (2)
(= s+ (—)
fi sq
d ..., 8.1
[8.1]
in which s,, 5p, S- and sg etc. are the standard deviations (or the standard
errors) of a, b, c and d, respectively. Similarly, ifa =b+c+dt+...
0
,° = sy? +8,” + sy + ..., since es etc. = l.
[8.2]
And if a = Kb, in which K is free of error

Sy Ksy,
: 0
Since’ (=) = K. [8.3]
0b
In the above relationships it is assumed that b, c, d, ... are independent,
implying that the probability of any single one having a certain value does
not depend on the values observed for the others.
Table 8.7
Station Easting. Northing

(m) (m)
B 724.616 702.443
A 456.961 573.237
Solution. First determine length AB from the co-ordinates (see Table 8.7).
Therefore length of AB = |(267.655* + 129.2067)
= 297.209 m.
Next calculate the standard deviations of the easting and northing differences.
The easting difference was calculated as (724.616 — 456.961) m. Thus the
standard deviation (s,) of this difference is given by
5,2 = sep? + Sea7, as in eq. [8.2]
s,° = 40? + 20?

5s, = J2000
= 44.7 mm.
Similarly, the standard deviation (s,) of the northing difference is given by
SF = Sia" +5 Sin
= 50° + 30?
sy = 3400
= 58.3 mm.
Now calculate the standard deviation of the calculated length AB.
Lis = x+y"
Lap = (x? + y?).
Whence, from eq. [8.1],
SAB" = oa ae * Oa ; ae
Ox dy :
in which s, = 44.7 mm and s, = 58.3 mm.
Now —
AB
aL
ax
= 1 x ay(x? + 2)" 2 > _ = Lap3
Ir +»)
OL
and — = +x 2y(x* ty?)
7 = — ; : “Files z. :
dy VQ" + y*) Lap
267.655 \? 129.206 \?
Whence § sap? = -(————) x 44.77 + eee x 55.3°
297.209 297.209
= 1622 + 642 = 2264 mm’.
Therefore sap = 47.58 mm,
i.e. the standard deviation of length AB determined from co-ordinate

information is 47.6 mm.
We can now calculate the most probable length of AB. Three lengths
(measured or calculated) are known:
(a) by tape — 297.426 + 70 mm;

(b) by EDM — 297.155 + 15 mm;
(c) by calculation — 297.209 + 47.6 mm.
Weighting inversely to the standard deviations squared we have the values in

Table 8.8.
Table 8.8
297.426 | 1/4900
297.155 1/ 225
297.209 1/2264

wil, + wb + w3h
The most probable length =
Wj + Wt W3
297.426 $i 297.155 i: 297.209

4900 220 2264
Gea: Her,
= 297.171 m.
1 ae
1 a.
1
Now Wy = Yw =
4900 Pe) 2264
= 0.005 09 mm~?.
Since weights were applied as the inverse of the squares of the standard
deviations
‘bel
WE 5, :
5 1
Therefore s 2S
0.005 09
and Ss = + 14.0 mm.
Standard deviation of length 297.171 m is + 14.0 mm.
8.6 Accuracy of As part of an industrial measurement survey an accurate base line,

subtense PR, was measured using a subtense bar 1 m long, located near to the
measurements centre of the line at Q, such that two distances, 9.375 m and 9.493 m,
were obtained. If the standard error of angular measurement was +1”
determine the error in the length of the line.
Introduction. This is a further example of the combination of errors. Figure

8.3 shows the method of measurement of PR with the subtense bar at Q and
angles a and 6 being measured by a theodolite at P and R respectively; full
procedures for the use of a subtense bar are discussed in Chapter 2.
9.375 m 9.493 m
H, H,
Figure 8.3
" 302 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SURVEYING

Solution. First devise a standard formula. If the length of the subtense bar
is b and the subtended angle is 6 then, as in Fig. 2.4,
= ee
: =tagyew henen 66 is
i sma ll
Therefore,
—b —H?
dH = we dé = dé (dé in radians)
Writing Spr, Spa, Sgr, Sy and Sg as the respective standard errors we have
SpoPQ = — —B
Hj Sq
9.3757 ° 1
1 206 265
0.00426 m
qe
1 206 265
= 0.000437 m
Sone i Spo” =f Sor’
Spr = V(0.000426? + 0.000437)

= 0.61 mm
The ratio of that standard error to the measured length
0.00061
9.375, +. 9,493
1 in 30 931
8.7 Accuracy of Two vertical levelling staves were securely fixed in position at stations
levelling A and B, 93.00 m apart. Ten instrument stations were then located
between A and B as shown in Fig. 8.4 and the differences in height
between A and B were then measured by a tilting level set up in turn
at the ten stations (see Table 8.9).
Determine the most probable values of the height differences between
A and B and the inclination of the line of sight of the level when the
bubble is centred.

Table 8.9
Level position Difference in height

(m)
OOaARON
COON
=
P, 4
Line of sight
(OM Se 8 Ons aa eee Baa TON
Figure 8.4
Introduction. The relative positions of the instrument stations in this

example (Fig. 8.4) are very similar to those adopted when estimating the
accuracy of a level by the Princeton standard test. (See The Princeton Standard
Test for Estimating the Accuracy of a Level by P. Kissam Surveying and
Mapping, March 1963.) In this particular example a set of ten differences in
height have been established, whereas in the Princeton test a further three sets
are required. The stations are set out on fairly level ground, and in that test
Difference
in height
0.150 y = 0.1238 — 0.000 3045 D
secret ees G7 36. 9 0

Instrument position
Figure 8.5

all stadia lines are read and adjustments are made empirically for curvature
and refraction. The principle of least squares is used to establish the average
slope of the line of sight and the standard error is then calculated as a measure
of accuracy of the level. In this example, as in the Princeton test, a regression
analysis is carried out to fit a linear model to the data plotted in Fig. 8.5.
Solution. First derive a general expression. In Fig. 8.4 it has been assumed
that the line of sight is inclined upwards when the bubble is central.
Apparent difference in level between A and B = a, — by.
True difference in level between A and B =a — Dp.
Now Oe Di Lag 0) (By gy @)

= (a, — bh) — 0G - qQ)
= (a, — b,) — D, 6 (putting D, = (Pp; — 4),
or (a, — b)) = (a — b) + D, 8.
If t be the best, i.e. most probable, value for (a—b) and @ be the best value
for the inclination of the line of sight, the best value for the difference in level
(Y) obtained by observations from any instrument station will be Y = tf +
D, 6, and this is the equation of the regression line to fit the measurements.
Thus for an observed or apparent difference of y,; a residual of value
y,—(t+D, 9) results. Applying the principle of least squares the values of ¢
and @ which minimize the sum of the square of the residuals (or deviations)
between the observed measurements y, and Y, are found. L[y, —(t+D,6)]’
is to be a minimum. Writing this sum as E
E = X(y,’ — 2y,(t+D, 6)+07+2t D, 0+D,? 67).
dE
For a minimum “le = 0 and — =0.
Ot 00
Therefore —L2y, + L2t + L2D, 6 =0
and —L2y, D; + L2tD, + L2D,? 6 = 0.
Table 8.10
—0.0013
+0.0016
+ 0.0009
+ 0.0006
—0.0012
—0.0003
— 0.0004
+ 0.0004

By symmetry LD, = 0 because (p; —q;) is negative for stations 1 to 5, and
positive for stations 6 to 10, with corresponding sight differences.
Ly,
Therefore t = (n = 10 in this example),
n
i.e. the best value for t is the mean of the ten differences measured and
j= Ly,D,
2 ea
The data can be tabulated as in Table 8.10.
Most probable difference in height
t=
ry;
10
1.238
10
0.1238 m, say 0.124 m.
Most probable value of the inclination of the line of sight
LyD,
g=—
ED,”
6.702
22010
— 0.000 304 5 radian, i.e. 0.000 30 radian
(inclined downwards).
Note that inclination @ is an instrumental error; in this example we have

estimated its most probable value. Accidental errors are present in the
observations, Fig. 8.5 indicating residuals (or deviation) from the regression
line. These are included in the table and are based on r = y, —(t+D,6), where
t = 0.1238 and 6 = 0.000 304 5 rad.
8.8 Least squares — A series of level networks are run, and the results are as follows:
the normal equations Weight
Height of A — Height of B = 18.614 3
Height of B — Height of C 16.264 Z
Height of C — Height of D = 22.385 2
Height of A — Height of D = 57.247 1
Calculate the most probable differences in height between A and C and
between B and D. [Leeds]
Introduction. When using the method of least squares to solve such prob-
lems as this two approaches present themselves:
a

(a) reduction to a minimum number of unknowns; and
(b) the method of correlates (Lagrange’s method of undetermined
multipliers).
The former method which produces equations, known as normal equations,
is used in this example. Two solutions will be given, the first assuming the
observations were of equal weight and the second accepting the weights
stipulated in the question.
Datum
Figure 8.6
Solution. (a) Assume equal weighting. Examination of the data shows

that D is the lowest of the four stations and for convenience it will be treated
as the datum. All height differences are now positive, as in Fig. 8.6, and the
four observations have been arranged to give three unknowns. Let the most
probable heights of A, B and C aboveD be a, b and c, respectively. Thus
the most probable differences in height between A and B, B and C will be
(a—b) and (b—c), respectively. Individual residuals can now be deduced as
r, = 57.247 —a
ry = 18.614 — (a—b)
r3 16.264 — (b-—c)
rg = 22.385 — c.
Dr,” is to be a minimum, i.e.
R = (57.247—a)? + [18.614—(a—b)]* + [16.264—(b—c)]?
+ (22.385—c)?, is to be a minimum.
aR aR aR er
Hence —— = 0, —— = 0 and —— = 0, S>5 a
da db dc Rk + ng
OO
and so shin:Dee oe toa Recon Wy,
(-a eae (2 X 18.614)

+ 2a—2b
=0 :
SiG ee <
with respecttob AXQ-—2bB — ii + ae)
(+2 x 18.614) — 2a+2b-—(2 X 16.264) + 2b—2c = 0
with respect to c
(+2 x 16.264) + 2b+2c—(2 X 22.385) + 2c = 0.
Dividing throughout by 2 results in the normal equations
2a — b — 75.861 =0
—a+2b —c + 2.350 = 0
—b + 2c — 6.121 =0

