CASE STUDY: GUIMARAS OIL SPILL • Complex and costly due to older,

developed areas
In August 2006, the Philippines faced one of
its most significant environmental disasters OXYGEN DEMANDING MATERIALS
when the oil tanker MV Solar I sank off the
Oxygen-Demanding Material consumes
coast of Guimaras Island in the Visayas
dissolved oxygen in water.
region.
500K liters of oil spilled • Includes biodegradable organics and
some inorganic compounds.
648.98 hectares of mangroves affected • Low dissolved oxygen (DO) levels
threaten aquatic life.
• Critical DO levels vary by species
POINT SOURCES (e.g., brook trout, carp).
• Domestic and industrial wastewater • Desirable fish require high DO levels.
collected and treated. • Oxygen-demanding materials from
• Domestic sewage includes residential human waste, food, industries.
and institutional waste. • Nonpoint sources contribute to DO
• Municipal sewage covers domestic depletion (e.g., animal droppings)
and some industrial waste. NUTRIENTS
• Pollution can be reduced through
waste minimization and treatment. • Nitrogen and phosphorus are vital but
become pollutants in excess.
NONPOINT SOURCES • Excessive nutrients disrupt the natural
• Urban and agricultural runoff, food web in rivers and lakes.
multiple discharge points. • Overabundance leads to algae
• Polluted water flows over land, blooms, depleting oxygen when they
drainage channels to water bodies. die.
• Limited treatment due to short • Nutrient sources: detergents,
transport distance. fertilizers, food processing, human,
animal waste.
• Nonpoint pollution common during
• Agriculture is a significant nutrient
• rainstorms, high flow rates
source, often lost via runoff.
• Reduce agricultural nonpoint source
• Loss of nutrients from croplands
pollution: change land practices,
contributes to water pollution
education.
• Essential nutrients for crops:
• Urban runoff carries nitrogen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium.
phosphorus, oils, herbicides, and
organic debris. • Ancient practices: Egyptians
recognized silt's soil benefits;
• Combined sewers divert excess storm
Chinese used organic manures.
water and sewage to water bodies.
• Modern farming combines chemical
• Eliminating combined sewer
fertilizers and manure.
overflow requires separate sewers,
retention basins.
• Common fertilizers: lime, nitrogen, SUSPENDED SOLIDS
phosphorus, potassium.
• Suspended solids in wastewater
• Nitrogen and phosphorus use raises
carried into receiving waters.
environmental concerns.
• Settlement in slow waters or
• Issues include surface water
contributes to turbidity. Colloidal
eutrophication and groundwater
particles cause water turbidity, affect
nitrate contamination.
light penetration.
• Common forms: ammonium nitrate,
• Organic suspended solids can create
anhydrous ammonia (NH3)
oxygen demand.
• Groundwater nitrate pollution
• Inorganic solids from soil erosion,
widespread, affecting domestic wells.
industries, logging, mining,
• Over 41% of tested wells exceed 1
construction.
mg/L nitrate level. 4.4% of wells
• Excessive sediment harms aquatic
surpass the 10 mg/L drinking water
habitats, bacterial growth, light
limit.
penetration.
• Several aquifers have nitrate levels
• Salmon populations impacted by
exceeding maximum contaminant
sediment filling stream bed pores.
levels (MCL).
• Factors include permeable soils,
SALTS
fertilizer use, and irrigation practices.
• All water contains salts measured as
• Phosphates in fertilizers and manure
total dissolved solids (TDS)
can become less soluble in soil.
• Evaporation, irrigation, and shallow
• Reaction rates depend on soil
water tables raise salinity.
conditions like pH and moisture.
• Salt accumulation harms sensitive
PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS crops, reducing yield.
• Leaching can reclaim saline soils but
• Pathogenic microorganisms in may affect groundwater quality
wastewater: bacteria, viruses,
• Irrigation increases salinity in surface
protozoa.
waters, affecting rivers and lakes
• Contaminated surface waters become
• Salton Sea, formed by Colorado River
unfit for drinking, swimming, and
flooding, maintained by irrigation.
fishing.
