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Electronic Band Structure:

In solid state physics, the electronic band structure (or simply band structure) of
a solid describes ranges of energy that an electron is “forbidden” or “allowed” to
have. It is due to the diffraction of the quantum mechanical electron waves in the
periodic crystal lattice. The band structure of a material determines several
characteristics, in particular its electronic and optical properties.

The electrons of a single free-standing atom occupy atomic orbitals, form a


discrete set of energy levels. If several atoms are brought together into a molecule,
their atomic orbitals split. This produces a number of molecular orbitals
proportional to the number of atoms. When a large number of atoms (of the order
of 1020 or more) are brought together to form a solid, the number of orbitals
becomes very large, and the difference in energy between them becomes very
small, so the levels may be considered to form continuous bands of energy rather
than the discrete energy levels of the atoms in isolation. However, some intervals
of energy contain no orbitals, no matter how many atoms are aggregated, forming
band gaps. Bands have different widths, based upon the properties of the atomic
orbitals from which they arise. Also, allowed bands may overlap, producing (for
practical purposes) a single large band.

Valance band: The range of energies i.e. band possessed by valance electrons in
the crystalline solid is known as valance band and is obviously the highest
occupied band. It may completely filled or partially filled with electron but never
be empty.

Conduction band: The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by conduction


electrons is known as conduction band. It may either be empty or partially filled
by electrons but never be filled. All electrons in the conduction band can move
freely and hence they are known as conduction electrons.

Forbidden energy gap/ band gap: The term band gap refers to the energy
difference between the top of the valance band and the bottom of the conduction
band; electrons are able to jump from one band to another. Band gaps depend on
temperature because of thermal expansion. Band gaps also depend on pressure.

Figure 1: Simplified diagram of the electronic band structure of metals,


semiconductors and insulators.

Figure 1 shows a simplified picture of the bands in a solid that allows the three
major types of materials to be identified: metals, semiconductors and insulators.
Discuss band model for conductors (metals), insulators and semiconductors:
Conductors: Metals are the good conductors of electricity in which the
uppermost occupied band is not completely filled and valance band and
conduction band are overlapped. Such as copper and silver and at room
temperature the electrical conductivity is 1020 times greater than that of quartz
(insulator).
Insulators: Insulators are extremely poor conductors of electricity. Diamond,
Quartz and also in general most covalent and ionic crystals are insulators. In these
type of solids the energy gap between valance band and conduction band is very
high (>6 eV, typically 15 eV).
Semiconductors: Intermediate between these two extreme groups is a third class
of solids called semiconductors. Although semiconductors have much poorer
electrical conductivity than the metals, their conductivity increases with the
temperature. In semiconductor the energy gap between the valance band and
conduction band of the atom is much smaller (1.1eV for Si and 0.7eV for Ge) and
this makes it much easier to excite the upper most electron in the valance band
into the conduction band. At low temperatures silicon is better than diamond as a
conductor. Thus Si has an electrical conductivity intermediate between those of
conductors and those of insulators and is called a semiconductor.
As the temperature increases more electrons are able to jump into the next band,
so the conductivity increases rapidly with the temperature because more electrons
are excited to the conduction band. For example, in Si the number of excited
electrons is increased by a factor of 106, when the temperature is raised from
250K to 450K. The distinction between semiconductors and insulators is a matter
of convention. One approach is to think of semiconductors as a type of insulator
with a low band gap. Insulators with a higher band gap, usually greater than 3ev,
are not considered semiconductors and generally do not exhibit semiconductive
behaviour under practical conditions.
Model for an Impurity Semiconductor (Extrinsic Semiconductor):
Electrical conduction in intrinsic semiconductors is quite poor at room
temperature. To produce higher conduction, one can intentionally introduce
impurities (typically to a concentration of one part per million host atoms).For
example, the addition of Boron to Silicon in the proportion of 1 Boron atom at
105 Silicon atoms increases the conductivity of pure Si by factor of 103 at room
temperature. In a compound semiconductor, a stoichiometric deficiency of one
constituent will act as an impurity, thus semiconductor such as Cu2O or ZnO are
known as deficit semiconductors. The deliberate addition of impurities to a
semiconductor is called doping.

We shall now discuss the nature of the semiconductor depending on the impurity
doping and hence find the density of free electrons and holes at a temperature T.

Fig. 1
We consider in particular the effect of arsenic (As) impurity in Silicon (Si). A
silicon atom has four valance electrons, which are part of the filled valance band
of a Si crystal. Suppose now a pentavalent As atom substitutes for a Si atom in
the crystal. Four of the impurity atom electrons play the same role as the four
valence electrons in the valence band. The fifth valence electron is easily
detached by thermal energy and moves freely in the conduction band. Impurity
atoms which may be ionized to give up an electron are called donors. These
electrons are localized in the vicinity of the impurities and therefore do not
contribute to the conductivity unless they are excited into the conduction band.
Centers of this kind are called donor levels. In the energy level scheme they are
represented by a short bar, to indicate that they are localized (Fig. 2). This type
of semiconductor is known as n-type semiconductor.