Whence a = 57.251 m, b = 38.641 m, c = 22.381 m, i.e. the most prob-
able height difference between A and C is 34.870 m and between B and D
is 38.641 m.
(b) Adopt the assigned weights. The residuals r,, etc., maintain the same
values but they do not have the same reliability or precision. Hence Lwyry-
is to be a minimum in which
ry = 57.247 — a (weight 1),
ry = 18.614 — (a—b) (weight 3),
r; = 16.264 — (b—c) (weight 2),
rg = 22.385 — ¢ (weight 2);
and R = (57.247—a)* + 3[18.614—(a—b)]* + 2[16.264—(b—o)]?
+ 2(22.385—c)?.
OR OR OR
Again
—— = 0, —— = 0 and = 0, and so with respect to a
da 0b dc
(—2 X 57.247) + 2a — (6 X 18.614) + 6a — 6b = 0
with respect to b
(+6 X 18.614) — 6a + 6b —(4 X 16.264) + 4b — 4c = 0
with respect to c
(+4 X 16.264) — 4b + 4c — (4 X 22.385) + 4c = 0.
Dividing throughout by 2 results in the normal equations
4a — 3b — 113.089 = 0
~3a +5b — 2c_+ 23.314 = 0
— 2b + 4c — 12.242 = 0.
Whence a = 57.254 m, b = 38.642 m, c = 22.381 m. Therefore the most
probable difference in height between A and C is 34.873 m and the most prob-
able difference in height between B and D is 38.642 m.
Alternative solution. There is a more convenient method of solving this

problem which involves tabulating the coefficients from the various residuals
as in Table 8.11. Now multiply all terms on each line by the weight of that
line and the coefficient of the unknown (a, b or c) under consideration.
Table 8.11
+ 57.247
+ 18.614
+ 16.264
+ 22.385

For a, which appears on two lines:
for the first line, (w) (c,) (term a) + (w) (c,) (term N),
i.e. (1)((—1) (—Da + (1)(—1) (57.247);
and for the second line,
(3)(—1)(—
Da + (3)(-1)(1b
+ + (3)(—1) (18.614).
These summarize as
a — 57.247 + 3a — 3b — 55.842,
and so we obtain the normal equation
4a — 3b — 113.089 = 0.
For b, which appears on two lines
(3)(+1)(—Da + (3)(+1)(+Db + ()(+ 118.614)
(2)(—1)(—1)b + (2)(—1)(+
De + (2)(— 116.264)
which give:
—3a + 3b + 55.842 + 2b — 2c — 32.528

or —3a + 5b — 2c + 23.314 = 0.
For c, which appears on two lines

(2)(+1)(—Db + (2)(+1)(+ De + (2)(4+1)(16.264)
(2)(—1)(—De + (2)(— 122.385),
which give:
—2b + 2c + 32.528 + 2c — 44.770

or —2b:.+ 4e — 12.242, =0,
It will be realized that we have ‘automatically’ carried out the partial

differentiations of R demanded by the principle of least squares.
This problem can be solved by the following computer program using the
matrix equation X = (A™WA)~! (A’WB), where
A= eo), A= |=) BOOP Ov Weaari O0Uul,

B =") 57,2471.
* coat Wie othe © 0300 18.614
c Ue a | 0020 16.264
Oe eal 0002 pS
Further details on the matrix method of solving this type of problem are given
in Example 8.10.
The DIM statement in line 20 is set for a problem with 10 unknowns in
10 equations. For readers with computers with limited memory the minimum
values for the array variables are: A(N2, N1); B(N2); D(N1, 2* N1); E(N1);
T(N1, N2); W(N2).

Variables
A(i,j) = Coefficient matrix A I,J,K = Loop counters
B(i) = Product matrix B M = Line divisor in matrix
D(i,j) = Values to N1,N1 are inversion
[A ' WA], values from Nl = Number of unknowns
N1, N1+1 are N2 = Number of equations
[A ' WA] ~! T(i,j) = Transpose matrix [AW]
E(i) = Matrix [A WB] W(i) = Weight matrix W
F = An element of the output x = Divisor of each line in
matrix matrix inversion
10 REM LEAST SQUARES MATRIX SOLUTION |

20 DIM A(10, 10), B(10), D(10, 20), E(10), T(10, 10), W(10)
30 INPUT "NUMBER OF UNKNOWNS "; N12
40 INPUT "NUMBER OF EQUATIONS "; N2 x
50 FOR I = 1 TO N2
60 PRINT "FOR EQUATION"; I
70 FOR J = 1 TO Nl
80 PRINT "INPUT COEFFICIENT OF VARIABLE"; J
90 INPUT A(I, J)
100 NEXT J
110 INPUT "PRODUCT OF THIS EQUATION "; B(I)
120 INPUT "WEIGHT OF THIS EQUATION "; W(I)
130 NEXT I
140 FOR I = 1 TO N1
150 FOR J = 1 TO N2
160 T(I, J) = A(J, I) * W(d)
170 NEXT J
180 NEXT I
190 FOR K = 1 TO N1
200 FOR I = 1 TO Nl
210 FOR J = 1 TO N2
220 .D(Ky Ly =wD (Kea D) et CE (K, i), * Ado per))
230 NEXT J
240 NEXT I
250 FOR I = Nl + 1 TO 2 * N1
260 IF Nl + K = I THEN GOTO 290
270 D(K, I) = 0
280 GOTO 300
290 D(K, I) =1
300 NEXT I
310 FOR J = 1 TO N2
320 E(K) = E(K) + (T(K, J) * B(J))
330 NEXT J
340 NEXT K
350 FOR K = 1 TO N1
360 FOR J = 1 TO N1
370 IF J = K THEN 420
380 M = D(J, K)
390 FOR I = 1 TO 2 * N1
400 D(J, I) = D(J, I) * D(K, K) - D(K, I) *M
410 NEXT I
420 NEXT J
430 NEXT K
440 FOR J = 1 TO N1
450 X = D(J, 3)
460 F = 0
470 FOR I = Nl + 1 TO 2 * Nl
A480 Did, I) = D(d, 1). / X
490 F = F + D(J, I) * E(I - N1)
500 NEXT I
510 F = INT(F * 10000 + .5) / 10000
520 PRINT "VARIABLE"; J; "="; F
530 NEXT J
540 END

8.9 Least squares — In a round of levels the results in Table 8.12 were obtained. Determine
method of correlates the most probable values of the levels of B, C and D above A, given
that the height difference value for the line A to B is the mean of two
runs, all other lines being observed once only.
Table 8.12
+ 42.285
— 12.016
— 20.240
~ 8.114
— 22.224
Figure 8.7
[Salford]
Introduction. This example will be solved by the Lagrange method of

undetermined multipliers (method of correlates) where the errors (or their
corrections) in each line are considered directly. The difference in height of
two terminals, between which a run of flying levels has been conducted, is
the algebraic sum of the rises and falls between the change points. Thus,
assuming equal distances for backsights and foresights, accidental errors should
be proportional to |(number of instrument stations) and hence proportional
to /(length of line). Accordingly, weighting, which is assumed to be inversely
proportional to the square of the errors, can be applied as the reciprocal of
the length of line.
Solution. The network of levels together with the directions of the rises
and falls are shown in Fig. 8.7. A study of this figure shows that there are
three closed circuits of level runs, namely ABCDA, ABDA and BCDB. Two
out of the three are needed in the analysis, but whichever are chosen the
‘directions’ of levelling should be compatible. For instance, in Fig. 8.8,
ABCDA and ABDA are compatible. Choosing ABDA and BCDB requires
some adjustment for conformity along BD and the falls along BC and CD are
transformed into rises to satisfy the changes in direction in Fig. 8.9. Such
transformations should minimize any confusion in respect of signs. In each
of the closed circuits it is required that the sum of the ‘rises’ will equal the
sum of the ‘falls’. Accordingly there is one condition equation for each circuit.
Let the configurations of Fig. 8.9 be adopted in the analysis and let
corrections (equal and opposite to the corresponding errors) e;, €2, 3, €4 and
es be required for the corresponding adjustment.
In circuit ABDA the error+42.285 — (20.240 + 22.224)
—0.179 m.
In circuit BCDB the error +(12.016 + 8.114) — 20.240
= — 0.110 m.

A 4+ 42.285 A + 42.285
B
G
— 20.240
— 22.224 , gue
D D
Figure 8.8
A 42.285 3
B B 5
12.016
—22.224 Saseay Cc
e, es
8.114
e3
D D
Figure 8.9
The corrections are to be such that the two condition equations will be satisfied
and these reduce to
é; + e4 + es = +0.179m
eo + e3 + es = +0.110 m.
A third condition has to be satisfied, and this is that Dw, e,7 is to be a

minimum.
Differentiating with respect to e;, e, etc.,
W,1 €;
@1 be;0€; = 0 = Wy2 @€2 46),
0€2 etc.
Therefore wy, e, de; + W e) de, + Wz e3 be; + Wy ey be4
Te Ws @5 6és5 = 0. [8.4]
Since the equations of condition must remain unaltered by increments de, 6e),
etc., ;
be; ae 6e4 oT és = 0 [8.5]

be =f 6e3 a és = 0. [8.6]
If the equations are multiplied by factors —x and —y, respectively,

—x de, —x be, —x des = 0 [8.7]
ay) bey = y 6e3 ey) bes = 0. [8.8]
Add eqns [8.8] and [8.7] to eqn [8.4]
de; (Ww; e;—x) + de2(wy e2—y) + 5e3(w3 e3—y) + be4(Wy €4—X)

ae 6e5 (Ws @s5—X—Yy) = 0.

Whence, since de,, de, etc., are independent quantities
“4 a y x x+y
Ci , = , 63 = ——, & = —, ¢5 =
Wi W2 W3 W4 Ws
Now weights can be applied inversely to the length of run, and so

2 Bal eA eal #48
W2 = jo» W3 = 39> W4 = 39 and ws = 55.
Two runs were made on line AB and the mean value of level difference has
been used above.
It has been mentioned in Example 8.2 that
and Wy 5S’ = wW, 5,’

Therefore w, = n w,,
which relates the weight of the mean of n observations to that of the single
observation. Hence in this example
n oy ke
Ww, = — = =, since n = 2
l 20
ele
10
Therefore e, = 10x, e, = 10y, e; = 20y, eg = 30x and
es = 25x + 25y.
Substituting in the equations of condition, which have to be satisfied
LOxet) 30x (25x te 25y)' = 0.179
10y + 20y + (25x + 25y) = 0.111
andso 65x + 25y = +0.179
25x + S5y = +0.110,
whence y = 0.000 91, x = 0.002 41,
e, = 10x = +0.024 m
e> = 10y = +0.009 m
e3 = 20y = +0.018 m
eg = 30x = +0.072 m
es = 25x + 25y = +0.083 m
The most probable values of the levellings are:

AtoB = +42.285 + 0.024 = +42.309 m
CtoB = +12.016 + 0.009 = +12.025m
DtoC = + 8.114 + 0.018 = + 8.132m
Dto A = —22.224 + 0.072 = —22.152 m
BtoD = —20.240 + 0.083 = —20.157 m

The most probable levels above A are:
B = 42.309 m
C 42.309 — 12.025 = 30.284 m
D = 22.152 m
The computer program listed with Example 8.8 can be used to solve this
problem. :
8.10 Least squares From an observation station O four trigometrical stations A, B, C and
— angle observations D can be seen. The readings in Table 8.13 were taken in order to
determine the most likely values of the included angles.
Table 8.13
26° 161.221
37° 15’ 33°
47° 22 15”
62° 32’ 05”
84° 37’ 41”
109° 54’ 21”
By the method of least squares using either observation equations or

condition equations determine the most likely values of angles AOB, BOC
and COD. [Bradford]
Solution. (a) By condition equations. The most probable values should

satisfy the condition equations
AOB + BOC = AOC
BOC + COD = BOD
AOB + BOC + COD = AOD
Let corrections of e,, €2, €3, €4, 5, &5 be applied to the observed values AOB,
BOC, COD, AOC, BOD and AOD, respectively. Then the most probable value
of AOB will be 25° 16’ 27” + e,, and similarly for the remaining five
angles.
Thus 25°°16’27" + e; + 37° 15°33” +e, = 62°32’ 05" + e

