COURSETITLE: HISTORY OF

ETHIOPIA AND THEHORN FOR

HIGHER LEARNING
INSTITUTIONS(HLIS)
COURSECODE:Hist.102

CREDIT HOURS: 3
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Nature and Uses of History
A. Nature
 The term history is derived from the Greek word historia,
which meant “inquiry” or “an account of one’s inquiries.”

 The term was first used by the ancient Greek historian,

Herodotus (c. 484- c. 420 B.C.E.), who is often held to be
the “father of written history.”
 Cont’d
 In ordinary usage, history means all the things that have
happened in the human past.
 Academically, history can be defined as an organized and
systematic study of the past.

The study involves the discovery, collection, organization,

and presentation of information about past events.

 History can also mean the period after the development of

complex socio-political organizations along with the
invention of writing.
 Cont’d

 The major concern of history is the study of human

society and its interaction with the natural environment.

 What differentiates history from other disciplines is that it

studies the interaction between the humans and their
environment in the past; but other disciplines study the
same issue in the present state.
 Cont’d
 Historians organize and divide the human past into
discrete periods after identifying significant
developments in politics, society, economy, culture,
environment etc.

Accordingly, history is conventionally divided into

ancient, medieval and modern history.

 This is what we call periodization in history, one of the

key characteristics of the discipline.
 Cont’d
B. Uses of History
History Helps Better Understand the Present

 History is the only significant storehouse of information

available for the examination and analysis of how people
behaved and acted in the past.

History Provides a Sense of Identity

 Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who

we are and where we fit in the world.
 Cont’d
 It is only through sense of history that communities define

their identity, orient themselves, and understand their

relationships with the past and with other societies.

History Provides the Basic Background for Other

Disciplines

 Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of

other disciplines such as literature, art, philosophy, religion,
sociology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc.
 Cont’d
History Teaches Critical Skills
 Studying history helps students to develop key research
skills. These include:

how to find and evaluate sources;

how to make coherent arguments based on various

kinds of evidence and present clearly in writing.
 Cont’d
History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-
Mindedness
 Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural
practices, styles, and values as right and proper.

 By studying the past, students of history acquire broad

perspectives that give them the range and flexibility
required in many life situations.
 Cont’d
History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination
 Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed
their lives involves a sense of beauty and excitement, and
ultimately another perspective on human life and society.

 To conclude, history should be studied because it is

essential to the individual and the society.
1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study

 Historians are not creative writers like novelists; therefore,

the work of historians must be supported by evidence
arising from sources.

Sources: are instruments that bring to life what appear

to have been dead.
Where there are no sources, there is no history.
 Cont’d
 Historical sources are broadly classified into two types:
A) Primary sources:- are surviving traces of the past
available to us in the present.

 They are original or first hand in their proximity to the event

both in time and in space.
 Examples: manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters,
minutes, court records and administrative files, travel documents,
photographs, maps, video and audio-visual materials, and artifacts
(coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings).
 Cont’d
B) Secondary sources:- are second-hand published accounts
about past events.

 They are written long after the event has occurred,

providing an interpretation of what happened, why it

happened, and how it happened, often based on primary

sources.

Examples: articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and

published stories or movies about historical events.

 Cont’d
Oral data constitute the other category of historical sources
called Oral Sources.
 Oral sources are especially valuable to study and document
the history of non-literate societies.
They can also be used to fill missing gaps and
corroborate written words.
 In many societies, people transmit information from one
generation to another through folk songs and folk sayings.
This type of oral data is called oral tradition.
 Cont’d

 People can also provide oral testimonies or personal

recollections of lived experience.

Such source material is known as oral history.

 For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn, historians use

a combination of the sources described above.
1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn

 Historiography can be defined as the history of

historical writing.

It is studying how knowledge of the past is obtained

and transmitted.

 The organized study and narration of the past was

introduced by Herodotus and Thucydides (c.455-

400 B.C.E.)
 Cont’d
The most important early figure in Chinese historical
thought and writing was Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.).

 History emerged as an academic discipline in the 2nd

half of the 19th c first in Europe and subsequently in
other parts of the world including the US.

 The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–

1886), and his colleagues established history as an
independent discipline in Berlin.
 Cont’d
Ranke’s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the
past made him the “father of modern historiography.”

 Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed

enormously

 B.C.E) repeatedly mentioned Ethiopia (the land of sun burnt

people).

 Latin writers like Plini and Seneca also wrote about the
region.
 Cont’d
Among early literature on Ethiopia were:
i) Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (voyage Around Red Sea):- is one
of the earliest known references on history of Ethiopia and the
Horn.
 It is written in Greek language in the 1st c A.D by an anonymous
author.
ii)Christian Topography:- is another document describing Aksum’s
trade and the then Aksumite king’s campaigns on both sides of the
sea.
 Composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the 6th c
A.D.
 Cont’d
Inscriptions
 were the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from the
7th c A.D.
The document was found in Abba Gerima monastery in
Yeha.
Manuscript
 was discovered in Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day
Wollo in the 13th c A.D.
It contains the list of medieval kings and their history in
brief.
 Cont’d
Hagiographies or gedle (struggle)
 Are the largest groups of sources available for medieval
Ethiopian history.
Originated from Ethiopian Orthodox Church and invariably
written in Ge’ez.
An important function of hagiographies is enhancing the
prestige of saints.
A parallel hagiographical tradition existed among Muslim
communities of the country like, a Muslim saint, Shaykh
Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wollo, in the late
19th c.
 Cont’d
Chronicles

 First appeared in Ethiopian Ge’ez tongue in the 14thc and

continue some times in Amharic up to the early 20th c.

The earliest and the last of such surviving documents

are the Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion and the
Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu
respectively.
 Cont’d
 Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts-past
and contemporary about the monarch’s genealogy,
upbringing, military exploits, piety and
statesmanship.

 explain historical events mainly in religious terms

 they offer little by way of social and economic

developments even in the environs of the palace.
 Cont’d
Arab Visitors/Writers
 Provide useful information on various aspects of the
region’s history.
For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the
culture, language and import-export trade in the main
central region of the east African coast in the 10th and in
the 14th centuries respectively.
Ibin Sa’id (1214) and Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) also
wrote about various peoples of the region.
 Cont’d
 In the 16thc, the first document titled Futuh al Habesha
was composed by Shihab al-Din (Yemeni writer), who
recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and
the Muslim principalities.

 In the 17thc, the other first-hand account was left to us by

Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the
court of Fasiledas (r. 1632-67).
 Cont’d
Abba Bahrey’s Geez script
 Was other material that appeared in the 16th c include on the
Oromo, written in 1593.
 The document provides us with first-hand information about
the Oromo population movement including the Gadaa System.
European missionaries and travellers
provide us with valuable information covering a
considerable period like religious and political
developments within Ethiopia, and the country’s foreign
relations.
 Cont’d
 An example of such account is the Prester John of the
Indies, composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco
Alvarez who accompanied the Portuguese mission to the
court of Lebne-Dengil in 1520.
Travel documents
 Had important contribution to the development of Ethiopian
historiography.
Example, James Bruce’s Travels to discover the source of
the Blue Nile.
 Cont’d
Foreign writers

 Developed interest in Ethiopian studies.

Example a German historian, Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704)

founded Ethiopian studies in Europe in the 17th c.

He wrote Historia Aethiopica (A New History of

Ethiopia).

In the 19th c, August Dillman published two studies on

ancient Ethiopian history.
 Cont’d
Traditional Ethiopian writers
 Historical writing made some departures from the
chronicle tradition in the 20th c.
The earliest group of these writers include Aleqa Taye
Gebre Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis, Onesmus Nasib
(Aba Gemechis), and Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis
Abyezgi.
Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-
Hiwot Baykedagn joined them.
 Cont’d
Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of
topics from social justice, administrative reform and
economic analysis to history.

 Taye and Asme wrote Yeityopia Hizb Tarik (The History

of Ethiopian People) and Ye [Oromo] Tarik (The History
of the Oromo) respectively.

 Onesmus translated the Bible into his native tongue, Afan

Oromo.
 Cont’d
 Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in
Ethiopian history.
 Gebre-Hiwot wrote Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor
Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader
(Government and Public Administration).
 The most prolific writer of the early 20thc Ethiopia was,
however, Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie.

He published four major works namely Ethiopiana

Metema (Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema (Eve),
Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and
Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia).
 Cont’d
 The Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early
experiment in modern history writing and publications.

 After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge

between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional
historians who came after him.

He made better evaluation of his sources than his

predecessors did.
 Cont’d
 Another work of importance in this period is Yilma
Deressa’s Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle
Zemen (A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century).