• Salton Sea vital for migratory birds,
• Shellfish can concentrate pathogenic
endangered species, sport fishing.
organisms, becoming toxic.
• Lack of outlet retains pollutants,
• Antibiotic-resistant bacteria concern
increasing salinity to 30% higher than
environmental professionals.
ocean.
• Detection in U.S. rivers and Rio
• Decline of native fish; introduced
Grande raises concerns.
marine fish struggling with high
• Antibiotic resistance in rural salinity
Dubuque, Iowa, streams observed
 PESTICIDES OTHER ORGANIC CHEMICALS
• Pesticides control pests, weeds; types: • Problematic organic chemicals
herbicides, insecticides, fungicides. include hydrocarbons, solvents, and
• Herbicides kill weeds, insecticides polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
target crop damaging insects, (PAH).
fungicides control fungi. • PAHs can be human carcinogens and
• Table 9-1 lists commonly used readily bioaccumulate.
pesticides and their masses • Solvents used in dry cleaning and
metal washing are contaminants.
• Anaerobic degradation can produce
vinyl chloride, a carcinogen.
• Hydrophobic chemicals in water may
resolubilize from sediments
ARSENIC
PHARMACEUTICALS AND
PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS • Arsenic occurs naturally in
groundwater from weathered rocks.
• PPCPs from human and pet use enter
• High arsenic concentrations in some
the environment.
U.S. states and worldwide.
• Disposal, metabolic excretion,
• Arsenic poisoning causes various
bathing, and pest control sources.
health issues, including cancer.
• PPCPs are polar and often found in
• EPA set a drinking water standard for
waterways.
arsenic at 10 µg per L
• Municipal wastewater treatment may
not remove PPCPs effectively. TOXIC METALS
• Reverse osmosis can be used for
• Heavy metals enter water from
PPCP removal.
industrial, mining, and other sources.
• Little known about environmental
• Common heavy metals include
effects of PPCPs on various species
arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, and
ENDOCRINE DISRUPTING mercury.
CHEMICALS • Mining can lead to acid mine drainage
and contamination.
• Endocrine-disrupting chemicals
• Minamata disease in Japan resulted
(EDCs) can mimic natural hormones.
from methyl mercury exposure.
• They interfere with reproduction,
• California's Gold Rush legacy:
development, and endocrine system.
mercury contaminated water bodies.
• Effects on humans at low
• Mercury is converted to methyl
environmental doses are debated.
mercury, a potent neurotoxin.
• Some evidence suggests EDCs may
• Cadmium exposure led to itai-itai
impact human health.
disease in Japan.
• Research needed to assess and
monitor EDC related health risks
• Regulations have reduced point WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
source pollution, focusing on
• Water quality management aims to
nonpoint sources
prevent unacceptable degradation
from pollutants.
• Management requires measurement,
HEAT
prediction, background quality
• Disposing of waste heat in electric assessment, and acceptable levels.
power industry. • Different water bodies have unique
• Industrial processes release warm characteristics and susceptibility to
waters, impacting aquatic pollutants.
ecosystems. • Factors include volume, speed, depth,
• Water temperature changes can bottom type, climate, land use, and
benefit or harm aquatic life. aquatic life.
• Heat can block salmon migration and • Oxygen-demanding wastes and
affect fish reproduction. nutrients significantly impact most
• Increased temperature reduces rivers
oxygen solubility, worsening water
BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
quality.
• Higher water temperatures may Theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD) -
impact carbon dioxide levels in the calculates oxygen needed based on substance
atmosphere. composition.
• Coral bleaching occurs due to thermal Chemical oxygen demand (COD) -
stress, potentially endangering reefs measures oxygen depletion without
NANOPARTICLES substance knowledge.

• Nanoparticles are particles with Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) -

dimensions less than 100 nm. assesses biodegradable organic matter
• Various nanoparticles have indirectly.
commercial applications but require • BOD measures oxygen consumption
environmental understanding. by microorganisms degrading organic
• Size, composition, surface, and matter.
solubility affect nanoparticle • Oxygen depletion correlates with the
interactions with organisms. amount of organic matter present.