Fig. 2
An atom of group-III material such as boron, aluminum etc., has only three
electrons which are available to take part in covalent bonds. Thus for every group-
III atom which is introduced in the crystal, there is one band which is left
unsatisfied and this introduces an unfilled energy state into the crystal. The
position of this state is shown in Fig. 3. At room temperature the crystal has
sufficient energy from thermal agitation to allow the energy state to be filled by
an electron from the valence band. This leaves a positive hole in the valence band
which is available for the electrical conduction. The energy state associated with
the group-III atoms is called an acceptor state since it accepts electrons from
valence band. This is known as p-type semiconductor.

Fig. 3
P-N Junction Diode:
When the n-type and p-type materials are attached together, a momentary flow of
electrons occur from the n to the p side resulting in a third region between the two
where no charge carriers are present. This region is called the depletion region
because there are no charge carriers (neither electrons nor holes) in it. The diode's
terminals are attached to the n-type and p-type regions. The boundary between
these two regions, called a p–n junction, is where the action of the diode takes
place. On the p side, the holes constitute the dominant carriers and so are called
majority carriers. A few thermally generated electrons will also exist in the p side;
these are termed minority carriers. On the n side, the electrons are the majority
carriers, while the holes are the minority carriers. When a sufficiently higher
electrical potential is applied to the P side (the anode) than to the N side (the
cathode), it allows electrons to flow through the depletion region from the N-type
side to the P-type side. The junction does not allow the flow of electrons in the
opposite direction when the potential is applied in reversed.
When the voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode in such a way that the
positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the
diode is said to be forward biased.
When this forward bias voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode, a large
number of free electrons (majority carriers) in the n-type semiconductor
experience a repulsive force from the negative terminal of the battery similarly a
large number of holes (majority carriers) in the p-type semiconductor experience
a repulsive force from the positive terminal of the battery. As a result, the free
electrons in the n-type semiconductor start moving from n-side to p-side similarly
the holes in the p-type semiconductor start moving from p-side to n-side.

When the voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode in such a way that the
positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor, the
diode is said to be reverse biased. However, the minority carriers (free electrons)
in the p-type semiconductor experience a repulsive force from the negative
terminal of the battery similarly the minority carriers (holes) in the n-type
semiconductor experience a repulsive force from the positive terminal of the
battery.

When this reverse bias voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode, a large
number of free electrons (majority carriers) in the n-type semiconductor
experience an attractive force from the positive terminal of the battery similarly
a large number of holes (majority carriers) in the p-type semiconductor
experience an attractive force from the negative terminal of the battery.

(A) Current-voltage characteristics of a typical silicon p-n junction. (B)


Forward-bias and (C) reverse-bias conditions. (D) The symbol for a p-n
junction

As a result, the free electrons (majority carriers) in the n-type semiconductor


moves away from the P-N junction and attracted to the positive terminal of the
battery similarly the holes (majority carriers) in the p-type semiconductor moves
away from the P-N junction and attracted to the negative terminal of the battery.
Therefore, the electric current flow does not occur across the P-N junction.

Thus, the P-N junction diode allows electric current in forward bias condition and
blocks electric current in reverse bias condition. In simple words, a P-N junction
diode allows electric current in only one direction. This unique property of the
diode allows it to acts like a rectifier.
Rectifier:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts an Alternating Current (AC) into


a Direct Current (DC). A P-N junction diode allows electric current in forward
bias condition and blocks electric current in reverse bias condition. In simple
words, a P-N junction diode allows electric current in only one direction. This
unique property of the diode allows it to acts like a rectifier.

The AC voltage or AC current is often represented by a sinusoidal waveform


whereas the DC current is represented by a straight horizontal line. In the
sinusoidal waveform, the upper half cycle represents the positive half cycle and
the lower half cycle represents the negative half cycle. The positive half cycle of
the AC voltage is analogous to the forward bias DC voltage and the negative half
cycle of the AC voltage is analogous to the reverse bias DC voltage.

The alternating current starts from zero and grows to peak forward current or peak
positive current. The positive peak of the sinusoidal waveform represents the
maximum or peak forward current. After reaching the peak forward current, it
starts decreasing and reaches to zero.
After a short period, the alternating current starts increasing in the reverse or
negative direction and grows to peak reverse current or peak negative current.
The negative peak of the sinusoidal waveform represents the maximum or peak
reverse current. After reaching the peak reverse current, it starts decreasing and
reaches to zero. Likewise, the alternating current continuously changes its
direction in a short period.