The book addresses the Oromo population movement

and the wars between the Christian kingdom and the
Muslim sultanates as its main subjects.

 Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also wrote

Zikre Neger (Things Remembered).
 Cont’d
 Gebre-Wold Engidawork left to us another work
dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure.

 Dejazmach Kebede Tesema was also writer of the

same category who wrote his memoir of the imperial
period, published as Yetarik Mastawesha in1962
E.C.
 Cont’d
 The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of

Ethiopian historiography.

History emerged as an academic discipline.

 The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time occupation

began with the opening of the Department of History in

1963 at the then Haile Selassie I University (HSIU).

 Cont’d
The production of BA theses began towards the end
of the decade.
The Department launched its MA and PhD programs
in 1979 and 1990 respectively.
 Since its foundation in 1963, the IES has been
publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the
dissemination of historical research.
 Cont’d
 The professionalization of history in other parts of the
Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon.

 With the establishment of independent nations, a deeper

interest in exploring their own past quickly emerged
among African populations

 With this came an urgent need to recast the historical

record and to recover evidence of many lost pre-colonial
civilizations.
 Cont’d
 The decolonization of African historiography

required new methodological approach (tools of

investigation) to the study of the past

a critical use of oral data and

tapping the precepts of ancillary disciplines like

archaeology, anthropology and linguistics.

 Cont’d
 European intellectuals’ own discomfort with the Euro-
centrism of previous scholarship provided for the
intensive academic study of African history, spread to
North America by the 1960s.

 Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental

and African Studies (SOAS) in London and the
Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-
Madison.
 Cont’d

 Yet African historiography has not been the sole

creation of interested Europeans.

 African universities have trained their own scholars

and sent many others overseas for training who

eventually published numerous works on different

aspects of the region’s history

 1.4. The Geographical Context
 The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of
northeast Africa, which now contains the countries of
Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.
 The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by
contacts with others through commerce, migrations, wars,
slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and waning of state
systems.
 Yet, the evolution of human history owed much to
geographical factors notably location, landforms, resource
endowment, climate and drainage systems.
 Cont’d
Spatial location:- is one geographical factor that has
significant bearing on the ways in which history unfolds.

 Ethiopia and the Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of
Aden and Indian Ocean on the one hand, and the present-
day eastern frontiers of Sudan and Kenya on the other.

 Since early times, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked
Northeast Africa to the Eastern Mediterranean, the Near
and Middle East, India, and the Far East.
 Cont’d
 The Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the Near and

Middle East, India and the Far East.

Drainage: - is another element of geographical factor that

had profound impact on human history.

 Ethiopia and the Horn have five principal drainage

systems, Which include the Nile River, Gibe/Omo–Gojeb,
Genale/Jubba-Shebele, the Awash River and the Ethiopian
Rift Valley Lake systems.
 Cont’d
Climate: Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three

major distinct environmental zones.

1. Eastern lowland:- covers the narrow coastal strip of

north-eastern Eritrea, widens gradually and descends

southwards to include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel,

the Danakil Depression, the lower Awash valley, and the

arid terrain in northeast of the Republic of Djibouti.

 Cont’d

It then extends to the Ogaden, the lower parts of

Hararghe, Bale, Borana, Sidamo and the whole

territory of the Republic of Somalia.

2.Highland massif:- starts from northern Eritrea and

continues all the way to southern Ethiopia.

The eastern extension of the highland massif consists

the Arsi, Bale and Hararghe plateau.
 Cont’d
3. Hot lowlands:- stretch from north to south along the
western foothills or on the periphery of the plateau and
on borderlands of the Sudan .

characterized by thick forests chiefly on the banks

of the Nile and its tributaries.
 CHAPTER TWO
PEOPLES AND CULTURES INETHIOPIA
AND THE HORN
2.1. Human Evolution
 The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion
years B. P.
 Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other
small beings emerged at c. 800 million years B. P.
 Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of
200-170 million years B. P. and then some primates
developed into Pongidae while others evolved into
Hominidae.
 Cont’d
 Archaeological evidences suggest that East African
Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity.

 Evidences related to both biological and cultural

evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo
and Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian
and foreign scholars.
 Biological Evolution

 A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B.

P. was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in
2007.

 Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million

years BP) was discovered in Middle Awash.

 Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4.2 million B.P.) was

discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.
 Cont’d
 Other Australopithecines were uncovered at
Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B. P.) in
Middle Awash.

A three years old child’s fossil named as

Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3
million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika,
Mille, Afar in 2000.
 Cont’d
Another Australopithecus afarensis
(Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B.
P.) with 40% complete body parts, weight
30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis looks like
bipedal female was discovered at Hadar in Afar
in 1974 A.D.

Fossil named Australopithecus anamnesis was

discovered around Lake Turkana.
Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus afarnesis
Selam: Discovered By (Lucy/Dinkinesh Discovered by Dr.
Zeray_Alemseged Donald Johanson
 Cont’d
 Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in Afar
language) dated to 2.5 million years B.P was
discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996
and 1999.

 The development of the human brain was to be the

main feature of the next stage of human evolution,
which produced the genus Homo.
 Cont’d
 Different evidences of the genus homo have been recovered
in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Homo habilis, dated 1.9 million years B. P. has been found
in the Lower Omo.
A fossil named Homo erectus, dated 1. 6 million years B.P.
was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and
Gadeb.
Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then
spread out to the rest of the world.
 Cont’d
Skeleton of Archaic Homo sapiens, dated 400, 000
years B.P. named Bodo was discovered in Middle
Awash.

Fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens (100, 000 years

B.P.) were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa,
and Kibish around Lower Omo in 1967.

Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in

1997, lived about 160, 000 years B.P.
 Cultural Evolution

 It related to technological changes that brought socio-

economic transformation on human life.

 Cultural evolution grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze

Age and Iron Age.

Stone tools had been the first technologies to be

developed by human beings
 Cont’d
 Stone tools can be grouped in to:
1. Mode I (Oldwan)-are mainly characterized by crude
and mono-facial styles, and were produced by the direct
percussion.

2. Mode II (Achelean):- were produced by indirect

percussion, by using hand-axe or hammer, and mainly
characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features.

3. Mode III (Sangoon):- are characterized by flexible

and finest form of production by the use of obsidian.
jbii

Oldowan stone tools

 mono-facial tools
simple pebble,
choppers
small stone
flakes
Acheulean stone tools
 tear drop-shaped bifacial flaked stone tools
sharp edges and a pointed end
Mode III stone tools
Manufacture of a spear
Refined axes and choppers
triangular drill
 doubled-edged knifes
 Indirect percussion
Pressure flaking
 Cont’d
 The above types of stone tools have been found in
Ethiopia and the Horn.

 Artifact findings suggest that Olduwan tools made and

used by Homo habilis, dated 2.52 million years B.P. were
discovered near Gona and at Shungura in Afar in 1992.

 Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools, dated back to

1.7.million years B.P; invented fire and started burial
practice, which were found at Kella, Middle Awash in
1963
 Cont’d
 Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back

up to 300,000 years B. P.

 Sites like Gademotta, Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in

Ethiopia and Midhidhishi & Gudgud in Somalia have

offered noteworthy information about Stone Age

communities.
 Cont’d
 The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-
periods.
1. Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 mill. to 11, 000
years B. P.)- was the period when human being
developed language with shelter in cave, using stone,
bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food
and clothing.
 People discovered the use of fire
 There was sex-age labour division with able-bodied
males as hunters of fauna, and children and females as
gatherers of flora.
 Cont’d
2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.)-
was transition between Palaeolithic and Neolithic.
 People made the first pottery and made crude boats
3. Neolithic(New Stone Age/10, 000-6, 000 B.P)-during
the this period, human beings transformed from mobile
to sedentary way of life.
 This was a radical shift involving changes from
hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants
and animals.
 2.2 Neolithic Revolution
 This period refers to the time when human being began to
produce food through the domestication of plants and animals
 It is a turning point in the history of human being that
represents a revolution in subsistence
 Human being adopted food production as their primary
subsistence strategy
 Human way of life and the land scape changed
 People began to organize themselves around the base camp to
which they return regularly
 Cont’d
 The process of domestication took place independently in
the various parts of the world.
 In Ethiopia and the Horn, people cultivated plants including
Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug
(Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.
 The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones,
beads, stone figures and animal remains in sites like Emba-
Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and
Barentu in Eritrea were evinces of the existence of
Neolithic material culture.
 Cont’d
 The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us
agricultural stone tools.

 Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas

and vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave
on the south eastern shore of Lake Tana, around Lake
Basaqa near Matahara.

 Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as
well as rock paintings of domesticated animals have been
found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar.
Gobedra rock shelter
 2.3 The Peopling of the Region
Languages and Linguistic Processes
 Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and
linguistic diversity that about 90 languages with 200
dialects exist in the region.
 Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into
two major language super families. These are
A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the
three sub-families.
1.Cushitic: is divided into four branches
 Cont’d
i) Northern Cushitic: is represented by Beja, spoken in north-
western Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
ii) Central Cushitic: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant;
Hamtanga and Bilen.
iii) Eastern Cushitic: this includes diversified linguistic groups
like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo,
Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo,
Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
iv) Southern Cushitic: - represented by Dhalo in Kenya and
Nbugua in Tanzania.
 Cont’d
2. Semitic: is divided into two.
i) North Semitic: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around
Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean
Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and
Tigray).
ii) South Semitic : is further divided into two.
Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte,
Wolane and Zay.
Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes
(endangered).
 Cont’d
3.Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa,
Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo,
Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse
etc.

B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi,

Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle,
Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and
Uduk.
 Cont’d
 Language classification did not remain static.

 Factors like population movements, warfare, trade,

religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have
resulted in intense linguistic processes that forced
languages to be affected.

In this process, some languages died out or have been

in danger of extinction while others thrived over time
 Settlement Patterns

 The distribution of peoples across the landscape is the

results of long historical processes in northeast Africa.

 In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas

sparse

 Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others

the lowlands
 Cont’d
 Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had
inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile
in the west from where they dispersed to different directions.

 The Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in

Ethiopia and the Horn and have also spread over wide areas
from Sudan to Tanzania.

 The Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually

settled the northern, north central, north-eastern, south central
and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn and also they are the
second majority people next to the Cushites.
 Cont’d
 With the exception of Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-
Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the majority of
Omotic peoples have inhabited south-western Ethiopia along
the Omo River basin.

 In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the

Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some of the Chari-Nile
family inhabited as far as southern Omo.

 Chari-Nile are identified as the Karamojo cluster living

around Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan border.
 Economic Formations
 The domestication of plants and animals gave
humanity two interdependent modes of life: agriculture
and pastoralism.
 In Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms of livelihood
have coexisted and quite often intermingled
 Topographic features and climatic conditions largely
influenced economic activities in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
 Cont’d
 A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the
eastern lowland region since early periods.

 The production of camel, goat, and cattle has been the

most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho
and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo.

 While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash

River, the Somali have owed a great deal to Wabi
Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) Rivers.
 Cont’d
 The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for
thousands of years supporting sizable populations who
were engaged in mixed farming

 It is here that the sedentary agriculture had been

started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P.
by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups.
 Cont’d
 The major economic activity of the Omotic has been
mixed farming and trade in northern Omo; while
southern Omo have predominantly practiced
pastoralism and fishing.

 Many of the Omotic groups have also been famous in

metallurgy, weaving and other crafts.
 Cont’d
 In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the

dominant economic formations were pastoralism, shifting

agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting.

Sorghum, millet, cotton and other crops have been

largely cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-Sudanese

border since antiquity.

 Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high

economic and social values.

 2.4 Religion and Religious Processes
Indigenous Religion

 Includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices,

which are native to the region and have been followed by

the local people since ancient times.

 A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in

Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to

natural phenomena, which are considered sacred.

 Cont’d
 Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of

one Supreme Being called Waqa.

 Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called

Ayyana.

 In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge

of ever-flowing river and top of mountain respectively,

there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New

Year (Birbo) rite.

 Cont’d
 Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have
maintained link between the Ayyana and the believers.

 Qallu's ritual house called galma is located on hilltop or in the

groves of large trees.

 On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy at which

Qallu or Qallitti is possessed by Ayyana so that he/she can interpret

mysteries.
 The Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) used to make pilgrimage
to get consecration of senior Qallu (Abba Muda or anointment
father) until about 1900.
 Cont’d
 Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa,
who is believed to exist before everything (hundam
issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are
represented by elincho (sun) and agana (moon).

 Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard),

Hausula, Qedane and Warriqa attracted prayers and
sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo mountains.
 Cont’d

 The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky

God and religious officials known as Magnancho.

 The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and

had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.

 The Konso religion is cantered on worship of

Waaq/Wakh.
 Cont’d
 The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban
(Sky God).

 Among sections of the Gurage, there have been

Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and
Damwamwit (health goddess).

 Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God), in which the religious

duties were dominated by So’ala clan).
 The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho
 Cont’d
 The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana.

 Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of Moytiliya,

one of the Ayyanas.

 The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as

Eqo and a person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or
eke-nayo.

 Sun and moon as well as other entities are also

manifestation or sign of God.
 Cont’d
 The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural
power called Iqa, which created everything and
presides over the universe.

 The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven),

but believe in the coming of God through rain,
lightning and thunder, and rainbow is necklace of
God.
 Judaism
 Judaism is considered as the expression of the
covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established with
the ancient Hebrew community.

 Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in

Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples before Christianity

reached the region.

 Cont’d
 The Bete-Israel in Ethiopia practiced Haymanot (religious
practices, which are generally recognized as Israelite religion
that differs from Rabbinic Judaism).

 There are different views on how and when the Beta-Israel

came in to existence in Ethiopia.

Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been isolated

from mainstream Judaic practice for at least a millennium.

They developed and lived for centuries in northern and

north-western Ethiopia.
 Christianity
 Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the
reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360).
 Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers,
Aedesius and Frumentius (Fremnatos).
 When Fremnatos visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos
(328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian
Orthodox Church (EOC).
 Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt
continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first
Ethiopian Patriarch.
 Cont’d
 Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the
society the later part the fifth century, during the reign of
Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints.
 The saints also translated the Bible and other religious
books into Geez.
 The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period
(1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during
the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many
churches and monasteries were constructed.
 Cont’d
 These churches and monasteries are not merely religious
centers, but served through the ages as repositories of
ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art

 From mid-16th to the early 17th centuries, the Jesuit

missionaries tried to convert Monophysite EOC to
Dyophysite Catholic, which led to bloody conflicts that
in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits.
 Cont’d
 Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church
Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan
Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries under such
leaders as Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf,
who win confidence of local people.
They translated spiritual books into vernaculars.
They adopted old names for Supreme Being like
Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used them in new versions as
equivalent to God.
 Cont’d
Village schools were established to all children of
chiefs and farmers as centers of preaching the faith

 They also provided medical facilities.

 All these attracted a large number of followers and

eventually, continuous and systematic indoctrinations
seem to have resulted in grafting of new teaching on
indigenous religion.
 Islam
 When Prophet Mohammed started the teaching of Islam
in Mecca in 610 AD, he faced opposition from the
Quraysh rulers
 Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his
early followers including his daughter Rukiya and her
husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future wives
Umm Habiba and Umm Salma led by Jafar Abu Talib
to Aksum
 Cont’d
 The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b.
Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them
asylum from 615-28.
 When the leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to
repatriate the refugees, but the king did not comply.
 Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely
through peaceful ways including trade.
 Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on
the Red Sea by the beginning of the 8th century.
 Cont’d
 In the early 10th century, the Muslim community on
the islands developed a sultanate.
 In due course, Muslims settled other places on the
Red Sea coast.
 It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually
spread among the pastoral communities of the
interior, largely through the agency of preachers
and merchants.
 Cont’d
 However, the Dahlak route played a minor role in the

introduction of Islam into the interior as Christianity was

strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum and later

states of northern Ethiopia and open preaching of Islam

was prohibited.

 Thus, the port of Zeila on western coast of the Gulf of

Aden served as an important gateway for the introduction
of Islam mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and
Hararghe.
 Cont’d
 Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the
8th and 9th centuries; from where it radiated to central,
southern, and eastern Ethiopia through the role of Muslim
clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders.

 Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint (Waliy) of

medieval period, played very important role in the
expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other south-eastern
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Cont’d
 Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8thc
A.D. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and
Merca.

Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu

Minirate c.1269.

The mosques, Islamic learning, and pilgrimage centres

have been the depositories of cultures, traditions and
literature of local Muslims.
 CHAPTER THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND
SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE
HORN TO THE END OF THE 13TH
CENTURY
3.1 Emergence of States
 One important factor for the emergence of states was the
beginning of sedentary agriculture.
 The expansion of agriculture gave rise to the class
differentiation that resulted in the formation of states.
 Cont’d
 Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated the
development of states
 State refers to an autonomous political unit having
 population
 defined territory
 sovereignty
government with the power to decree and enforce
laws
 Cont’d
 States arose independently in different places and
at different times
 The first states were theocratic states
 Religious leaders such as Shamans/Priests
played prominent role in maintaining the social
and religious affairs of their people during the
initial formation of the states
 Cont’d
 As production became market oriented, the priests
were gradually replaced by chiefs.
 The chiefs began collecting regular and compulsory
tributes known as protection payments, with which
they maintained themselves.
 They were supported by
the army
the bureaucracy
other followers
 Cont’d

 Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa

where early state formation took place.