37° 15°33" +e +4722 15" 4 e, = 84° 37’ 41” + eg
and?” 2S°Slo Uli? “cee a 8 20" +e + 47° 22° 15* 4fe,
= 109° 54’ 21” + @.
Whence the condition equations reduce to
é) tes — eg = +-05% [8.9]
€y + €3 — €5 = —(Q7" [8.10]
€; + 6) + €3 — €5 = +06” ; [8.11]

and Lw, e,” is to be a minimum to satisfy the principle of least squares. On
differentiation for the minimum condition
W, e| de, = 0, CIC...
and so
WwW, ©} de; + W €76€7 + W3 63 6e3 + W4 &4 6e4 Hoa Ws 5 bes

+ We & 6&6 = 0. [8.12]
Also be) aia be = 6e4 = 0 [8.13]

de, + be; — de, = 0 [8.14]
de, + be, + be; — be5 = 0. [8.15]
Multiplying eqns [8.13], [8.14] and [8.15] by —x, —y and —z, respectively,
and then adding to eqn [8.12]
de, (wie, —x —2) + be2(weg —x —y —z) + 5e3(w3e3 —y —2)

+ de4( we, +x) + be5(wses ty) + be6(Wees +z) = 0.
xe Ts alIgpie yt+z i: = y
Hence, 2) = —— = ee ae = pene a,
Wi W2 W3 4 Ws
a4
gE.
W6
Inserting the values for the weights and incorporating the above in eqns [8.9],
[8.10] and [8.11] gives
(x2) atytz) + m4= +05”
Cyhy) -u(y-bz) + aaa

y oe
=F ”
z
ete) hi Gyre) +O rz) + 3 = +06”
and so 2.5x + y + 2z = +05”

ey t 22 = —=07”
10z
a6 ee +06",
whence x = —0.181”, y= —8.182” and z = +6.818”.

Therefore the most probable values are
AOB = 25° 16’ 27” —0.18” +6.82” 25 16! 336"
BOC = 37° 15’ 33” —0.18” —8.18” +6.82” Jip de RSLS
COD = 47° 22’ 15” —8.18” +6.82” = 47° 22’ 13.6”
Total = 109° 54’ 18.7”

Check AOD = 109° 54’ 21” —2.3” = 109° 54’ 18.7”.
Alternative solution. (b) By observation equations. Let measurements b,,

b>, ..., b, be related to unknowns x,, x, ..., x; by observation equations
of the type
ay; x4 se (ChGl0.) am et + ay x; = b;
Q5,Xa op Ky FF an: + ay x; = by
An X] an Anz X2 See cela ar ay Xi = be
in which n>i. If x; x) ... x, are the best values, residuals can be written as
ry = —(@y% + ay. % + ... +.a5;
x) + Dy
fap NS —(a> X{ se az2 X2 ci ne ae Ay; Xi) 3 by
Fo (Oy eX ay Xe a en dlsKi). he
and expressed as r = —Ax + b.
Allowing for weighted observations the principle of least squares requires
(—Ax + b)’ W(—Ax + b) = x" A'WAx — b'WAx
— x'A'Wb + b'Wb
to be a minimum,
whence 2A!'WAx — A'Wb — A'Wb =0

or A'WAx = A'Wb
_ and x = (A'WA)~! A'Wo.
Now let AOB = a, BOC = band COD =. In the example six observation
equations can be established.
a= 25° 16’ 27” = 0.441 117 4 radian (weight 1)

b = 37° 15’ 33” = 0.650 295 1 radian (weight 1)
c = 47° 22’ 15” = 0.826 777 O radian (weight 1)
a+b = 62° 32’ 05” = 1.091 436 8 radian (weight 2)
b+c = 84° 37’ 41” = 1.477 038 2 radian (weight 2)
a+b+c = 109° 54’ 21” = 1.918 218 6 radian (weight 3)
Hence
A=/+1 0 0/]/W=/]100000)] and b = {0.441 1174

0+1 O 010000 0.650 295 1
QO» O +1 001000 0.826 777 0
+1 +1. 0 000200 1.091 436 8
QO --1--] 000020 1.477 038 2
+141 +1 000003 1.918 218 6

A'W="|+1>0 o-Ftwort1] 100000
0+1 0O+1+41+4+1//1010000
0 O+1 O+1+1/ |001000
000200
000020
000003
=1 10° 270 3
Ov O22 3
Oo O-t.09.3
A'WA =|6 5 3
585
356
A'’Wb =[100203] [0.441 1174] =[ 8.378 6468

01022 3] |0.650 295 1 11.541 900 9
00102 3} | 0.826 7770 _ 9.535 509 2
1.091 436 8
1.477 038 2
1.918 218 6
Therefore [a] = (A'WA)~! A™Wb

b
c.
=[42 5 41 eT eH
-2 +2 -3 11.541 9009
+3 -2 +2 9.535 509 ‘
a = 0.441 149 6 radian = 25° 16’ 33.6”

be 0:650 287. 6iradiang— "37 -s15'31 5”
G = 903826 77054 radian = 14/° 22° 313.6”
Note: The reader will realize that having determined the six residuals from
the observations, i.e. 25° 16’ 17” — a, 37° 15’ 33” — b, etc., a solution
could be derived using the method given in Example 8.8. The computer
program listed with Example 8.8 will solve this problem.
8.11 Braced In order to determine the co-ordinates of the two ends A and B of the
quadrilateral by least centre-line of a bridge across a wide river, a braced quadrilateral ABCD
squares and equal was set out. The mean observed angles and their log sines are given in
shifts Table 8.14. Adjust the angles.

Table 8.14
Mean observed Log sine | Log sine

angle difference
for 1”
43° 48’ 22” | 1.840 244 2

38°66. 57" 14.795 251 1
3a° 5255” |.1.746 232 2
63° 41’ 24” | 1.952 506 5
49° 20’ 43” | 1.880 041 1
33° 04’ 56” | 1.737 067 2
50° 10’ 43” | 1.885 386 7
47° 23’ 28” | 1.866 8729
Figure 8.10
[ICE]
Solution. (a) By least squares. The layout of the triangulation is shown

in Fig. 8.10. The most probable values of the eight angles must satisfy four
condition equations, three being
1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8 = 360°
1+2 = 5+6 (Vertically opposite angles being equal in the
3+4 = 7+8 respective triangles.)
The fourth arises from a side relationship, as follows
sin4 sin6 sin4 sin8 sin6 sin4
AB = BC : =. CD ———— = AD
sinl sin3 sinl sin5 sin3 sinl
sin2 sin8 sin6 sin4

sin7 sinS sin3 sinl ~
Therefore sinl X sin3 X sinS X sin7 = sin2 xX sin4 X sin6 X sin8

or Y log sin ‘odd’ = L log sin ‘even’.
The values of the measured angles give
1+24+3 4445764745 = 359" 59" 28”
12 = 62" 25 19
3+4 = 97° 34’ 19”
J+6,= 52° 25" 39°
1+8 = 97° 34" 11",
Let corrections of e;, @, ..., eg be applied to angles 1, 2, ..., 8,
respectively. Then
Qe) + ep + €3 + &4 + C5 + Cg + C7 + Cg = 32”
82° 25’ 19” + e + e, = 82° 25’ 39” + es + &
97° 34" 197 + &, + ey = 97" 3411" 4 ey +e,
a

and so €y Fey = es — eg = "+20"
Cate C7 és = —08”.
The corrections also influence the log sine values. Before adjustment the sums
are
log sin 1 = 1.840 244 2 log sin 2 = 1.795 251 1
3 = 1.746 232 2 4 = 1,952 506 5
5 = 1.880 041 1 6 = 1.737 067 2
7 = 1.885 386 7 8 = 1.866 872 9
1.351 904 2 1.351 697 7

Denoting the differences of the log sines as vj, >, ..., Vg, i.e. 22 X 1077,
Fee an ADs Kedar: respectively, we have,
1.351 904 2 + €\V, + €3¥3 + @5V5 + €7V7

= 1.351 6977 + env, + e4¥4 + €6V6 + egvg.
Hence Lev; = Lerv. — 0.000 206 5
Therefore Le,v; — Lev, = —2065 x 1077.
Multiplying throughout by 107 gives
Y22e, — L26e, = —2065.
The condition equations have therefore reduced to
ert et ey fT ee es tt eg ey ey = Poe [8.16]
€) +.€2 — @5 — & = +20” [8.17]
€3 + €4 — €7 — eg = —08’ [8.18]
€yVy + €3V3 + @5V5 + €7V7 — €2V2 —€4V4 — C6V6 — gs
= —2065. [8.19]
Now, by ‘least squares’, Le,” is to be a minimum. On differentiation
€10e; + e6€, + e36€; + e4de4 + e56€5 + e6d€6 + €76€7
+ egdeg = 0 [8.20]
de, + der + 5e3 + be, + bes + be6 + 5e7 + deg = 0 [8.21]
de, + den — des — beg = 0 [8.22]
6e3 + be, — be, — beg = 0 [8.23]
and v,6e; + v36e3 + vsde5 + v7de7 — Vode — v4beq — V6be6
— vgdeg = 0. [8.24]
Multiply equations [8.21], [8.22], [8.23], [8.24] by —a, —b, —c, —d,
respectively, and add to equation [8.20] to obtain
6e,;(e; -a—b—dv,) + be,(e.—a—b+dv,) + 6e3(e;-—a—c—dy3)
+ 6e4(e,—a—ct+dv4) + be5(e5—a+b—dvs)
+ 6e6(es—atb+dve) + be;(e7—a+c—dv7)
+ deg(eg—atct+dvg) = 0.
Since 6e;, de, etc., are independent quantities

e; = at+b+dy,, en = at+b—dyy, e3 = at+c+d)y3,
eg = at+c—dyv4, és = a—b+dyvy, -. &6 = a—b—dvg,
e7 = a—c+dy,, €g = a—c—avg.
Substituting in equations [8.16], [8.17], [8.18] and [8.19] and remembering
that all v values have been multiplied by 10’
8a + d(vy, — v2 + V3 — V4 + V5 — V6 + Wy —¥g) = +32
4b + d(v, — v2 — V5 + V6) = +20
4c + d(v3 — v4 — V7 + vg) = —8
OAV — Vol Va .Va_ + V5 — Ve £.¥7 =! Vg)
+ bD(vy, — Vo — VWs + V6) + 6(V3 — V4 — V7 + Vs)
+ dDv,? = —2065. 4
Whence 8a + d = +32
4b + 11d = +20
4c + 22d = — 8
a+ 11b + 22c + 4219d = —2065.
Which solve for a = +4.063, b= +6.386, c = +0.772 and d = —0.504.