• Nanoparticles can transport toxic • BOD is widely used for measuring
pollutants and impact human health. organic matter's impact on oxygen
• More research needed to assess depletion.
environmental risks of • ThOD and COD match only when all
nanotechnology known substances fully chemically
oxidize.
• BOD never equals ThOD or COD due
to conversion to biomass
• Ultimate BOD (Lo) is the maximum NATURE OF THE WASTE
waste BOD, achieved asymptotically.
• Microorganisms vary in their ability
• Assigning exact time for Lo
to use organic compounds.
challenging; practical estimation
• Certain microorganisms efficiently
when curve is horizontal.
degrade specific organics in natural
• Rule of thumb: If BODt and Lo round
environments.
to three significant figures, Lo
• In laboratory BOD tests, culture may
achieved.
lack key microorganisms for the
• Ultimate BOD indicates organic
waste.
matter concentration, not depletion
• Acclimating organisms to the waste
rate.
ensures a more accurate BOD rate
• Oxygen depletion depends on Lo and
constant
BOD rate constant (k).
• ABILITY OF ORGANISMS TO USE
• k is influenced by the nature of the WASTE
waste, organism capacity, and
• Biological processes and oxygen
temperature.
consumption speed up with higher
• Organic compounds vary in ease of
temperatures.
degradation; sugars degrade rapidly.
• The BOD rate constant should match
• Cellulose degrades slower; some
the receiving water's temperature.
compounds nearly undegradable in
• Lab tests are conducted at 20°C, and
BOD.
adjustments are made for other
• Toxic compounds, like phenolics, can
temperatures
kill microorganisms, impeding
degradation. WATER QUALITY
• BOD rate constant depends on waste
Safe drinking water is a shared responsibility
complexity and component
for Safe drinking water is a shared
proportions.
responsibility for today and tomorrow.
• Treated sewage has lower rate
constants due to better removal of • Consumers desire water that's both
organics pleasing and safe to drink.
Palatable water lacks taste or odor,
providing an enjoyable drinking
experience.
Potable water is free of chemicals,
ensuring microorganisms, safety for
consumption
 WATER CYCLE
• Rainwater, though generally pure, can Radiological Factors
contain impurities at lower
• Must be considered in areas with
concentrations.
possible contact with radioactive
• Surface water's journey introduces
substances.
opportunities for mineral and organic
• Radioactivity in water is a significant
substances.
public health concern
• Water's path may pick up soil
particles, causing noticeable
cloudiness or turbidity.
• Natural filtration occurs as water
seeps downward, reducing suspended
particles.
• Seeping into the water table,
groundwater dissolves minerals from
soil and rocks.
The following four categories are used to
describe drinking-water quality:
Physical Characteristics
• Relates to water's appearance, color,
turbidity, temperature, taste, and odor.
• Vital for assessing water quality for
domestic use.
Chemical Characterization
• Involves identifying components and
their concentrations in drinking
water.
• Crucial for understanding the
chemical composition of the water.
• Includes inorganic elements like
chloride, fluorides, sodium, sulfate,
and over 120 organics
Microbiological Agents
• Important for public health and can
modify water's physical and chemical
aspects.
• Assessing microbial presence is
essential for ensuring water safety.
 WATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS Coagulation Plants
Raw Water Intake • Treat surface water, removing color,
turbidity, taste, odors, and bacteria.
• Surface water is pumped from
• Common process: coagulation,
streams, rivers, lakes, or reservoirs.
flocculation, sedimentation, filtration,
• Initial screening removes large
and disinfection.
materials like twigs, plants, and fish.
Direct Filtration for High-Quality Waters
Water Softening
• High-quality surface waters use direct
• To reduce water hardness, mainly
filtration without sedimentation.
calcium and magnesium ions.