 From small beginnings, such states gradually

developed into powerful kingdoms and even empires
with a well-demarcated social structure.
 3.2 Ancient States
North and North-eastern states
A) Punt
 Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
 The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic
writings, tell of a series of naval expeditions, which the
Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt.
 Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent expedition to
collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy).
 Cont’d

 During Pharaoh Asosi, treasurer of God Bawardede

took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt.

 The famous Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468

B.C.) sent five ships under the leadership of Black
Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat and
welcomed by the Puntites King, Perehu and his
family.
Egyptian soldiers from Myrrh trees obtained by
Hatshepsut's expedition to the Land Hatshepsut's expedition from
of Punt as depicted from her temple Punt
at Deir el-Bahri
 Cont’d
 Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact location of
Punt.
 The varieties of incense and myrrh mentioned in the writings
have suggested northern or north-eastern Somalia to some
scholars
 Other scholars are inclined more towards Northern Ethiopia
because of the reference to gold, ebony and monkeys.
 Still some others argue that it was probably stretched from
Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and
Cape Gardafui.
 Cont’d
B) Da’amat and Other Cultural Centres in
Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea
 Da’amat had located little to the south of Aksum.

 Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to

the 5th century B.C shows that he used politico-
religious title known as Mukarib.
 Cont’d
 Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal
god), Astater (Venus god), Na’uran (Light god),
Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped
in the domain of the Da’amat state and other northern
Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centres.

 There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time.

 Cont’d
 There were a number of cultural centres in northern
Ethiopia. The major ones are:

 Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was

the oldest of these centres.

 Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum

 Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum.

 There were also other cultural centres like Addi Gelemo,

Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat,
Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc.
 Cont’d
C) The Aksumite State
 The centre of the Aksumite state was formed around
200-100 B.C.

 Initially, its power was limited to a relatively small area

comprising the town of Aksum and its environs.

 Gradually, however, it expanded to include large

territories in all directions.
 Cont’d
 According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on the
western coast of the Red Sea was the major port of
Aksum.

 The document also mentioned Gulf of Aden ports like

Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian
Ocean and Benadir Coasts like Serapion
(Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca.
 Cont’d
 Zoscales (c.76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to
communicate in Greek language
 Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and
Laodicea (Asia Minor)
 According to the book entitled Christian Topography, there
was the existence of commercial activities on the Red Sea
areas
 It also mentions the internal long distance trade between
Aksum and a distant region called Sasu, most probably in
Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile
 Cont’d
 From the 3rd to the 7th centuries, Aksumite kings like
Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc.
minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold,
silver and bronze for both overseas and local
transactions.

 Aksum had been one of the four greatest powers of the

world (Roman empire, Persia, China, Aksum) in
political and economic aspect.
 Cont’d
 Aksum king, Kaleb (r.500-35) expanded overseas
territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba, but
opposed by the local prince, Dhu-Nuwas who killed
many Christians.

 Dhu-Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha

as governor of Arabia that continued until 570 A. D

 The Aksumite state had begun to decline since the late

7th century because of internal and external challenges.
 Cont’d
Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural
productivity and possibly plague infestation started
to weaken it.

With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the

Arabs around 702, the international lifeline of the
state was cut.
 Cont’d
 The whole network of Aksumite international trade came under
the control of the rising and expanding Arab Muslims, and
Aksumite state was isolated from its old commercial and
diplomatic partners that resulted in declining of the Aksumite
state economically.

 This led to the decline of its political and military power

not only on the Red Sea coast but also in its interior
provinces, where Aksumite hegemony was challenged by
local rebellions.
 Cont’d

 The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and

Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the
collapse of the Aksumite state.

 However, as a civilization, Aksum had a profound

impact upon the peoples of the Horn of Africa and
beyond.
 Cont’d
D) Zagwe Dynasty
 Following the decline of Aksumite state, its political centre
shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in the territory
of the Agaw and to the west up to the Blue Nile valleys.
 This apparently gave Agaw elites the opportunity to take
part in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and
functionaries for at least four centuries.
 After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they
successfully took over the state administration.
 Cont’d
 Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot
married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite
king Dil Na'od, who later overthrew his father-in-law and
took control of power.
 The Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from
C. 1150 to 1270.
 The Zagwe Dynasty made its centre in Bugna district
within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha
(Lalibela).
 Cont’d
 The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost
complete.
Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with
eastern Mediterranean region.
 The Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings
and the translation of some of religious works from Arabic
into Ge'ez.
 That said, Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction
of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches:
 Cont’d
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar
with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration and
partial decoration outside.
 They are not totally separated from surrounding rock.
 Their roofs or walls are still attached to rock,
eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete
Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
 Cont’d
3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration inside including roof
and outside.
 They are completely separated (carved out) from
surrounding rock,
eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete
Medhanialem.

 Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem

is the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most
finely built in the shape of the cross.
 Cont’d
 King Lalibela wanted to establish the second
Jerusalem, and mitigate or even avoid difficulties,
which Ethiopian Christians encountered in journey
to Holy Lands at least once in their lifetime.

 This was done by constructing churches based on

the model of Holy Lands in Israel.
Bete Abba Libanos Semi-hewn
Monolithic church of
Bete Giyorgis,
Bete Medhanialem
Bete Amanuel
 Cont’d
 The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to internal
problems of royal succession and oppositions from
groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of
Aksumite state.

 The ancient rulers of Aksum considered Zagwe kings

“illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen
of Sheba.
 Cont’d
 The legend was in turn based on a book known as
Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings) that was translated
from Coptic to Arabic and then into Ge’ez.

Based on the legend, the power claimants contend

that “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state
until its power was “usurped” by the Zagwes.
 Cont’d
 Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent
from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od, organized his
forces being assisted by the ecclesiastical hierarchy and
engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek in battle.

 Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took

the state power contending the “restoration” of
“Solomonic” Dynasty.
 East, Central, Southern, and Western States

Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat

A) Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend
of Abay River just opposite to the present districts of
Gojjam and around the current Wambara area.

 It was founded in the 8thcentury and had early

connections with Damot.
 Cont’d
B) Damot: was strong kingdom that expanded its
territories into most of the lands to south of Abay and
north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and
east of Didessa.

 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the 13th

century.
 Cont’d
C) Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in south-
western Ethiopia.
 The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario
Busaso).
 Enarya kingship was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-
Tato) was secluded and considered as sacred.
 He communicated visitors through an intermediary, Afe
Busho.
 Cont’d
 The real power rested with Mikretcho (council)
including Awa-rasha (king's spokesman) and Atche-
rasha (royal treasurer).

 The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi.

 In the 9th century, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to

have led a campaign into Enarya, accompanied by
Orthodox Christian priests carrying arks of covenant
(tabots).
 Cont’d
D) Gafat: historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of
Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining Damot on the south
western periphery of the Christian Kingdom.

 Semitic speaking population related to Adere and the

Gurage inhabited it.

 It is not clear from available records whether the Gafat

formed a “state” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a
rich source of gold.
 Cont’d
 Despite efforts by Christian evangelists, the Gafat
largely remained practitioners of their own indigenous
religion.

 As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute

to the Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle, which came
from six districts, among which Gambo and Shat are
Gafat clan names.

 The province was ruled by the title of Awalamo.

 Muslim Sultanates
 After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the 8th
century, Muslim communities and states had been
established at many locations especially along the main
trade routes from Zeila and its many branches
penetrating the interior.

These states include:

A) Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed
decent from Mecca, set up Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A.
D (283 A.H.) on north-eastern foothill of Shewa.
 Cont’d
B)Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and
Ada’a in the 11th century.

 It was a hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated

fields of wheat and barley, fruits,

 It was also extensive grazing grounds full of numerous

herds of cattle, sheep and goats.
 Cont’d
C) Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper
waters of Awash and WabiShebelle extending to
Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast.

 It was much smaller than Ifat, but resembled.

 They have a currency called hakuna in which

transition takes place.
 Cont’d
D) Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau,
separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.
 It was separated from Dawwaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River
and extended southwards to the Gannale Dirre River.
 Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.
 Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby
Muslim lands.
 Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep,
cloth etc.
 It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
 Cont’d
E. Ifat: was a state located in the adjacent to Shewan
Sultanate.
 Its territory ran from northeast south-westerly in the Afar
plain eastward to the Awash.