Thus
e; = 4.063 + 6.386 — 11.088 = — 0.639, ic. — 0.7”

é> = 4.063 + 6.386 + 13.104 = + 23.553 SgPlsUe
e3 = 4.063 + 0.772 — 15.624 = — 10.789 — 10.8”
eg = 4.063 + 0.772 + 5.040 = + 9.875 +- 9,9”
es = 4.063 — 6.386 — 8.568 = — 10.891 — 10.9”
&6 = 4.063 — 6.386 + 16.128 = +13.805 13.8
e7 = 4.063 — 0.772 — 9.072 = — 5.781 — 5.8”
eg = 4.063 — 0.772 + 9.576 = + 12.867 +12.9”
Check + 32.000 +32.0"

Adjusted values (which could be rounded off to the nearest second)
CAB = 43° 48’ 21.3”

ABD = 38° 37’ 20.6”
DBC = 33° 52’ 44.2”
BCA = 63° 41’ 33.9”
ACD = 49° 20’ 32.1”
CDB = 33° 05’ 09.8”
BDA = 50° 10’ 37.2”
DAC = 47° 23’ 40.9”
360° 00’ 00”
Alternative solution. (b) By ‘equal shifts’. The method of equal shifts has
very little mathematical justification, the sum of errors in the condition equations
simply being apportioned equally to the observations that produced them. The
method was developed in the days of hand calculations because of its simplicity
even with a large number of variables. Nowadays a more scientific correction
could be expected using the method of least squares with the calculations being
.)

carried out on a computer. This example is retained largely for its historical
significance and for the benefit of students who are still being taught the
technique. In this method the four condition equations have to be established
as in (a) but the corrections are derived without satisfying the principle of
least squares.
Consider eqns [8.16], [8.17] and [8.18].
Step 1: eqn [8.16] is stated as
Cp 2 + 63 + 4 + es + Cg + er + Cg = 32”.
The total correction is shared equally to each of the eight angles, i.e.
e= +4”,
Step 2: eqn [8.17] is stated as
ey te PE eee fn Oe
Now share out the corrections so that e; = e) = +5” and es = eg = —5S”.

In this way the total correction becomes +20” but eqn [8.16] still holds, i.e.
Le; = +32".
Step 3: eqn [8.18] stated that

&3 + Che Ct Se COE —8”.
Again share out the corrections so that e; = eg = —2” and e; = eg = +2”.

The total correction is —8” but eqn [8.16] still holds, i.e.
Le, = +32”.
At this stage the corrections in Table 8.15 will satisfy the requirements of eqns
[8.16], [8.17] and [8.18].
Step 4: the log sine condition determined in (a) stated
1.351 904 2 fe eV) = C3V3 Ap e5V5 aie e7V7
= 14351 697 7 + €nV2 sb €4V4 + C66 = €gvg
Table 8.15
Cree [oes |ows|owe |wenn

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Table 8.16
Angle Net correction ” Final v x 10”

(steps 1—3) correction
—
OANoahWND
or 0.000 2605 ai an =“ €3V3 tf C5V5 + €7V7
= €9V> oF €4V4 + €6V6 =f EgVg.
To eliminate the difference of 0.000 206 5 it is necessary to reduce the sum

of the log sines of angles 1, 3, 5 and 7 and to increase the sum of the log
sines of angles 2, 4, 6 and 8.
Let a further correction of +x” be applied to the net corrections determined
in Steps 1 to 3, being positive in the case of angles 2, 4, 6 and 8, and negative
in respect of angles 1, 3, 5 and 7. By this means angles 2, 4, 6 and 8 will
be increased and angles 1, 3, 5 and 7 will be decreased (see Table 8.16), but
there will be no alteration to
Le, = 32”.
Whence 2065 + 22(9—x) + 31(2—x) + 17(—1-—x) + 18(6-—x)
= 269+x) + 10(2+x) + 32(—14+x) + 19(6+x).
Table 8.17
Angle Correction Adjusted value Value obtained

by least squares method
1 —2.9” 43° 48’ 19” 43° 48’ 21”

2 + 20.9” 38° 37’ 18” 38° SF°-21*
3 —9.9” 33° 52’ 45” 33° 52’ 44”
4 + 13.9” 63° 41” 38” 63° 41’ 34”
5 —12.9” 49° 20’ 30” 49° 20’ 32”
6 + 10.9” 33° 05’ 07” Peo ai Wo el (8
A —5.9” 50° 10’ 37” 50° 10’ 37”
8 +17.9” 47° 23’ 46” 47° 23’ 41”

Therefore x = ast = 11.9”.
175
Adjusted values (rounded off to the nearest second) are given in Table 8.17
compared to the values obtained by the least squares method.
8.12 Variation of In Fig. 8.11 two control stations A and B have the co-ordinates given
co-ordinates in Table 8.18.
Table 8.18
Ee
ln pn
A 5210.15 12267.92
B 8785.62 9686.45
Observations were taken from these stations to determine the co-ordinates

of a third station G, as follows:
Bearing AG 76° 06’ 29” (standard error + 4.0”)

Bearing BG 14° 24’ 27” (standard error + 4.0”)
Length AG 4663.08 m_ (standard error + 0.05 m)
Length BG 3821.21 m_ (standard error + 0.05 m)
Angle BGA = 61° 41’ 57” (standard error + 5.6”)
By means of the method of variation of co-ordinates compute the co-
ordinates of G, which have been accepted provisionally as 9736.54 mE,
13387.68 mN.
y+
| 76° 6’ 29” 4663.08
Figure 8.11
Introduction. In Fig. 8.11
Ing? = Ge — xa)? + Oc — ya)’.

If small displacements dxg, dx,, dyg and dy, be applied to those co-ordinates,
the change in length AG is given by differentiation, as

me i= Va)dis (%q—Xa)
Sta
If aac be the bearing of AG
XG—*A
tan Gag =
YG— YA
and the change in that bearing due to the changes dx,, dya, etc., is
pe a ee sig Go~ Ys) a

dayg = 2 A 2 G
lac lac AG
_ Ga=
Ge i Xa) dye
la
Similar expressions can be derived for BG, whilst the change in angle BGA
can be related to da,g and dagg. In the method of variation of co-ordinates
provisional co-ordinates are allocated to points requiring adjustment. These
points are subjected to displacements dx and dy duly determined by a ‘least-
squares’ analysis. Residuals (7) can be derived in the form
r = O-C-dy,
where O is the measured value of a length, bearing or angle, C is the value
of that quantity as calculated from relevant co-ordinates, and dy is the change
in that quantity due to the displacements of the respective points. (C+dy) is
the best value for the quantity.
Solution. (a) Calculate values of (O—C) for bearings aag and agg.
XG = 9736.54 - Yg = 13 387.68 (provisional)

X, = 5210.15 ya = 12 267.92 (fixed)
Ag—%*XA = 4526.39 YOu yA 1119.76
4526.39
soiatiaa SE EW72
Therefore Qag = 76° 06’ 17.5” =C
‘Therefore (O—C) = 76° 06’ 29” -— 76° 06’ 17.5”
= +11.5”
Xg = 9736.54 yg = 13 387.68 (provisional)
Xp = 8785.62 yg = 9686.45 (fixed)
Xg—xXp = 950.92 Yo—-Yp = 3701.23

950.92
Spe PO ronans
agg = 14° 24’ 31.7" =C 4

Therefore (O—C) = 14° 24’ 27” — 14° 24’ 31.7”
= —4,7”
(b) Calculate values of (O—C) for Ixg and gg.
Ing = V(4526.392 + 1119.762)

= 4662.84 m = C.
Therefore (O—C) = 4663.08 — 4662.84
= +0.24 m.
lag = V(950.92? + 3701.23?)
= 3821.43 m = C.
(O—C) = 3821.21 — 3821.43
= —(0.22 m.
(c) Calculate the value of (O—C) for BGA, measuring clockwise.
BGA = 76° 06’ 17.5” — 14° 24’ 31.7”

= 61° 41’ 45.8” =C.
Therefore (O—C) = 61° 41’ 57” — 61° 41’ 45.8”
= eh L2
We can now determine the residuals. Since A and B are fixed control points
dx, = dy, = dxg = dyg = 0.
Thus dole eee-eb clini eo yg

lac lag
, Sag 1119.76
= ————
4526.39
- ——.~
ie serahe: RH? boo 4662.842 °°
= 0,000 051 5 dxg — 0.000 208 2 dyg
an
: : agg = ———>
3701.23 —
950.92
oy Sad] ae 3821.432 °°
= 0,000 253 4 dxg — 0.000 065 1 dyg
ding (XG —Xa) aie . (WG—Ya) aps
lac lac
4526.39 1119.76
=————
4662.84 dig 9 + ————
4662.84 dg
= 0,970 736.7 dxg + 0.240 145 5 dy,
. Aree gE , 3701.23
a ee aida 3821.43 °°
0.248 838 8 drg + 0.968 545 8 dyg.
Also (daag— dage) = —0.000 201 9 dig — 0.000 143 1 dyg.
Whence, expressing angles in radians, for a,

r= (O—C) — daac

9 ie
= + ——— — 90,000 051 5 dxg + 0.000 208 2 dyg.
206 265 dl
For QBRBG
4.7
r= — —— — 0.000 253 4 dx, + 0.000 065 1 dyg,
206 265
For lac
r=! (O-C) a dlac

= +0.24 — 0.970 736 7 dg — 0.240 145 5 dyg.
For lac
—0.22 — 0.248 838 8 dxg — 0.968 545 8 dyg.