• Effective for low turbidity and color
• Prevents scale buildup, enhances soap
removal
effectiveness, and improves water
quality. Softening Plants
• By Chemical Softening: Chemical
• Treat groundwater with high hardness
treatment, sedimentation, pH
(calcium and magnesium ions).
reduction, filtration, and disinfection.
• Involves chemical sedimentation, pH
• By Ion Exchange: Resin beads attract
filtration, addition, reduction, and
and exchange calcium and
disinfection.
magnesium for sodium
Limited Treatment Plants
Chemical Treatment
• Serve high-quality, uncontaminated
• Coagulants added during rapid
groundwater sources.
mixing react with colloidal particles.
• Minimal treatment, like pumping,
• Flocculation forms larger particles,
disinfection, and corrosion control,
later removed in sedimentation basins
may suffice
by gravity.
Clarification and Filtration
• Clarified water undergoes rapid sand
filtration to remove residual turbidity.
• Precipitated chemicals and particles
in sedimentation basins form sludge,
requiring further treatment and
disposal.
Disinfection
• Disinfection, using chemicals or UV
radiation, reduces pathogenic
organisms
 • Short-range van der Waals forces
enable particle sticking.
COAGULATION
• Repulsive force when charged
Purpose: Remove turbidity, color, and particles approach.
bacteria from drinking waters. • Interaction of ions in double layers
may prevent sticking.
Goal:
Charge Reduction for Coagulation
1. Change particle surface charge for
gravity settling. • Coagulation enhanced by
2. Enable contact, adhesion, and reducing particle charge.
formation of settleable particles • Adding trivalent cations is more
called floc. effective for charge
• Coagulation covers entire particle neutralization.
removal process. • Higher positive ion concentration
• Coagulation" for particulate matter leads to lower turbidity
removal, "softening" for hardness
ions. Coagulants

Colloid Stability: Natural water colloids A coagulant is a chemical that is added to the
repel due to like-charged surfaces. water to cause the particles to coagulate.

• Colloids in surface water often A coagulant has three key properties:

derived from clays. 1. Trivalent cation.
• Colloidal particles act like magnets 2. Nontoxic.
with repulsion 3. Insoluble in the neutral pH range.
Destabilization Mechanisms The two most commonly used metallic
coagulants are aluminum (Al3+) and ferric
a) Adsorption and charge neutralization.
iron (Fe3+).
b) Compression of the electric double
layer.
c) Adsorption and interparticle bridging.
d) Enmeshment in a precipitate.
Charged Colloidal Particle Behavior
• Attracts counterions to balance
electrical charge.
• Stern layer (strongly adsorbed
cations) and
• Gouy-Chapman layer (loosely bound
cations).
• Double layer has a net positive charge
Attractive and Repulsive Forces
Coagulant Aids • Long-chain carbon compounds with
high molecular weight, numerous
Coagulant aids are substances that are used in
active sites
conjunction with coagulants during water
• Cationic Polymer
treatment processes to enhance the efficiency
➢ Dodecyl ammonium, a cationic
of particle removal.
polymer
Coagulant aids can include various ➢ Active sites adhere to flocs,
substances such as: producing larger, tougher floc for
improved settling.
1. Activated Silica
• Variable Requirements
• Sodium silicate activated with acid,
➢ Polymer type, dose, and point of
alum, CO₂, or chlorine.
addition vary by water.
• Produces stable sol with negative
➢ Requirements may change within
surface charge in water.
a plant based on seasonal or daily
• Enhancing Floc Density: factors
➢ Reacts with positively charged metal
hydroxide floc. Rapid mixing is the process whereby the
➢ Forms larger, denser floc for faster chemicals are quickly and uniformly
settling and better enmeshment. dispersed in the water.
Importance of Rapid Mix
• Use in Water Treatment:
➢ Useful for treating colored, low- • Crucial for efficient coagulant dose;
turbidity waters. affects chemical reactions.
➢ Increases floc density, aiding settling • Completion of coagulation reaction in
in such water conditions. less than 0.1 s.