 It was established by Umar Walasma, who claimed

decent from Hashamite clan and came from Arabia
between 1271 and 1285.
 He intervened between quarrelsome Makzumite princes
DilMarrah and Dil-Gamis, weakened and annexed the
sultanate of Shewa.
 Cont’d
 The sultanate was fertile and well watered.

 Its inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of

wheat, sorghum, millet and teff, and animal husbandry.

 Sugar cane, bananas, variety of fruits, beans, squashes,

cucumbers, and cabbage completed the diet.

 Chat was described for the first time as being consumed

as a stimulant.
 Cont’d
F. Others: autonomous states mutually independent
states like Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro),
Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise,
Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah
(West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim
were established and flourished.
 3.3. External Contacts
 Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at
least 3,000 B. C.
 It had very close relations with all commercially active
South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000
B.C.
 The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a
new pattern of relation between the region and Egypt.
 Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the general
reduction of the Christians into minority, relations between
the two were fairly smooth and friendly.
 Cont’d
 Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum had
established close relationship with the East Roman or
Byzantine Empire.
 Yet, in the 7thcentury, this relation became complicated
and began to deteriorate.

 The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through the

Near and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley
led to the decline of Aksumite land routes and shipping
lines.
 Cont’d
 Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use the
consecration and sending of a bishop as an instrument
to further their own foreign policy objectives

 The coming to power of the Mamluk in Egypt was

followed by the persecution of religious minorities.

 Moreover, the Mamluk presented a barrier to the

contacts between Christian Ethiopia and European
states.
 Cont’d
 In order to reach the places, Ethiopian Christian pilgrims
used the land route to Egypt, and from Cairo, they used the
land route to the Holy land.

 When pilgrims met their fellow Christians of Europe in the

holy places, they transmitted information about the EOC
and about the territorial extent of the Christian Kingdom.

 From the information, the Europeans began to consider

Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very powerful and
wealthy state existing in the Horn of Africa.
 Cont’d
 Consequently, they wanted to use this imaginary strong
Christian power in their struggle against the Muslim powers in
the Holy land.

 Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich
and powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John began to
circulate in Europe.

 The legend was developed when the balance of the crusade war
fought over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the
Muslims of the Middle East was in favor of the Muslims.
 Cont’d
 The geographical location of the country of Prester
John was not known to Europe for over a century.

 However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian

Christian Kingdom as the land of Prester John.

 Then, they began to search for the location of the

Kingdom and to make an alliance with it.
 3.4. Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
 Land has always been one of the most precious
possessions of human society throughout history.

 The rules according to which members of the society

hold, share, and use land constitute is known as the
land tenure system.
 Cont’d
 The most ancient land holding system,which survived in
many parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land
tenure system.

 Communal right to land is a group right.

 Group refers to the family, the clan and the other lineage
groups to which the individual belonged.

Each of these groups had communal right to the land they

lived in and freely exploited the resources of the land.
 Cont’d
 Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective
areas.

Rist is a kind of communal birth right to land by

members of the families and clans whose ancestors
had settled and lived in the area over long periods.

It is inherited from generation to generation in

accordance to with customary law.
 Cont’d
 The rist owners were known as bale-rist; yet, they paid
tributes to the state.

 Tribute was collected through a complex hierarchy of

state functionaries or officials who were given gult
right over the areas and populations they administered
on behalf of the central government.
 Cont’d
 Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce.

 The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for

their own up keep and the rest were sent to the
imperial centre.

 Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-

Gult as famous well placed officials used to transfer
their position to their offspring.
 Cont’d
B. Handicraft
Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the
ancient period.
The social, economic and political conditions of
ancient states had allowed the emergence of artisans
in various fields with diverse forms and applications
including metalwork, pottery, tannery, carpentry,
masonry, weaving, jewellery, basketry and others.
 Cont’d
 Metal workers produced spears’ points, swords ,
javelins, bows, arrows, traps, slings, slashers, shields,
knives, axes, sickles, hoes, ploughshares, spades,
machetes, hatchets, iron tripods, ornaments etc.

 Carpenters engaged in carving wood implements like

doors, windows, stools, chairs, tables, beds, headrests,
mortars, bowls, beams, yoke, stilt, coffins etc.
 Cont’d
 potters produced ceramic utensils like saucepan, ovens,

jar, pot, kettle, cooking tripod, plates, granary etc.

 Tanners produced leather tools used for bed, bed cover,

saddles, harness, ropes, footwear, prayer mats, sacks,

honey and butter container, drinking cup and clothes

until replaced by weavers’ cotton dresses

 Cont’d
 However, except the carpenters and masons in some
cases, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized
because of the general wrong public attitude.
The ruling classes mostly spent their accumulated
wealth on imported luxurious items rather than the
domestic technology.
 Consequently, the locally produced agricultural
implements and house furniture did not show any
significant improvement and sophistication.
 Cont’d
C. Trade
 Trade was another important economic activity of
ancient states that obtained considerable income from
both internal and international trade.

 Ethiopia and the Horn was crisscrossed by various trade

routes connecting various market places in all
directions.
 3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements
A) Architecture
 As the states expanded, architecture also began to
flourish.
 One of the unique architectural technologies was the
engraving of stele around the 3rd century AD.
 There were totally 58 steles in and around Aksum that
can be grouped into well-made and decorated, half
completed and megaliths (not hewn).
 Cont’d
 The longest one of these stele measures
33meters heights (the first in the world).

 The second longest obelisk measures 24

meters height

 The third longest stele measures 21 meters

 Cont’d
 The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest
architecture of artistic achievements of the Christian
world

 They were registered by UNESCO as part of world

cultural heritage in 1978, two years before that of the
Aksumite stele.
 Cont’d
B) Writing System
 The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon
writing type that is paleographical writing from left to
right and right to left alternatively.

 The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia

date to the 9th century BC.

 One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is absence of

vowels as most of the words are written in consonants.
 Cont’d
 For instance, Da’amat was inscribed as D’mt, while its
successive kings are written as RDM, RBH and LMN
using title, mlkn.

 By the 1st century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad

(26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right.

 Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense

contribution to the development of literature, art and the
writing of history.
 Cont’d
C) Calendar
 Calendars were developed and adopted among various
peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.

Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical

observations of moon in conjunction with seven or
eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii
Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning
star).
 Cont’d
 There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12
months of a year.

 Pillars (dated 300 B.C.), which were discovered in

northwestern Kenya from 1978-86 by Archaeologists
Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have suggested to represent
site used to develop Oromo calendar.
 Cont’d
 The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of
stars with 13 months a year, 12 of which are divided
equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29
days.

 The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela,

Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7
weeks.
 Cont’d
 Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5

or 6 (is added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which

comprise a thirteenth month.

 A gap of 7-8 years between Ethiopic and Gregorian

calendars results from alternative calculation in

determining date of Annunciation.

 Cont’d
 Thus, the first day of the year, 1Meskerem/Enkutatash
is usually September 11 (Gregorian).

 However, it falls on September 12 in years before the

Gregorian leap year

 The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become

the official calendar of the country.
 Cont’d
 The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar
consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days.

 It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which

Mohammed and his followers made flight from

Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim

community (ummah).
 Cont’d
 Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra,
"in the year of the Hijra").

 Years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before

the Hijra").

 Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta,

Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.
 Cont’d
D) Numerals
 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the
beginning of fourth century AD.

 Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the

Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks
individual characters for multiples of 100.
 CHAPTER FOUR
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM
THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE
BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES

4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty

 The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they
were descendants of the last king of Aksum
 Cont’d
 They considered themselves “legitimate” to take over
state power from the “illegitimate” rulers of the Zagwe
dynasty.
As the claim has no historical evidence, the name
“Restoration” is put in quotation mark.
Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation
marks because the claim of descent from King
Solomon of Israel is legendary.
 Cont’d
 The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre Negest
(“Glory of Kings”) that associated Ethiopia with the
Judeo-Christian tradition.

 The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class

descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen
of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel.

As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno Amlak

to Emperor Haile Silassie I claimed descent from
Menilek I.
4.2 Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial
Expansion and Religious Processes

 Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in

1285, a political instability caused by constant power
struggles among his sons and grandsons for
succession occurred.

The power struggle intensified during the reigns of

Yegba-Tsion’s (r.1285-94) five sons who reigned
from 1294 to 1299.
 Cont’d
 The succession problem seems to have been partly
resolved in 1300 during the reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r.
1299-1314) following the establishment of a 'royal
prison' at Amba-Gishen located in present day southern
Wollo.
According to the rule, all male members of the royal
family were confined at the Amba until one among
them was installed in power.
Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the
royal prison.
 Cont’d
When the monarch died, court dignitaries would
send an army to the royal prison to escort the
designated successor and put him on the throne.