For &
GyBGA
~ lI ol 41" 57, = (QaG 35 dang ee 85: ee dago)
= (O—C) — (dag — dope)

Biz
= + ——— + 0.000 201 9 dxg + 0.000 143 1 dyg.
206 265
Now apply weightings. Weights will be applied which are inversely
proportional to the squares of standard errors, as follows, adopting radian
measure in respect of bearings and angles.
Table 8.19
ce a}?
Bearing 51 566.25
4.0
2
Length (: ) 20.00
0.05
2
Angle = oe 36 833.04
5.6
(d) Normal equations can now be derived. The method discussed in Example
8.8 will be adopted to minimize L[Vw, r,]* with respect to the two unknowns
dxg and dyg. In Table 8.20 the five residuals for a,c, agg, lag, lgg and angle
BGA have been multiplied by the respective values of Vw to obtain the specific
values within the columns. The two normal equations are obtained from the
table as
634.799 172 6 dxg + 156.472 281 3 dyg 48.697 989 3
156.472 281 3 dxg + 552.614 645 3 dy —99.665 040 7
and these solve for a

Table 8.20
— 2.655 661 9 + 10.736 093 2 + 2.877 396 7

— 13.066 887 7 + 3.356 962 9 —1.175 7105
— 19.414 7340 — 4.802 9100 + 4.800 000 0
— 4.976 7760 — 19.370 916 0 — 4.400 000 0
+ 7.436 590 8 + 5.270 808 0 + 2.000 034 1
dig +0.130 m, i.e. +0.13 m

dy —0.217 m, i.e. —0.22 m.
Hence the most probable value of the co-ordinates of G are

9736.54 + 0.13 = 9736.67 mE
and 13 387.68 — 0.22 = 13 387.46 mN.
8.13 Trilateration A total station instrument is set up at point P and horizontal distances
to three control stations A, B and C are recorded as follows:
PA = 63.177 m + 0.003 m ai
PB 97.710 m + 0.004 m
PC = 136.930 m + 0.005 m
If the control stations have co-ordinates

/
A 1275.129 mE, 793.216 mN
B_ 1421.831 mE, 781.472 mN é
C 1312.714 mE, 621.201 mN Cc
what are the most probable co-ordinates of P? Figure 8.12
Introduction. This example illustrates a common use of EDM where an

instrument is placed at a temporary station convenient for the task in hand
and the co-ordinates of that station are obtained by three (or more) distance
observations on to visible control stations. The solution is an application of
the procedure of variation of co-ordinates discussed in Example 8.12.
Solution. The first stage is to obtain provisional co-ordinates for P using

the data from one pair of control stations
WCB, = tan (£2=£s )

Ng-Na
Pax! (121 831275122 )
781.472 —793.216
94° 34’ 38”
length AB = V((Eg—Eq)” + (Np—Na)”)
V/((1421.831 —1275.129)? + (781.472 —793.216)*)
= 147.171 m
Using the cosine rule (see Example 4.1),
AB? + PA2— PB?

cos A =
2 X AB X AP
147.1712+63.1772-97.7107
2% 147.171 X 63.177
= 0.86598
A = 30° 00’ 20”
WCBap = WCBapz +A
= 94° 344.38” + 30° 00° 20”

= 124° 34’ 58”
Ep — Ex + PA sin WCBap
= 1275.129 + 63.177 sin 124° 34’ 58”
= 1327.143 mE
Np = Nx + PA cos WCBap
= 793.216 + 63.177 cos 124° 34’ 58”
= 757.357 mN
The next stage is to determine the (o—c) values for lines AP, BP and CP.
For line AP the measured value was used to fix the provisional co-ordinates
of P and hence o = c and (o—c) is zero.
For line BP,
WCBpgp = tan~! (=e)
Np— Ng
we r2 (E121 81)
757.357 —781.472
ERS* 49” 40"
lpp = V((1327.143
— 1421.831)? + (757.357 —781.472)°)
=.97.-71 iim
(o-c) = 97.710—97.711
= —0.001 m
For line CP,
WCBep = tan7! (REIS- B74)
757.357
—621.201
OM O2 S47 i

lop = V((1327.143 — 1312.714)? + (757.357 —621.201))
= 136.918 m
(o—c) = 136.930— 136.918

= +0.012 m
For the third step the residules have to be determined. It is thus necessary
to establish the changes in the lengths due to the variation of the co-ordinates
of point P. In Example 8.12 we established the expression
dig = — (Gg —Xa) dx, — (YG —Ya) dy, + (XG —Xa) dx,
lac AG AG
4+ Oa=Ya) aye
lac
This can be altered, with reference to Fig. 8.11, to read
dlag = —sin bac dx, — cos OaG dy, +sin OaG dig
+ cos OaG dyg
in which bac is WCBac.-

The directions of co-ordinate axes x and y lie in the directions of the easting
and northing axes. Since A is a control point dx, = dy, = 0 and it follows
that
d/ag = sin O,ge — cos Oagn
in which e = dxg and n = dyg.
Whence,
disp = e sin 124° 34’ 58” + ncos 124° 34’ 58” = 0

= 0.823307e — 0.567596n = 0
digp = e sin 255° 42’ 42” + n cos 255° 42’ 42” = —0.001
—0.969066e — 0.246802n = —0.001
dlcp é-sin.G° O20 975 ton cos-6° 02" 57” = 0.012
= 0.105382e + 0.994432n = 0.012
The three observation equations must now be solved by one of the methods
described in Example 8.8, or by matrix methods as described in Example 8.10.
We will continue with the tabular method.
Weights can be applied to each of the equations using the reciprocal of the
square of the standard error.
For equation 1 a weight of s would apply
For equation 2 a weight of hkwould apply
For equation 3 a weight of 3; would apply
If the three observation equations are multiplied by 1000 to avoid small

numbers, Table 8.21 results.

Table 8.21
823.307 — 567.596
— 969.066 — 246.802
105.382 994.432
For e,
(823.307) (1/9) (823.307e —567.569n) + (—969.066) (1/16)
(—969.066e —246.802n+ 1) + (105.382) (1725)
(105.382e+994.432n—12) = 0
75314.935e —51922.862n + 58693 .057e+ 14947 .964n — 60.567 +
444 .219e+4191.849n — 50.583 = 0
134452.210e —32783.049n —111.151 = 0
For n,
(—567.596) (1/9) (823.307e —567.569n) + (—246.802) (1/16)

(—969.066e —246.802n+1) + (994.432) (1/25)
(105.382e+994.432n—12) = 0
—51922.862e
+ 35796. 135n + 14947.964e
+ 3806.952n — 15.425+
4191.809e+39555.800n— 477.327 = 0
— 32783 .089e + 79158.887n
—492.752 = 0
Multiply by 4.101267
— 134452.210e
+324651.750n —2020.908 = 0
Add to normal equation 1
291868.700n —2132.059 = 0
n = +0.0073 m
e = +0.0026 m
Hence new co-ordinates of P are

Ep = 1327.143 + 0.003
= 1327.146 mE
Np = 757.357 + 0.007
= 737.364 mN
The following computer program can be used to solve this problem, it uses
the matrix routine listed with Example 8.8 and reference should be made to
this listing for full details of the variables. The control stations must be input
in a clockwise direction. The logic function AND is used in lines 150 and
270, for computers that do not support this function, the following routine
should be used at line 150.
150 IF E(2) > E(1) THEN GOTO 160
155 IF N(2) > N(1) THEN A = A+2*P

with a similar routine at line 270.
Variables
A = WCB to set co-ordinates F(i) = Calculation matrix
Al = Angle in triangle to set I, J, K = Loop counter
co-ordinates 1b = Calculated distance to
A(i, j) = Coefficient matrix point P
B(i) = Product matrix L(i) = Measured distances to
Cl = Cosine of angle Al point P
DG, j) = Calculation matrix M = Line divisor in matrix
E, N = Co-ordinate of point P inversion
E(i), NG) = Co-ordinates of control T(i, j) = Transpose matrix
stations W(i) = Weight matrix
F = Output matrix element X = Divisor of each line in
matrix inversion
10 REM TRILATERATION
BOD LM GAS exe epi C3 ine DCD iOpen keKodiget Olu. US )4 NCS), 23, I, WES)
DowP = 3 1AL59
30 FOR I =.1 To 3
40 PRINT "INPUT CO-ORDINATES OF "; I
50 INPUT E(I), N(I)
60 NEXT I
70 FOR I = 1 TO 3
80 PRINT "INPUT DISTANCE TO STATION "; I
90 INPUT L(I)
100 INPUT "ACCURACY OF MEASUREMENT ", W(I)
110 W(I) = 1 / (W(I) * W(I))
118 NEXT I
11D) ASAIN CCE 2) SEL) G7 AN (2) = eN(2)
120 IF E(1) > E(2) AND N(2) > N(1) THEN A = A + 2 * P
121 IF N(1) > N(2) THEN A = A + P
123 Ll = SQR((E(2) - E(1)) * 2 + (N(2) - N(1)) * 2)
WRC = CCN All) Aa KEE e— (U2) * (2))) f (2 = bE eres)
125 Al = ATN(SQR(1 - Cl * C1) / C1)
126 A=A + Al
U2 7) EPVAL >ii2u* .P THEN AvH yA = 2k 5 P
128 E = E(1) + L(1) * SIN(A)
129 N = N(1) + L(1) * COS(A)
131 FOR I = 1 TO 3
132 L = SQR((E - E(I)) * 2 + (N - N(I)) * 2)
133 A = ATN((E - E(I)) / (N - N(I)))
134 IF E > E(I) AND N(I) > N THEN A =A + 2 * P
135 IF N > N(I) THENA =A +P
136 A(I, 1) = SIN(A)
137 A(I, 2) = COS(A)
138 B(I) = L - L(I)
139 NEXT I
149 FOR I = 1 TO 2
150 FOR J = 1 TO 3
T6OMT( Lp) =TA(T eye Wd)
170 NEXT J
180 NEXT I
190 FOR K = 1 TO 2
200 FOR I = 1 TO 2
210 FOR J = 1 TO 3
220) D(K, 2) = D(K, =) + (E(K, ol), * A(d, 2))
230 NEXT J
240 NEXT I
250 FOR I = 3 TO 4
260 IF 2 + K = I THEN GOTO 290
270 D(K, I) = 0
280 GOTO 300
290 D(K, I) =1
300 NEXT I
310 FOR J = 1 TO 3
320 F(K) = F(K) + (T(K, J) * B(J))
330 NEXT J
340 NEXT K
350 FOR K = 1 TO 2

360 FOR J = 1 T0 2
Shela) IF J = K THEN GOTO 420
380 M = D(J, K) 4.
390 FOR I = 1 TO 4
400 Dipl = Dwr Ll)» D(K, Ky. — D(K, I) eM
410 NEXT I
420 NEXT J
430 NEXT K
440 FOR J = 1, TO 2
450 X = D(J, J)
460 F=0
470 FOR I = 3 TO 4
480 Deel) c= Diciwely, aX
490 Laren any en Te 2)
500 NEXT I
510 IF J =1THENE=E+F
520 IF J = 2 THENN=N+PF
530 NEXT J
535 PRINT "STATION CO-ORDINATES ARE", E, N F
540 END
Problems
1 A ‘total station’ instrument was set up at A and used to make

observations towards two other stations B and C.
The following data were obtained together with their corresponding
standard deviations:
Co-ordinates of A: 4372.651m + 8 mmE,
6751.322 m + 12 mm N
Vertical angles: A to B 27° 15’ 27” + 9”,
A to C 15° 31’ 56” + 6”
Slant distances: A to B 2365.228 m + 16 mm,
~ Ato C 1496.314 + 27 mm
Fixed bearings: A-to B 64° 15’ 12” + 14”,
A to C 107° 42’ 36” + 20”
Calculate the eastings and northings of B together with their standard

deviations.
What is the standard deviation of the difference in level between B
and C calculated from the above data? [Bradford]
Answer 6266.500 m + 77 mm, 7664.671 m + 131 mm, + 101 mm
2 (a) List the various errors introduced in distance measurement using

wires in catenary, indicating how their effects could be minimized or
eliminated.
(b) From a marked point, another point is set out by using a theodolite
and a tape for bearing and distance. If the standard deviations of the
measured bearing and distance are + o, and + g; respectively, prove
that the sum (0% + ox) is independent of the bearing, where + of and
+ Oy are the standard deviations of the computed co-ordinates of the
other point.
(c) In part (b) above if (of + oy) is not to exceed 25 cm’, / is
400 m and g; is + 4 cm, calculate the required maximum standard