Equipment Components
• Challenges in Usage
➢ Requires proper equipment and • Electric motor, gear-type speed
operational control for activation. reducer, turbine, or axial-flow
➢ Many treatment plants hesitant impeller.
due to complexity and control • Turbine impeller preferred for
requirements. increased turbulence in rapid mixing.
2. Clays
• Clays mimic activated silica, slightly Rapid Mix Tank Volume
negative charge. • Calculated using specific
• Increase floc density, settling equations(V=Qt); rarely exceeds 8
efficiency, suitable for similar water cubic meters.
conditions. • Constraints include mixing
3. Polymer Coagulant Aids equipment and geometry
• Anionic and nonionic polymers most considerations.
effective in water treatment.
Design Guidelines Flocculation Process:
• Rules-of-thumb used for tank design: • Precipitates formed in rapid mixing
1. The liquid depth should be 0.5–1.1 need to contact each other to form
times the basin diameter or width. flocs.
2. The impeller diameter should be • Flocculation, a slow and gentle
between 0.30 and 0.50 times the tank mixing process, facilitates this
diameter or width contact.
3. The vertical baffles should extend
Rapid Mix vs. Flocculation:
into the tank about 10% of the tank
width or diameter • Rapid mix ensures even water-
BASIC IMPELLER STYLES coagulant mixing.
• Flocculation fosters conditions for
a) Axial Flow Impeller particle growth and successful
• Impeller design for parallel flow sedimentation.
along the impeller axis.
Flocculation Objective:
• Efficient for creating axial
movement, pushing fluid in a straight • Allow particle collisions, adherence,
line. and growth for effective settling.
• Commonly used for low-shear • Achieve particle size conducive to
applications and pumping large rapid sedimentation
volumes.
b) Propeller Impeller Mixing Balance:
• Features a rotating blade, similar to a • Adequate mixing energy for particle
boat propeller. collision and adherence.
• Generates radial flow, moving liquid • Excessive mixing can shear particles,
outward from the impeller center. hindering effective sedimentation
• Effective for mixing large volumes
with low to moderate viscosity. FLOCCULATION
c) Turbine Impeller Impeller Types for Flocculation:
• Designed for high-shear applications
with intense mixing. • Axial-flow impellers recommended
• Radial flow pattern, moving liquid for flocculation.
outward from the impeller. • Other options include paddle
• Suitable for applications requiring flocculators and baffled chambers
strong fluid circulation and shear
forces
Upflow Solids Contact HARDNESS
Overview: Hardness is defined as the sum of all
polyvalent cations (in consistent units).
• Single tank for mixing, flocculation,
and clarification. Rainwater Infiltration
• Center cone-like structure used for
• Microbial respiration in topsoil
mixing raw water and chemicals.
increases water CO2 content.-
Operation: Microbial respiration in topsoil
increases water CO2 content.
• Solids flow downward under the
cone, forming a sludge blanket. Contributors to Hardness:
• Water moves upward, allowing
• CO2 reacts with water forming
settled solids to form the sludge
H2CO3
blanket.
• Limestone reacts with carbonic acid
Design: forming soluble bicarbonates.

• Termed "upflow solids-contact basin" Bicarbonate Formation: Calcium bicarbonate

due to upward water flow. [Ca(HCO3)2] and magnesium bicarbonate
• Main advantage: Compact size [Mg(HCO3)2] form.
compared to separate units. Bicarbonates are soluble, while CaCO3 and
Suitability: MgCO3 are- Bicarbonates are soluble, while
CaCO3 and MgCO3 are insoluble.
• Best for treating water with relatively
constant quality. Additional Contributors to Hardness:
• Favored for softening, especially with • Gypsum (CaSO4) and MgSO4 may
consistent groundwater contribute to water hardness
characteristics.
Carbonate Hardness
Advantages:
• Carbonate hardness, CH is defined as
• Reduced size compared to separate the amount of hardness equal to the
units. total hardness or the total alkalinity,
• Sludge blanket enhances the whichever is less.
completion of precipitation reactions • Carbonate hardness can be removed
by heating the water
• Carbonate hardness is often called
temporary hardness because heating
the water removes it.