This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was

destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's
force in 1540.
Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of
the Christian Kingdom
 From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the
medieval monarchs had no permanent capital rather shift
its centre from place to place.

 Yikuno-Amlak and later Amde-Tsion had succeeded in

consolidating and expanding the Christian kingdom by
subduing the neighbouring states.
 Cont’d
 Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who
embarked on a policy of a wider and rapid territorial
expansion, whose main motives of expansion were
economic and political i.e. to control the trade routes and
seize territories.

 The consolidation and territorial expansion of the

Christian Kingdom continued during the successors of

Amde-Tsion.
 Evangelization, Religious Movements,
and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob
I. Evangelization
 Christianity had a long history of expansion in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
 Early Christians played an important role in the spread of
Christianity in several areas.
Eyesus-Mo'a (in the 13th c) opened new opportunities of
learning for Christians who lived in the central part of
Ethiopia and later evangelized the newly incorporated areas.
 Cont’d
 Abune Tekle-Haymanot (13th century) played a key role in reviving
Christianity in Shewa, which was followed by the evangelization
of areas in southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot and
baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity.

 Yaqob spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such as

Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar,
Damot, Waj and Enarya.

 The territorial expansion carried out by Made-Tsion during

the medieval period set an addition momentum for the
spread of Christianity.
II. Religious Movements
A. The Ewostatewos Movement
 The period, mid-13th c witnessed development of monasticism and
religious movements of which the major one was the Ewostatewos
movement, named after the founder.

 Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in

present day Eritrea) where he was joined by many students and taught
until about 1337.

 Among his teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath.

 He was opposed by an organized religious rival group of the clergy in

Sera'e, and fled the country to Egypt, where he faced the same
opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims.
 Cont’d
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
 were a movement within Ethiopian monasticism,
called so after their founder and spiritual leader Abba
Estifanos.

 Abba Estifanos established a rigid monastic

organization, which emphasized poverty, absolute
self-subsistence, equality and autonomy from secular
authorities.
 Cont’d
 The movement rose to prominence in the 15th century
and continued until the 16th century, when it was
formally reconciled with the main body of the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church.

 Later, he collided with Zara-Yaqob on politico-religious

authority of the king.
III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
 Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to
stabilize and consolidate the Orthodox Church.

1. He settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy in order to

create an amicable church-state relationship.

he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving

Sabbath in the Ethiopian church and the Ewostatian agreed
to receive Holy orders from the Ethiopian prelates.

2. He urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.

 Cont’d
3. He ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays
and Fridays and get Father Confessors.

4. The king encouraged the establishment of a library in every

church, which was followed by revival of religious literature.

He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan,

Metsafe-Me’lad, Metsafe-Sillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo
Mister, etc.
Some parts of Te’amre-Maryam were translated from
Arabic to Geez.
 4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics
in Muslim Sultanates

Trade and the Expansion of Islam

 Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam and

formed the base of the economy of those Muslim states.

 The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states
of Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were used as ports for
their hinterland.
 Cont’d
 Trade was one of the major factors that resulted in the rise
and development of strong Muslim sultanates since the 14th
century.

 It served not only as a major source of livelihood but also

remained a major source of conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and Muslim sultanates.

 Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that

passed through Zeila due to their geographical proximity,
although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom.
 4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and
the Muslim Sultanates
 The ambition to control Zeila trade led to rivalry between
the “Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat.

 After its establishment, Ifat Sultanate of Walasma dynasty

extended its hegemony over the neighboring Muslim states.

 It also resisted the expansion of the Christian Kingdom.

 The first recorded conflict between the two took place in

1328, when the Muslim Sultanates organized their armies to
take military action against the Christian Kingdom.
 Cont’d
 After a long process of fighting, Amde-Tsion of Christian
kingdom defeated Haqaddin I of Ifat Sultanate.

 Later, Ifat was becoming an easy target to the Christian

Kingdom due to its location (geographical proximity).

 As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated

and other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha, Bali, Dara,
and Arbabani were also seriously weakened.
 The Rise of Adal
 Following their defeat, the sultans of Ifat moved further to
the southeastern lowlands and established new and vigorous
Muslim Sultanate of Adal in 1367 at a place called Dakar,
southeast of Harar.

 The Walasma family consolidated its power in the new

center, and began another phase of military campaigns
against the Christian Kingdom, which led to intense struggle
for predominance.
 Cont’d
 Thus, the Sultanate of Adal emerged as one of the strong
Muslim sultanates that became a center of resistance
against the Christian Kingdom until the 2nd half of the 16th
century.

 In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the

battle of Yeguba.

 Mohammed Ahmed sent a message of submission to

Ba’ede Mariam to remain vassal of the Christian Kings.
 Cont’d
 However, Adal was still strong and continued its
struggle, hence, Ba’ede-Mariam campaigned against it.

 Despite initial successes, the army of Ba'ede-Mariam

lost the battle in 1474.

 The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their

dealings with the rulers of Muslim Sultanates; likewise
the leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought to resolve the
problem peacefully.
 Cont’d
 As a result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din attempted to
smoothen relations with the Christian Kingdom.

 Later, Emir Mahfuz carried out some effective military

campaigns into the highlands but died in 1517, and his son-
in-law, Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi took over the
leadership.

 The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and

after the defeat of Imam Ahmed, a growing threat from
Oromo forced the sultanate to change its capital to Awsa in
1576/7, to the present Afar region.
 Cont’d
 Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-
economic and cultural interactions between the Christian
Kingdom and Muslim principalities.

 Ttrade continued to be the major channel of social

integration.

it had long been the source of friendship, interaction,

interdependence, and conflict among the states of the
region.
 Cont’d
 Merchants of the two regions often moved from the
highlands to the coast and vice versa, though which the
social links were strengthened and religions spread.

 These interactions and interdependence in economic,

social, cultural and political spheres lay the foundation
for modern Ethiopia.
 4.5. External Relations
 From the late 13th century onwards, the Christian
Kingdom continued to maintain relations with Egypt,
which was mainly religious in character.

 The Christian Kingdom also maintained relations with

Christian Europe.

 During the medieval period, contacts between the two

regions were strongly influenced by the legend of
“Prester John”, which was followed by sustained
relations in subsequent decades.
 CHAPTER FIVE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL

PROCESSES FROM THE
EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
5.1.Conflict between the Christian Kingdom
and the Sultanate of Adal (1529-1543)
 The interest to control trade routes lay at the heart of
the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim Sultanates that continued for over two
centuries.

 It was culminated in the wars between the Christian

Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal that lasted from
1529 to 1543.
 Cont’d
 After the death of Garad Abun in 1525, Imam Ahmed took
over the position of leadership in 1526

 He overcame political crisis in Adal and solved clash of

interest on pasturelands among the pastoral communities
of Afar, Somali, Harla, Harari and others.

 Imam Ahmed then built a formidable force composed of

these nomadic tribes, which signify his remarkable
achievements in leadership
 Cont’d
 He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves

but to unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom and

guarding Islamic doctrines and practices from the

infiltration of any alien religious doctrine.

 He was able to gain acceptance as Imam and

consolidated his army to fight the Christian Kingdom.

 Cont’d
 He then refused to pay tribute and made military
campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527 and
controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar,
Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and putting the Christian
Kingdom at risk.

 In 1528, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a huge force from his

domain to confront the Adal force.
 Cont’d

 However, the leadership of the army of Christian

Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat

Adal’s force.

 On the other hands, Imam Ahmed's small-sized army

had an excellent leadership with a unified command.

 Cont’d
 As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army

was defeated in one of the most decisive engagement at

the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day

Mojo.

 After the victory, the Imam’s army made a large-scale

control of the territories of the Christian Kingdom
including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north
as Mereb Melash.
 Cont’d
 By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to

Massawa on the coast including the Ethiopian interior.

 Imam Ahmed thus established a civil administrative

bureaucracy constituted from his own men and newly

recruited personnel from the Christian territories.

 One of the most illuminating figures during the war of the

Imam Ahmed was his wife, Bati Del Wanbara, the daughter

of Imam Mahfuz .
 Cont’d
She had encouraged her husband to avenge the
death of her father.