deviation of the observed bearing in seconds of arc. (Assume cosec |”
= 20.6 x 10*.) [London]
Answer + 15.45”
3 (a) State the law of propagation of random error and name the
limitation on its application. Hence show that if o is the standard error
of each of a set of n observations, the standard error of the mean equals
alNn.
ToB
———
W,
Figure 8.13
(b) Figure 8.13 represents a Weisbach triangle and the first leg of an
underground traverse. W,W> was measured to be 2.965 m and AW,
2.097 m with standard errors 3 mm and 2 mm respectively. Angle
W,AB is known with a standard error of 4”. The approximate value
of angle W,AW, is 0° 06’ 50”.
If the standard error of a single measurement of angle W,AW, is
estimated to be 10”, calculate how many times this angle must be
measured in order that the standard error of the bearing AB is not to
exceed 5”. (Assume that bearing W,W> is known without error.)
[London]
Answer 6
4 An important line in setting out a major engineering project has been

measured by an electromagnetic distance measuring instrument as
225.626 m + 2 mm. A three-bay subtense-bar check measurement on
the same line, using a first-order theodolite reading direct to 0.5 of a
second of arc and a 2 metre invar subtense bar, gave the results listed
in Table 8.22.
Table 8.22
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Calculate the three individual bay lengths, the total length of the survey
line and the associated standard deviations of the means. Compare the
subtense bar and electromagnetic distance measurements and state, with

reasons, whether you consider the agreement between the measurements
to be within expected limits. Describe how the accuracy of both the
subtense-bar and the electromagnetic distance measurements could be
increased. {[Eng. Council]
Answer Bay 1 77.877 m + 8.2 mm; Bay2 79.160 m + 8.8 mm;
Bay 3 68.583 m + 5.2 mm; Total 225.620 m + 13 mm
5 The mean values of four rounds of each of the three angles of the
triangle ABC, using three different theodolites with the same observer,
are as follows:
Using a theodolite reading to 20 seconds:
ABC = 64° 13’ 50” BCA = 61° 39’ 25”. CAB = 54° 06’ 45”
Using a theodolite reading to 5 seconds:
ABC = 64° 13’ 43” BCA = 61° 39’ 27” CAB = 54° 06’ 47”
Using a theodolite reading to 1 second:
ABC = 64° 13’ 45” BCA = 61° 39’ 29” CAB = 54° 06’ 49”
If the co-ordinates of A and C are 24 261.46 mE, 19 015.83 mN and
26 472.88 mE, 20 838.05 mN respectively and B lies to the north of
the line AC, calculate the most probable value of the co-ordinates of
station B. [Leeds]
Answer 24 085.52 mE, 21 810.82 mN
6 Two different electronic distance measuring devices were used to

make repeated determinations of the length of a line. The readings are
given in Table 8.23 in metres.
Table 8.23
Instrument A Instrument B
1056.429 1056.435
1056.435 1056.435
1056.440 1056.432
1056.432 1056.436
1056.433 1056.435
1056.436 1056.436
1056.434
1056.435
Assuming identical conditions for each set of determinations, calculate

the relative precision of the two instruments based upon these
observations.
What is the most probable length of the line based upon these readings?
Determine the standard deviation of this value.
Work in millimetres and set out the calculation clearly step by step.
[Bradford]
Answer 1:11.5, 1056.453 m + 0.4 mm
7 The three interior angles of a triangle ABC, where A, B and C appear

in a clockwise direction, were measured as
a

ABC 63° 41’ 08” standard error + 3”
BCA 56° 55’ 21” standard error + 4”
CAB 59° 23’ 27” standard error + 2”
Assuming the weights to be inversely proportional to the squares of

the standard errors, adjust the angles of the triangle for a 180° closure.
Given the whole circle bearing of AB to be 118° 20’ 15”, state the
quadrant bearings of AB, BC and CA. [CE]
Answer AB S 61° 39’ 45” E, BC S 54° 39’ 06” W,
CA N 02° 16’ 17.4” W
8 (a) A distance has been measured repeatedly on three different

occasions. The mean values recorded and their standard errors are listed
below:
Measurement 1 112.125 m + 0.007 m

Measurement 2 112.130 m + 0.002 m
Measurement 3 112.128 m + 0.005 m
Determine the weighted mean of the three sets of measurements.

(b) A survey of a conical tip at a mine has shown the diameter of the
base to be 150 m with a standard error of + 0.5 m and the height to
be 50 m with a standard error of + 1.0 m. What is the volume of the
cone and the standard error of the volume? [CEI]
Answer (a) 112.129 m; (b) 294 524.3 m? + 6209.1 m?
9 The standard deviation of a single measurement of an angle has been

calculated as 2.75” . How many measurements should be made assuming
similar conditions so that the standard deviation of the mean of a set
of angles is 1.0”?
Answer 8
10 Determine the most probable value of a quantity which was measured

nine times by a method having a standard deviation of four units giving
an average value of 900 units, and four times by a method having a
standard deviation of six units then giving an average value of 904 units.
Answer 900.7 units
11 Length a has been determined using the equation

a* = b* + c* — 2be cos A
in which b = 146.00 m, c = 168.00 mand A = 58° 00’. If the standard
errors of the three measurements are + 0.73 m, + 0.84 mand + 20”,
respectively, determine the standard error of a.
Answer + 0.57 m
12 Explain the terms ‘most probable value’ and ‘weighting’.

Angles A, B and C were observed as part of a programme of
measurement at one station, and the data in Table 8.24 obtained. Use

Table 8.24
Angle Observed value Weight
A 30° 24’ 29.8” 1

B 44° 35’ 14.3” 1
A+B 74° 59’ 45.2” 2
B+C 110° 55’ 48.6” 1
A+B+C 141° 20’ 17.4” 2
the method of correlates to determine the most probable values of angles

A, B and C. [CET]
Answer A 30° 24’ 29.8”; B 44° 35’ 15.0”; C 66° 20’ 32.9”
13. An angle was measured 15 times and the following data recorded.
What is the most probable value of the angle?
18° 59% SUC OT OU 18 S38 *
19> OO POO. 155 Soon", 19° OO Or”
1S SS. SO en LD, oO 06 18 pei SYS
197008 OOS 185959 580 Fis” See 59"
19°00" (00. T8559 758 0 18°. SP 57." [Salford]
Answer 18° 59’ 59” (reject 19° 00’ 06”)
14 A tape of length 30 m, standardized on the flat under a tension of

49 N, was used in catenary under a tension of 147 N. Determine the
standard deviation of the combined pull correction and sag correction
over a 30 m length if the standard deviation of the field tension is + 3 N.
Cross-sectional area of tape = 0.406 cm?
Young’s modulus = 207000 N/mm?
Mass of tape = 0.27 gm/cm
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.806 m/s”
Answer + 15 mm
15 A slope length of 178.741 m was measured with a standard error

of + 5 mm. To determine the corresponding horizontal length an angle
of depression of 05° 14’ 25” was measured with a standard error of
+ 10”. Calculate the horizontal length and its standard error.
Answer 177.994m + 5 mm
16 Draw up a classification of errors in surveying practice and develop

one of these classes to include the general principle of least squares.
The results listed in Table 8.25 were recorded by two surveyors with
the same theodolite, from a single setting of the instrument, under
identical conditions. Calculate the standard deviation of the arithmetic
mean and a single observation, for each observer. Assuming the reliability
of each set of observations to be inversely proportional to the square
of the standard deviation of the arithmetic mean, determine a weighted
mean value incorporating both sets of observations.

Table 8.25
Surveyor 1 Surveyor 2
250° 35’ 26” 250° 35’ 27”

250° 35’ 25” 250° 35’ 18”
250° 35’ 51” 250° 35’ 21”
250° 35’ 32” 250° 35’ 42”
250° 35’ 59” 250° 35° 23”
250° 35’ 48” 250° 35’ 51”
250° 35’ 35” 250° 35’ 42”
250° 35’ 49” 250° 35’ 33”
250° 35’ 34” 250° 35’ 25”
250° 35’ 41” 250° 35’ 28”
Answer +11.4”, 43.6”, 410.7”, +3.4”; 250° 35’ 35.2”

[Eng. Council]
17 A line of length D was set out and then divided into n bays of length
d,, dy, ..., d,. Each individual length D, d, etc., was then measured
by an EDM instrument. Show that:
(a) the additive constant of the device can be calculated from the
expression
Dp
Ld,
n—-1
(b) the standard deviation of that constant is
: V(n+1)
n—-1
s being the standard deviation of a single measurement of distance.
18 The internal angles of a closed polygon ABCDEFA have been

measured by theodolite and are tabulated (see Table 8.26). As it was
found possible to make sightings along a line CF, the angles BCF and
CFA were also measured. ‘Weightings’ have been assigned to each of
the measurements based on local conditions at the time of observation.
Table 8.26
Measured angle Weighting
FAB 98° 13’ 13”

ABC 101° 08’ 54”
BCD 112° 41’ 20”
CDE 113° 48’ 12”
DEF 126° 28’ 02”
EFA 167° 40’ 37”
BCF 73° 12’ 54”
CFA 87° 24’ 47” WN
—-=-O-NA
Using the method of correlates or otherwise, determine the most

probable corrections (to the nearest 0.1”) to be applied to the angles.
[ICE]
Answer —0.7”, —0.5”, —2.0”, —4.0”, —8.0”, —2.7”, +6.6”,
+66."