When AC voltage or AC current is applied across the P-N junction diode, during
the positive half cycle the diode is forward biased and allows electric current
through it. However, when the AC current reverses its direction to negative half
cycle, the diode is reverse biased and does not allow electric current through it.
In simple words, during the positive half cycle, the diode allows current and
during the negative half cycle, the diode blocks current. Thus, electric current
flows through the diode only during the positive half cycle of the AC current.

This current which flows across the diode is nothing but a DC current. Thus, the
P-N junction diode acts like a rectifier by converting the AC current into DC
current.

However, the DC current produced by a basic rectifier (half wave rectifier) is not
a pure DC current. It is a pulsating DC current. The pulsating direct current is a
type of DC current whose value changes over a short period. The pulsating DC
current always flows in one direction like the pure DC current. However, the
value of pulsating DC current or pulsating DC voltage slightly changes over a
given period. The electric current produced by batteries, power supplies, and solar
panels is a pure DC current.

By using the combination of components such as capacitors, inductors, and


resistors in the circuit, we can achieve the smoothening of pulsating DC to pure
DC.

The rectifiers are mainly classified into two types:

Half wave rectifier:


As the name suggests, the half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts
half of the AC input signal (positive half cycle) into pulsating DC output signal
and the remaining half signal (negative half cycle) is blocked or lost. In half wave
rectifier circuit, we use only a single diode.

Full wave rectifier:


The full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts the full AC input signal
(positive half cycle and negative half cycle) to pulsating DC output signal. Unlike
the half wave rectifier, the input signal is not wasted in full wave rectifier. The
efficiency of full wave rectifier is high as compared to the half wave rectifier.
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:

Full wave bridge rectifier is a type of single phase rectifier uses four individual
rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce
the desired output.

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle
of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are
reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.
The Positive Half-cycle
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series,
but diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current
flowing through the load is the same direction as before.
The Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed
across the load is also unidirectional. The average DC voltage across the load is
0.637Vmax.
Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

The main function of full wave rectifier is to convert an AC into DC. As the name implies,
this rectifier rectifies both the half cycles of the AC signal, but the DC signal acquired
at the output still have some waves. A filter circuit is a device which removes the ac
component of rectifier output but allows the dc component to reach the load. The
capacitor C is located across the RL load resistor. The capacitor is often referred to as a
smoothing capacitor or reservoir capacitor.

During the time the rectifier is conducting and the potential is higher than the charge
across the capacitor, the capacitor will store energy from the transformer; when the
output of the rectifier falls below the charge on the capacitor, the capacitor will
discharge energy into the circuit. Since the rectifier conducts current only in the forward
direction, any energy discharged by the capacitor will flow into the load. This process
is repeated again and again and the output voltage waveform becomes a sawtooth wave.
It may be seen that very little ripple is left in the output. Moreover, output voltage is
higher as it remains substantially near the peak value of rectifier output voltage. The
capacitor filter circuit is extremely popular because of its low cost, small size, little
weight and good characteristics.
Zener Diode:

A Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor device that permits current to flow in


either a forward or reverse direction. The diode consists of a special, heavily
doped p-n junction, designed to conduct in the reverse direction when a certain
specified voltage is reached.

The Zener diode has a well-defined reverse-breakdown voltage, at which it starts


conducting current, and continues operating continuously in the reverse-bias
mode without getting damaged. Additionally, the voltage drop across the diode
remains constant over a wide range of voltages, a feature that makes Zener diodes
suitable for use in voltage regulation.

The circuit diagram of the Zener diode is shown in the figure below. The Zener
diode is employed in reverse biasing. The reverse biasing means the n-type
material of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the supply and the
P-type material is connected to the negative terminal of the supply. The depletion
region of the diode is very thin because it is made of the heavily doped
semiconductor material.
Voltage Stabilizer:

A Voltage Stabilizer is an electrical device which is used to provide a constant


voltage output to a load at its output terminals irrespective of any change/
fluctuation in the input i.e. incoming supply.

The basic purpose of a Voltage Stabilizer is to protect the electrical/ electronic


gadgets (for example – Air conditioning Unit, Refrigerator, TV, etc.) from the
probable damage due to Voltage Surge/ fluctuations, Over Voltage and Under
Voltage conditions.

Voltage Stabilizer is also known as AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator). The


use of Voltage Stabilizer is not only limited to house/ office equipment which are
being fed power supply from outside. Even the ships, who have their own internal
power supply arrangement in form of Diesel Alternators, are heavily dependent
on these AVRs for safety of their equipment.

We can see different types of Voltage Stabilizers available in the market. Both
analog and digital automatic Voltage Stabilizers are available from so many
manufactures.

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