She accompanied her husband throughout his

expeditions and marched even in a state of
pregnancy during which she was unable to use
mules.
 Cont’d
 On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set
back forced king Lebne Dengel to retreat, finally dying
in 1540 as a fugitive and succeeded by his son,
Gelawdewos (r.1540-1559)

 Gelawdewos continued to face the wars this time with

more intensity as Imam Ahmed had received Turkish
musketeers.
 Cont’d
 In the meantime, about 400 Portuguese soldiers led by
Christopher da Gama, armed with matchlocks arrived
in the Christian court in 1541 for military support,
based on earlier request of by Lebne Dengel in 1535.

 However, in August 1542 the Christian army was

defeated in Ofla, southern Tigray where about 200
Portuguese were killed and their leader Christopher da
Gama was beheaded.
 Cont’d
 After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his
army’s ability to repulse any future attack by the force of
the Christian Kingdom.

 He sent his allies (Turkish soldiers) back home and let

his army camp.

 On the part of the Christian kingdom, Gelawdewos

prepared for final confrontation against the force of
Imam Ahmed.
 Cont’d
 The role of Lebne-Dengel's wife, Seblewongel was great
during this time.

She is said to have participated in the war against

Imam Ahmed in 1542 when the army of the Christian
Kingdom lost almost half of the Portuguese soldiers.

She advised the reigning King how to prepare and

march for the battle of Woyna-Dega.
 Cont’d
 Due to limited resources, Gelawdewos employed hit and
run strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army.

 On February 25, 1543, Imam Ahmed was attacked and

killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega.

As a result of the victory at the battle:

 Gelawdewos restored possession of almost all the

northern and central plateau.
 Cont’d
 Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to
Gelawdewos.

Gelawdewos was able to restore many of the pre-1520s

territories and tributary regions.

The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through

campaigns to different areas and camping Chewa
(regiment) in border areas

He had established a strong Christian Kingdom by the

early 1550s.
 Cont’d
 Later, Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al Waazir
Mujahid was ready to wage war against the Christian
state for revenge.

 In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted

Gelawdewos and killed the king himself.
 Cont’d
Consequences of Muslim-Christian conflict:

 huge human and material cost.

 both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian Kingdom were

weakened

 On the positive side, the war had arguably resulted in

cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia.
 5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious
Controversies
 As the result of conflicts between Christian kingdom
and Adal Sultanate, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
was weakened spiritually and in its service as an
ideological arm of the state.
 The Christian kingdom lost the traditional political and
military apparatus to withstand the continued
expansion of the Oromo in the 16th c and to
consolidate the Christian Kingdom.
 Cont’d
 The rulers of the Christian Kingdom have formed
alliance with Roman Catholicism as a tactic to secure
sufficient modern weaponry and training to restore its
lost territories.

 In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their

bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to
expand Catholicism.
 Cont’d

 The leading members of the mission who played key

role in efforts to evangelize the country include Joao
Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso
Mendez.

 The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor

Gelawdewos, hoping that the rest of the society would
follow suit.
 Cont’d
 Later, Gelawdewos engaged in doctrinal debates with
the missionaries, and he defended the teachings of
Orthodox Christianity in a document entitled the
Confession of Faith.

 The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-

Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to have been
sympathetic to Catholicism, yet his reign was too
short for the Jesuits to effect the desired result.
 Cont’d
 Susenyos who was challenged by provincial
leaders, began to create friendship with
Portuguese in order to get firearms, which he got
through the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.

 In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and

announced it to be state religion later in 1622.
 Cont’d
 Susenyos also introduced many reforms, which opposed
the already existing practices in the Orthodox Church.

 The reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics, the

nobility, loyal followers of the emperor including his own
son, Fasiledas against the changes initiated by the Jesuits,
which led to bloody conflict.

 Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of his

son, Fasiledas who reversed the Catholic transformation.
 Cont’d
 Thus, Fasiledas:

restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state

religion

expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts

including Susenyos’ brother and the most fervent
supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos

introduced a “closed-door” policy, which isolated the

country from all Europeans for about a century and a
half.
 Cont’d
Conversely, he adopted a policy of close diplomatic
relations with the Islamic world and with the
neighboring Muslim states.

 Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained

effective until the beginning of the 19th century with the
exception of secret visits by a French Doctor, Charles
Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler, James Bruce in
1700 and 1769 respectively.
 Cont’d
 Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions
and controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church,
reached its peak during the Zemene Mesafint.

 The teaching doctrines were emerged as Tewahedo

(United) teaches Hulet Lidet (two births), Qibat
(Unction), and Sost Lidet/ Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/
Son through Grace).
 5.3. Population Movements
 Population movements occurred in Ethiopia and the Horn
due to various reasons, in varied scales and followed
different directions.

 The causes of the movements could be attributed to d/t

factors like:

socio-political conditions involving military conflicts

drought

demographic
 Cont’d
 Population movements in Ethiopia and the Horn during
the medieval period had extensive effects including

the integration and intermingling of peoples across

linguistic, ethnic and religious lines.

 This has resulted in:

intermarriage of peoples

change of abode and original culture

evolution of new identities.

 Cont’d
 The demographic pressure as well as the Christian-Muslims conflict
in the late 15th and the early 16th centuries were responsible for the
population movement of the Argoba, Afar and Somali

The Argoba: were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and

Muslim state formation in the Horn

 They joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian
Kingdom.

 The area inhabited by the Argoba was a target of the expanding

Christian Kingdom because the Argoba territory was saturated
along major caravan trade routes
 Cont’d
The Afar: moved towards the east until they reached the
middle Awash, mainly because of drought.

 Closely related with Somali and other adjacent

Muslims, as well as medieval Adal Sultanate that
flourished many historic cities such as Maduna and
Abasa.
 Cont’d
 Saturated along the trade routes that linked the ports in the
Horn territory, which made the region center of
competition between the Christian and the Muslim states
to control the trade routes.

 Pressurized by the conflicts b/n Christian and Muslim

states to move into different directions to avoid the risk of
the conflicts

 Their pastoral economy helped them to survive the

destructive effects of the wars
 Cont’d
The Somali: lay in the region traversed by major trade
routes during medieval period.

 Prior to the wars of Imam Ahmed, there was strong

demographic pressure among the Somali.

 The population movement of the Somali was a strong

force behind the military strength of the Imam Ahmed.

 Their movement did not last for long as they returned to

their home base following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in
1543
 Gadaa System and Oromo Population
Movement (1522-1618)
The Gadaa System

 Was an institution through which the Oromo socially

organized themselves, administered their affairs,
defended their territories, maintained law and order, and
managed their economies.

 The Oromo had practiced the Gadaa system long before

the sixteenth century movement.
 Cont’d
 According to the account of Abba Bahrey during the
early 16th century, the Gada system fully functioned
because of which the Oromo were well organized.

 Recent studies suggest that the system evolved from the

earlier Cushitic age-set social organization

 In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa period,

5-gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation
and nine generations represented an era
 Cont’d

 Prior to the beginning of Gadaa Borana around 1450

AD, the Oromo passed through known gadaas of
xayaa, xasaa, Munyo, Maadille, Abrojjii, Suuftuu,
Dhiitachaa and wardeen (Warra-Dayee), each of
which survived for an era (360years) and altogether
5670 (360 x 9).
 Cont’d
 Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during various eras
because of various internal and external factors.

It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu that became

the central Chaffe (assembly) and seat of the senior
Qallu until 1900.

 The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy

such as periodic succession and power sharing to prevent
a one-man rule.
 Cont’d
 Other principles of the system included representation
of all lineages, clans and confederacies.

 It also served as a mechanism of socialization,

education, maintenance of peace and order, and social
cohesion.

 In addition, Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict

resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo
(marriage).
 Cont’d
 The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into
age-grades and generation sets delineating members'
social, political, and economic responsibilities.

 In the system, ten age grades and five classes operated in

parallel.

 The system provided a socio-political framework that

institutionalized relationship between seniors and juniors
and egalitarian relations among members of a grade.
 Cont’d
 Sons joined the first grade as members of Gadaa
class (generation class or set) forty years after their
fathers

They were initiated into the next higher grade

every eight years.
 Age-grades and their roles
Gadaa-grade Age Roles

Dabale Birth-8 years

socialization
Game 9-16

Folle 17-24 military training, agriculture etc.

Qondala 25-32 military service

Raba-Dori 33-40 candidates for political power

Luba 41-48 leaders of Gadaa government

Yuba 49-80 senior advisors, educators and ritual leaders

 Cont’d
 The head of the government in Gadaa system was known as
Abba-Gadaa literally “father of the period”

He was assisted by several elected representatives from

among the generation set including Abba Bokku (father of
scepter), Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly), Abba Dubbi
(Speaker who presents presidium decision to the assembly),
Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of law), Abba
Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other
councilors.
 Cont’d
 In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played
indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the
ruling gadaa class.