19 Distances AB, BC, CD and DE along a straight base line AE have
been measured with an electromagnetic distance measuring instrument
as 100.241, 100.358, 100.303 and 100.338 m respectively. It is known
from accurate catenary measurements that AD is 300.9000 m and that
BE is 301.0000 m.
Calculate the most probable values of the electromagnetic distance
measurements AB, BC, CD and DE by the method of least-squares. The
most probable values must conform with the catenary measurements.
[CEI]
Answer AB 100.2394 m; BC 100.3578 m; CD 100.3028 m; DE
100.3394 m
20 The observed angles of the braced quadrilateral ABCD are as

follows:
ADB = 42° 40’ 40” CBD = 52° 46’ 49”
DAC = 62° 43’ 13” ACB = 52°37’ 00”
CAB. = 44° 024,55” ACD .=.36°:20’ 10”
ABD = 30° 33’ 28” BDC 38° 16’ 09”
Adjust the angles of the quadrilateral using the method of least squares.
[Leeds]
Answer ADB, —4.2”; ABD, —3.7”; BDC, —1.7”
21 The co-ordinates of control stations A, B and C are given in Table

8.27. Observations by EDM from station P, situated to the south-east
Table 8.27
Station mE mN
1010.124 680.127 |
1270.736 750.132
850.037 541.891
Table 8.28
Length | Error
PA 313.073 +0,005
PB 306.190 +0,005
PC 379.915 +0,008
of A, Band C, yielded the data in Table 8.28. What are the co-ordinates
of P?
Answer 1219.329 mE, 447.970 mN
22 Dand Gare two fixed triangulation stations. A point M, which lies

Table 8.29
89° 12’ 54” 543.56 245.32

44° 11’ 35” 1144.13 301.38
F

north of the line D—G, is fixed by observing all three angles of the
triangle. Using the data in Table 8.29 calculate the co-ordinates of M.
[London]
Answer 828.00 mE, 578.72 mN
23 Three survey stations A, B and C form the core of the control

network on a site which is to be used to house equipment for detecting
intercontinental ballistic missiles. They form an accurate equilateral
triangle with 1000 m sides. C lies due east of A. B is north of the line AC.
In order to locate the new equipment it is necessary to locate the
centroid of the triangle ABC to within + 1 mm. A trial point T has been
established which is known to be within 10 cm of the required position.
The following values are the mean of six rounds of angles taken with
a half-second theodolite set up over T and should be accurate to the first
place of decimals of a second quoted. How far from T and in what
direction is the required centroid?
Reading towards A 00° 00’ 00.0”, towards B 119° 59’ 53.0”,
towards C 240° 00’ 30.8”. [Bradford]
Answer 65.0 mm, 99° 20’ 43” from pointing on C
24 (a) A horizontal angle between two fixed stations is observed at

a third station. Deduce the observation equation for the angle as used
in the method of variation of co-ordinates.
(b) Using the data set out below compute the co-ordinates of P by
the method of variation of co-ordinates.
The observed horizontal angle at P between A and B = 53° 18’ 00”

and between B and C = 101° 18’ 28”.
The co-ordinates of A, B, C and P’, an estimated position of P, are
given in Table 8.30. The joins have been calculated in Table 8.31.
[London]
Table 8.30
[=
(m)
1797.47
1606.21
1594.23
1735.00
Table 8.31
163° 13’ 58”

216° 49’ 07”
Answer 1734.79 mE, 521.23 mN

25 During a topographical survey a series of runs of levels was made
as follows:
A t0 B2-10.72 m, _.B.to C $6.58, “C ta D 487 mi.
D to E —15.32m, EtoA —6.99m, AtoF +8.65 m,
FtoG + 634m, GtoD +7.28m, DtoH +3.73 m,
H to J — 6.59 m, JtoK —7.62m, KtoA —11.88 m.
Determine the best values of the levels at all points B, C, D, etc., taking
that of A to be zero and all values above to be equally reliable.
[London]
Answer level of D = 22.30 m
26 In the course of the precise levelling of a certain area the results

in Table 8.32 were obtained. Determine the most probable level of B,
C and D above A.
Table 8.32
Level line Level difference Length (km)
AtoB Rise 4.727 m 10

Btoc Rise 1.580 m 10
CtoD Rise 3.540 m 20 (read twice)
DtoA Fall 9.846 m 15 (read three times)
BtoD Rise 5.125 m 16
Ato C Rise 6.315 m 20
[Salford]
Answer B 4.727 m; C 6.309 m; D 9.848 m
27 In a round of_levels the results in Table 8.33 were obtained.

Determine the most probable level of B, C and D above A.
Table 8.33
Level line Rise (+m) Weight

Fall (—m)
AtoB + 2.275 3
BtoC —1.216 2
CtoD —4.342 1
DtoB +5.508 1
DtoA + 3.263 1
[Salford]
Answer B 2.273 m; C 1.066 m; D —3.258 m
28 Ina triangulation survey ABCD forms a quadrilateral with centre

station O. The following angles were measured, all have equal weight.
OARS. 31 ok Be
OBA =°°38" 37" 27”
OBC = 62° 36’ 16”
OCB = 34° 15’ 39”
OCD = 36° 50’ 25”

ODE: #551°.54' 24°
ODA = 27° 57’ 23”
OAD = 49° 52’ 50”
AOB = 83° 27’ 17”
BOC 253° 68 6”
POD ee eso | fol5i...9”
DOA = 102° 9’ 32”
Correct the data by the method of equal shifts. [Salford]
Answer OAB = 57° 55’ 15”
29 Calculate, by least squares, the best estimate of the centre co-

ordinates and radius of the circle to fit the following co-planar points
(12.0,:2.0)7 5-8, 1075), -(30.5, '37.0),(2.5; 28).
Use the point (21, 19) as the provisional position of the centre and 20
for the provisional radius. [London]
Answer 20.0, 20.2; radius = 19.6

The computer programs
Introduction The computer programs have been written in standard BASIC which should
be suitable for most home computers. The exception to this is the omission
of LET from the assign statements, for example LET X=X +1 is listed as
X=X+1. With reference to the manual for your computer it is possible to
enhance the programs, especially in the area of data input and output.
Angles All angles are input and output in degrees, minutes, seconds. The program
logic uses the angle as one integer value in seconds, this minimizes the round-
ing error that occurs if degrees are used. BASIC’s trigonometric functions
process the angle in radians and the conversion factor
T a 1
(180 * 3600) 206 264.8
is used in the programs.
Formulae Assign statements in the program listing are laid out in the same format as
the formulae in the text, this can lead to unnecessary brackets and hence
inefficient programming. The experienced computer user can remove
unnecessary brackets when entering the program into the computer.
Arc sine Standard BASIC has no function to determine sin~! of an angle, this is a
problem when using the sine rule. It can be overcome using two trigonometric
rules
and tan) ¢) = ae
cos 0 ’
sin 0
so 6 = tan~! |———_ |,
Famer 0)
where tan~! can be represented by BASIC’s function ATN.

Programmable Many readers will wish to use the programs on programmable calculators,
calculators and with this in mind the memory size needed to run the programs has been
kept to a minimum and many of the program ‘trimmings’ have been left out.
It may be necessary to DIMension arrays with the lowest possible value and
these are quoted for the examples in this book. The reader will have to reformat
the output from some programs to suit the limited screen display. However,
working with angles is simpler since these machines usually support the MODE
statement that allows direct input in degrees, minutes and seconds in the format
DD.MMSS (or in decimals of degrees) and the direct processing of sin~! with
ASN and cos~! with ACS.
Rounding Output data is rounded using the integer routine X=INT ((X * 100) +0.5)/100
to give two decimal places. Most computers have inbuilt functions like ROUND
or PRINT USING which will perform this job automatically.
IF/THEN statements The format of IF/THEN GOTO statements varies widely from machine to
machine, some allow other commands to be nested on the same line often with
an ELSE statement. In the listings a basic form of IF ..., THEN GOTO
x has been used.
Logic functions AND Some of the programs use the logic functions AND and OR in IF/THEN GOTO
or OR statements. Some computers do not support these functions and alternative
program statements are given with the introductions to the appropriate
programs.
Data checking It is good programming practice to check the data when it is entered for non-
sensible or illegal values. The programs can be enhanced by the inclusion of
data checking subroutines such as the example below for checking angles.
210 INPUT "INPUT ANGLE DEG, MIN, SEC ",D,M,S

220 GOSUB 900
230 IF X=-1 THEN PRINT "RE INPUT THE ANGLES" : GOTO 210
900 REM SUBROUTINE TO CHECK ANGLES

910 X=0
920 IF D<O THEN PRINT "DEGREES TOO SMALL" : X=-1 : RETURN
930 IF D>360 THEN PRINT "DEGREES TOO LARGE" : X=-1 : RETURN
940 IF M<O THEN PRINT "MINUTES TOO SMALL" : X=-1 : RETURN
950 IF M>59 THEN PRINT "MINUTES TOO LARGE" ; X=-1 : RETURN
960 IF S<0 THEN PRINT "SECONDS TOO SMALL" : X=-1 : RETURN
970 EF S259 THEN PRINT. "SECONDS TOO LARGE" : X=-1 : RETURN
980 RETURN
THE COMPUTER PROGRAMS 343