Noncarbonate Hardness Calculation: SEDIMENTATION - Involves settling
suspended particles under gravity
• Noncarbonate hardness, NCH is
defined as the total hardness in excess FILTRATION
of the alkalinity.
Filtration Process:
• If the alkalinity is equal to or greater
than the total hardness, then there is - Water flows slowly through granular
no noncarbonate hardness. media (sand, coal, garnet).
• NCH accounts for that portion of the
- Particles trapped via interception,
calcium and magnesium associated
flocculation, straining, and sedimentation
with ions including sulfate, nitrate,
and chloride. DISINFECTION
• NCH is called is called permanent
Purpose of Disinfection:
hardness permanent hardness
because it is not removed when water • Kills waterborne pathogens to prevent
is heated illness from ingestion.
SOFTENING CHEMISTRY Distinction from Sterilization:
Slaking Process: • Disinfection targets pathogens, not
the complete destruction of all
• Quicklime converted to hydrated lime
organisms.
at water treatment plant
• Slaking process involves mixing CaO Concerned Pathogens:
with water to produce Ca(OH)2
• Human enteric pathogens include
slurry.
bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and
Carbonate Ion Supply: amebic cysts.
• Must be capable of destroying all four
• Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
categories of pathogens.
commonly chosen for carbonate ion
• Challenges with Cryptosporidium:
supply.
Cryptosporidium, a resilient
• Sodium carbonate also known as soda
pathogen, caused a significant
ash or soda
outbreak in 1993
Ion exchange can be defined as the
DISINFECTION KINETICS
reversible exchange of an ion on a solid phase
with an ion of like charge in an aqueous Chick’s law (Chick, 1908), which states that
phase. the number of organisms destroyed with
respect to time is proportional to the number
of organisms
 DISINFECTANT DISINFECTION BYPRODUCTS
Chlorine Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) are
formed when disinfectants used in water
• Predominantly used disinfectant in treatment plants react with bromide or
the Philippines naturally occurring organic matter present in
• Effective, practical, and offers several the source water.
advantages over alternatives
Different disinfectants produce different
Chlorine Dioxide types or amounts of disinfection by-products
• Generated on-site by combining Trihalomethanes (THMs):
chlorine and sodium chlorite.
• Primary disinfectant, inactivates • Formed when chlorine disinfectants
bacteria and cysts. react with organic matter in water.
• Chloramine used as a secondary • Includes chloroform,
disinfectant for distribution system bromodichloromethane,
residual dibromochloromethane, and
bromoform.
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)
Haloacetic Acids (HAAs):
• Potential disinfectant, inactivates
pathogens through photochemical • Result from disinfectant reactions
reactions. with organic and inorganic matter in
• Inactivation results from a reaction water.
with nucleic acids and other cellular • Regulated HAAs (HAA5) include
chemicals. monochloroacetic, dichloroacetic,
• UV Radiation Wavelengths: Ranges trichloroacetic, monobromoacetic,
from 200–315 nm. and dibromoacetic acids.
• Classifications: Vacuum UV (100– Bromate
200 nm), UV-C (200–280 nm), UV-B
(280–315 nm),UV-A (315–400 nm). • Formation: occurs when ozone reacts
• UV Generation and Lamps: Typically with naturally occurring bromide in
generated by mercury lamps. source water
• Optimum disinfection range: 245– Chlorite
285 nm.
• Characteristics: Tasteless, colorless
anion dissolves in water, stable
without reactive chemicals.
• Formed during chlorine dioxide
generation and wastewater
disinfection.
• Chlorite Exposure Effects: potential
effects on nervous system in infants,
 young children, and fetuses;
Exposure may result in anemia.
• Prevention Measures: Minimize
chlorite formation through careful
chlorine dioxide generation, reducing
oxidant demand, and minimizing
UV/sunlight exposure
SLUDGE TREATMENT
• Involves separating water from solid
constituents in water treatment waste.
• Degree of treatment depends on the
chosen disposal method.