Index
additive constant change point, 3 plane rectangular, 71, 81, 85,

of EDM, 35 chord length, 205, 223 90
of tacheometry, 54 class frequency, 288 polar, 72, 197, 243-6
adjustment closing error, 79 variation of, 323—7
of level, 8—11, 304—5 clothoid, 191 WGS84, 132
of theodolite, 70, 93—5 coefficient of refraction, 11—14, coplaning, 243, 265—270
of traverse, 76—90 18 correction
aerial survey, 103 collimation error atmospheric to EDM, 50—2
Airy values, 115 of level, 9—10 eye and object, 20—2, 51
area of theodolite, 70, 93—5 in levelling, 2, 11—22
by planimeter, 144 computer programs to tape measurements, 32—43
division of, 151—4 adjustment of traverse, 82 (t—T), 117-8
of cross-sections, 144, 154-163 area of loop traverse, 151 correlates, method of, 311—3,
of irregular figures, 143, 146-8 circular curve 317-320 .
of straight-sided figures, 144 set out from tangent, 196 cosine rule, 104—5, 328
of traverse, 144, 148-151 set out from control point, cross-fall, 145, 270—1
of triangle, 108, 144, 147, 173 202 crosshairs, 1, 53
arithmetic mean, 288—9, 290—6 compound curve cross-section, 144, 154—163
azimuth, 110, 128—31 set out from tangent, 209 cubic spiral, 193
set out from control point, curvature
backsight, 2 225 of the earth, 11—22, 109-114
balance line, 180 intersection, 248 _ radius of, 190
base line, 41, 103, 302 least squares (matrix method), curve
bearing 310 circular, 190—1, 195—205
geographical, 104, 115, 117 resection, 261 compound, 191, 206—227
grid, 104, 116, 118 setting out by bearing and excavation in cutting, 163—7
magnetic, 73 distance, 246 length, 191, 193
whole circle, 72—9, 86, 88, stadia tacheometry, 56 parabolic, 193
243-6 tape corrections, 39 reverse, 191, 204—5
benchmark, 1 trigonometrical levelling, 17 transition, 192—3, 206—229
best value, 305 trilateration, 331 vertical, 195—6, 229—234
boning rod, 272 volumes cuttings, 40-1, 144, 154-163
Bowditch’s method, 76—83, grid of levels, 169 setting out, 274—7
87—90 triangular surface model, 175
braced quadrilateral, 104 cone, volume of, 170—2 datum, 1
adjustment of, 317—323 confidence limits, 289, 291—2 deflection angle, 190—2
contours, 145 deformation survey, 251—3
C/A code, 132 control point, 71, 103, 195—203, degree of freedom, 290
calibration constant of gyro, 124 221—5, 242, 243-6 depth of shaft, 43-5, 48—50
carrier wave, 35 convergence, 110, 118 diaphragm, 1, 53
centesimal system, 75—6 factor, 104 digital terrain model, 175—9
central meridian, 104 of meridian, 110 distance measurement, 32
centrifugal ratio, 193 co-ordinate, 71 by EDM, 34—5, 45-8, 50—2
centring, 90—3 National Grid, 15, 34, 114—7, by tacheometry, 35—6, 53—62
chainage, 195, 201 132, 242 by tape, 32—4, 36—43
i
easting, 72, 78, 89, 112 haul, 181 meridian
eccentric station, 106 height of collimation method, 4—8 convergence of, 110, 117
EDM, 34-5, 45-8, 50—2 geographical, 73, 110, 117
ellipse, length of axis, 170—2 inclined staff, effect of, 59-60 magnetic, 73
embankments, 40—1, 144, industrial measurement systems, method of moments, 227—9
154—163 252, 302 micrometer, parallel plate, 22
setting out, 274—7 infra-red laser, 271 misclosure
end-areas rule, 145, 155, 158, 160 internal focusing lens, 1 of levelling, 6—8
for curved centre line, 163—7 intersection, 246—8, 251, 252—3 of traverse, 79—80
equal shifts, method of, 320—3 intersection point, 190, 198 vector, 85—6
equation of condition, 311—5 intersight, 3 modulation, 35
equator, 110 intervisibility most probable value, 289, 291—2,
error long sights, 18—20 296, 306, 311
accidental, 288 on vertical curves, 231—4 multiplying constant, of
combination of, 299—302 tacheometer, 54
constant, 288 K values, 194, 234
random, 289 Kissam, P., 304 National Grid, 71, 103
residual, 289 bearing, 115—7, 118
standard, 50, 52, 57—8, 289, Lagrange, 311 co-ordinates, 114—7, 242
291—303, 323-331 lasers, 270—1 normal distribution, 289, 296—9
systematic, 288 latitude, 109-14, 132—4 normal equations, 306—8, 315—7
triangulation, 108 parallel of, 115 north
true, 289 least squares, method of, 290—3 magnetic, 71, 73
correlates, 311—3, 317—320 true, 71, 73, 104
face, of theodolite, 70, 93—5 matrix methods, 308—310, grid, 104
factor of proportionality, 124, 316-7 northing, 72, 78, 89, 112
128—30 normal equations, 306—8,
foresight, 3 315-7 observation equations, 315—7, 329
freehaul, 181 level offsets to curve, 191, 193, 211
frequency, 35, 45—8 line, 2 from long chord, 205
frequency distribution, 288 mean sea, 1, 2, 15, 34, 120 to transition, 193, 212
of formation, 144, 154, 167-9 Ordnance
geodetic reduced, 1, 2 datum, 1
distance, 15 tilting, 2, 8, 10 Survey, 104
survey, 107 levelling overhaul, 182
triangulation, 103, 107—9 accuracy of, 304—5
gon, 75—6 booking, 2 Pappus’ theorem, 163
GPS, 132. correction, 2, 11—22 parallel plate micrometer, 22
gradient, 6, 270—3 over long distances, 18—20 P-code, 132
grid reciprocal, 2, 11—13 phase difference, 35, 45—8
bearing, 104, 115—7, 118 trigonometrical, 1, 14—22 photo-electric cell, 271
distance, 114, 132 two-peg test, 8—11 planimeter, 144
north, 104 linear model, 305 plumb wire, 243, 262
of levels, 145, 167—9 line of sight, 1, 2, 106 point location
ground surface model local scale factor, 118—122 by intersection, 246—8
digital terrain, 175—9 log sine condition, 318 perpendicular from line, 242,
level grid, 167—9 long chord, 205 254-5
triangular, 172—5 longitude, 109-114, 132—4 resection, 255—261
group refractive index, 49 long-section, 270—3 polygon with centre station,
gyro 318—323
mark, 123 magnetic north, 71 Princeton Standard Test, 304
proportionality factor, 124, maladjustment of theodolite, 93—5 prismoidal correction, 156, 159,
128—130 mass haul diagram, 145, 179—182 160—2
reversal method, 122—4 matrices in least squares, prismoidal rule, 145, 156, 158,
theodolite, 122 308-310, 316—7 161
transit method, 124—131 mean, 288—9, 290—6 for curved centre line, 163—7
INDEX 345
probability distribution, 288, sight rails, 271—4 closed link, 87—90, 213—6
296—9 Simpson’s rule, 143, 146—8 _ closed loop, 76—85
profile boards, 274 sine rule, 104—5 Transit rule, 83—5
proportional frequency, 288 spherical triangular prism, 146, 167, 173
proportionality factor, 124, excess, 108 triangulation, 103—6
128—130 triangle, 94, 107—9, 110 trigonometrical levelling, 1, 2,
primary triangle, 102, 107—9 spheroid, 13 14-22
Pythagoras theorem, 41 spot height, 145, 167—9 trilateration, 103, 243, 327—332
stadia line, 53 true mean, 288
radial acceleration, 193—4 standard deviation, 288—290, trunnion axis, 70, 93—5
radius of curvature, 116 291-9 tunnelling, 243, 262—270
range, 288, 291 standard error, 50, 52, 57—8, turning point, 123
reference 289, 291—303, 323-331 two level section, 144, 154—6
axis, 71 subtense system, 36, 61—2, two-peg test, 8-11
spheroid, 115 257-8, 302-3
tape, 32 super-elevation, 193 variation of co-ordinates, 323—S,
refractive index, 22—4, 35, 48—50 325-331
regression analysis, 305 tacheometry vector misclosure, 85—6
relative precision, 52, 292—5 errors arising in, 57, 59 versine, 227—9
resection, 242, 255—261 stadia, 35, 53—60 vertical
residual, 304, 307, 324, 329 subtense, 36, 61—2, 257-8, _ axis, 70, 93-5
reticule, 1 302-3 curves, 195—6, 229—234
reversal method, 122—4 tangential angle, 191 volumes, 144
rise and fall method, 2—6 tangent point, 190 by spot heights, 167—9
rotating laser, 270—1 tape corrections, 32—4, 36—43 curved section, 163—7
used vertically, 43—5 end-areas rule, 145, 155, 158,
satellites (GPS), 132 “telescope, 1, 53 160
satellite station, 105—7 theodolite, 70 >of cut, 159
scale, 146 maladjustment of, 93—5 of fill, 154, 159
Schuler mean, 122—4 three level section, 157—8 of truncated cone, 170—2
setting out three point problem, 104—5 prismoidal rule, 145, 156, 158,
building, 243-6 Tienstra’s coefficients, 259-261 161
by bearing and distance, 243—6 transit method, 124-131
circular curve, 195—205 Transit rule, 83—5 weight, 290, 295—6, 299-302,
compound curve, 206—213, transition curve connecting 308-9, 311, 314-7,
221-5 circular curves, 216—8 327-331
side widths, 274—7 Transverse Mercator projection, weighted mean, 295—6
sight rails, 271—4 103, 115 Weisbach triangle, 243, 262—270
transition curves, 206—213 trapezoidal rule, 143, 146-8 WGS84 co-ordinates, 132
tunnel, 243, 262—270 traveller, 272—4 . whole circle bearing, 72—9, 86,
vertical curve, 229—234 traverse, 71, 109, 213 88, 243-6
sexagesimal system, 75—6 angular error in, 72—6
shift, 193, 206 area of, 144, 148-151 Young’s modulus, 32
shrinkage of plan, 146 Bowditch’s method, 76—83,
side widths, 144, 274-7 87—90 zenith distance, 54

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SrolNalare Problems in: Surveying
A. BANNISTER & R. RYAN Gad NYelerolate Edition.
Solving Problems in Surveying aims to help prepare students of surveying for their
examinations, by presenting a clear explanation of theory and application in the form of solutions
to typical examination and assignment type questions. Each chapter comprises a summary of
basic theory, a range of worked examples and a selection of problems, with answers, to
encourage further practice and consolidate understanding. Simple computer programs in BASIC
covering common topics encountered by land surveyors are also included. .
This second edition has been updated to reflect advances in modern instrumentation and
techniques, such as GPS, construction lasers, deformation surveys and trilateration.
Coverage includes:
° levelling * areas and volumes
¢ distance measurements ° curve ranging
e theodolite and transverse surveys ¢ setting out and point location
¢ triangulation and the National Grid * observations and adjustments
Solving Problems in Surveying is essential reading for all undergraduates in surveying,

building and civil engineering degree courses, as well as those studying at diploma or
professional examination level. It is an excellent source of questions for tutorials, self-study and
revision.
Arthur Bannister and Raymond Baker are authors of the successful text book Surveying, also
published by Longman, and now in its sixth edition. — }
Arthur Bannister was formerly Reader in Civil Engineering at the University
Raymond Baker is Lecturer in land surveying at the University of Salford, D: === of Civil
Engineering and: Construction. )
About this series AO ei he

This series has been devised for engineering students at universities and cc me titles deal
with elementary work; others cover advanced topics. Each chapter contain: ary of
essential theory, worked examples demonstrating the application of theory examination
type questions and further examples (with answers) for practice.
A full list of titles in the series appears at the front of this book.
a —— Saas
ISBN 0-S58e@-23b44-4
E33LONGMAN in
780582

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Solving Problems in:

Solving Problems in Surveying

Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics Volume 1, J.F. Douglas

Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics Volume 2, J.F. Douglas

Solving Problems in Structures Volume 1, P.C.L. Croxton and

Solving Problems in Structures Volume 2, P.C.L. Croxton and

Solving Problems in Control, R.J. Richards

A. Bannister mc Bsc MSc CEng FICE

R. Baker ssc Msc PhD CEng MICE MIWEM

© Longman Group UK Limited 1989

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be Z

First published 1989

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

526.9—dc20 UNIVERSITY 94-8938

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 0-470-23424-5 (USA only)

Printed in Malaysia, CLP

Datum Levelling is a means by which a comparison of the heights of points on the

Object lens Internal

P| ao rede: tere, _Mean sea level

2 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SURVEYING

Backsight | Intersight | Foresight Fall Reduced | Distance

0.663 94.115 Station A

Height Reduced Distance Remarks

0.663 94.778 Station A

4 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SURVEYING

the height of collimation = reduced level of C + staff reading

Backsight Foresight Height of Reduced Remarks

In this example, in which there is one change point, we have

OBM 58.031 m AOD

6 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SURVEYING

Backsight Foresight Height of Reduced Remarks

The next task is to determine the corrections to be applied. It will be noted

(58.630 X 1)+(58.085 x 4) +(58.807 x 2) +(58.156 x 2) = 524.896 m

Observed Correction Corrected

8 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SURVEYING

30m 30m 30m

(2:148 — 300) — (1.836 — 600)

Thus the line of collimation is pointed downwards rather than upwards, as

which is half the sum of the apparent differences.

Instrument Staff position

1.4 Adjustment of Points A, B, C and D define a rectangle with AB = DC = 20 m and

Solution Determine error in line of sight of level.

Instrument at E, the corrected staff reading on

(1.735 —150) — (0.688 —250) = (2.307 — 486) (1.248

The corrected staff readings are given in Table 1.8.

10 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SURVEYING

1.735 —0.030 2.307—0.096

Therefore corrected level difference = 1.067 m

With respect to C the sighting distance was 20 m,

Reading of staff at P from A = 1.495 m.

Using Pythagoras’s theorem in triangle IOH

If HS is taken to be of the order of >

Sum of apparent differences

Therefore the reduced level of Q = 40.74 + 0.32

Introduction The theory of trigonometrical levelling is as follows. Figure 1.10

14 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SURVEYING

This is the corrected vertical angle of elevation at A (or depression at B) and