 Women maintained their rights by the Siinqee/Siiqqee

institution, which helped them to form sisterhood and
solidarity.

 Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-pubescent),

qarree (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba
and Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years)
were believed to have sacred power.
 Cont’d
 They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict
resolution, thanks-giving and others.

 The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power

transfer from one Gadaa class to the next every eight
years.
 With some minor differences in nomenclature in
different parts of Oromo territories, the five Gadaa
classes (generation sets or Gogeessaa) had been
functioning.
The Five Gadaa Classes
Fathers Sons

Melba Harmufa/Hambisaa

Mudena Robale

Kilole Birmajii

Bifole Mul’ata

Michille Dulo
 The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
 A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the
Oromo population movement of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.

 Demographic pressure and the conflicts between the

Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates from the
thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries might have
pressurized, mainly pastoral Oromo groups to leave the
lands they inhabited for other areas, mainly below Awash
River .
 Cont’d

 In the early decade of the 16th century, when the

population movement began, the Oromo were
already organized under Borana and Barentu
confederacies.

 The Oromo forces took northern direction and

passed through a corridor between Mount Walabu
and Lake Abbaya.
 The Historic Gadaa Campaigns
 During their movement of the 16thc, the Oromo
determined to liberate their territories, and fought 12
Buttaa wars, mainly from 1522 to 1618
Melba (1522-1530): fought and defeated Christian
regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali.
Mudena (1531-38): the Oromo expanded and reached the
edge of Awash River.
Kilole (1539-46): controlled Dawaro after defeating
Christian regiment, Adal Mabraq.
 Cont’d
Bifole(1547-54): advanced to Waj and Erer, around the
present day Dambya or Ziway lake.
Michille (1555-62): scored victory over Hamalmal's force
at Dago, and Jan Amora forces as well as Adal led by
Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
Harmufa/Hambisaa (1563-70): fought Christian
regiment, Giorgis Hyle led by Minas/Admas Saggad
(r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot,
Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
 Cont’d
Robale gadaa (1571-78): was defeated by Malak
Saggad/Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj
Halibo at Woyna Daga in 1574, but Robale recovered by
defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force.

Birmaji (1579-86): controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama

to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.

Mul’ata (1587-94): seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat,

Dambiya and Tigray.
 Cont’d

Dulo (1595-1602): facilitated expansion to West and

northwest parts of Horn of Africa.

Melbaa (1603-10): expanded in various directions.

Mudenaa (1611-18): concentrated on stabilization and

peaceful settlement.
 Cont’d
 In addition to the wars between the Christian Kingdom and
Muslim Sultanates, the organization of the Oromo under the
Gadaa system played crucial role in the success of the Oromo
population movement.

 In the course of their movement into various regions, different

Oromo branches established Gadaa centers (Odas).

 Accordingly, Oda Nabee of Tulama, Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando

(Arsi), Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna, Oda Bisil of Mecha and
Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major Gadaa centers.
 Cont’d
 Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo
of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu,
Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.

 Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna

Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of
Jimma and others established Gadaa centers and laid
down cardinal laws in their respective areas.
 Cont’d
 Various Oromo groups kept their relations through the
office of Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at
Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of
difficulty.

 They obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law) through

sending their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the central
chaffe until the pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in
1900 due to the political influence of the Ethiopian state.
 Cont’d
 In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource
allocation formula including land.

 Land holding system to regulate resource and their

interaction among different clans is known as the qabiyye
system.

 The system established rights of precedence (seniority) in

possession of land.

 Accordingly, place names were given the names of

pioneers as markers of qabiyye rights.
5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic
and Religious Diversities
 The socio-economic and political processes of the
medieval period were the major factors for the people's
interactions across regions.

 One of the major consequences of the interactions was the

integration of peoples across ethnic and religious
diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn.

Territorial and religious expansion by the Christian

kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to the
south.
 Cont’d
The wars of Imam Ahmed and the population
movements of the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali had
also caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts
of Ethiopia.

The contact of Oromo with diverse peoples in the 16th c

brought far-reaching integrations among peoples across
ethnic and religious background.

 The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption

mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
 Cont’d
Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster
parent.
Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromo commonly
known as Oromsu.
It was the practice of incorporation of individuals or groups
to a clan through oath of allegiance with all the rights and
obligations that such membership entailed.
It was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the clan.
 The process significantly contributed to:
 the social cohesions, national integration, and the revival of long-
distance trade.
 Cont’d
 The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural
values and institutions.

 A number of peoples in the neighbourhood of the Oromo

adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language.

 The Oromo also adopted and adapted cultures and traditions

of the people with whom they came into contact, mainly
monarchical systems and the integration of the Oromo to the
Christian and Muslim cultures.
 Eg. the rise of nobles in the northern Oromo in politics during the
Gondar period, Zemene-Mesafint and the making of modern Ethiopia.
5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central,
Southern and Western Regions
1) Easten
Somali
 The Somali people inhabited vast territory in the Horn, who
practiced pastoral economy and moved here and there for centuries
possibly in search of sufficient pasture.

 Ibn Said (1214-86) noted that Merca town was a capital that
brought large number of Somalis together during the 13th century.

 They played important role in the victories of the Sultanate of Adal

against the Christian kingdom.
 Cont’d
 Historically, a council known as shir governed the society that
acted as an enforcement of law and justice.

 The decision making process was highly democratic in which all-

adult male were allowed equal access and participation.

 The council governed wide-ranging affairs including resource

allocation, marriage, trade and crime.

 As a component of shir, the guurti (a council of elders) was the

highest political council mandated with resolving conflict and
crisis.
 Cont’d
Afar
 The Afar predominantly lived in north-eastern Ethiopia
and in northern Djibouti.
 The Afar had an indigenous governance system known as
Makabanto, which has some elements of democracy.
 During the 13th century, the Afar occupied the lowland
territory near Bab el-Mandeb.
 The land inhabited by the Afars was home for many
historical cities such as Maduna and Abasa.
 Cont’d
 Following the collapse of the power of Adal in the 16th century,
the Afar established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah,
Rahaito and Gobad.

 Awsa Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa and had

come into existence in 1577, when Mohammed Jasa moved his
capital from Harar to Awsa.

 Awsa’s economy mainly depended on Bati Ginda’e trade route.

 Later, it became centre of Islamic learning led by preachers like

Tola Hanfire.
 Cont’d
Argoba
 There are two versions on the origin of the people of Argoba.

i) states that they descended from the followers of the Prophet

Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat.

ii) claims that the origin of the Argoba is not related with
Muslim-Arab immigrants, but they are one of the ancient
peoples in the region that accepted Islam very early from
religious leaders who came from Arabia.
 Cont’d
The Emirate of Harar
 Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centres in the region of
Ethiopia and the Horn.
 During the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled
city where the sultanate of the Harari developed.
 In the mid 17th century, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud in cooperation with
the Oromo, established a dynasty, which was to rule for nearly
two centuries and a half.
 The emirate grew in importance to be a steady centre of
Islamic culture and power
 Cont’d
2) Central and South Central
The Kingdom of Shewa

 Was formed by a Menz ruler, Negasi Kristos (1696-1703),

who was succeeded by Merid Azmatch Sebestie/
Sebastyanos (1703-18).

 Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his capital and

tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo but later, he was
killed by the Karrayu Oromo.
 Cont’d
 Shewa then ruled by successive rulers like Amaha Iyesus/
Amayyes (1745-75) and Asfa-Wosen (1775- 1808), who
extended the territory of the kingdom to different
directions.

 The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-

Sellasie (1813-47), the grandfather of Emperor Menilek II.

 During his reign, many travellers visited Shewa and he

even signed “treaty of friendship and commerce” with the
British in 1841.
 Cont’d
Gurage
 The Gurage are divided into the Western and Northern
Gurage.

 The first are also known as Sebat Bet Gurage and include:
Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna
and Gyeto).

 The latter are variously known as Kistane, Aymallal or

Soddo Gurage.
 Cont’d
 Additional groups included Dobbi, Gadabano and

Masqan.

 The staple crop in Gurage land is enset.

 The Gurage had traditional system of governance

developed over the centuries, known as the Yajoka

Qicha among the Sebat Bet and the Gordanna Sera

among the Kistane.

 Cont’d
Kambata
 By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin
(Kambata, Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro) coalesced to form
the contemporary state of Kambata which means, “this is the
place” (where we live-as the Kambata believe in).

 The first one had its original homeland around Mount

Hambericho in the heartland of Kambata territory.

 The other three trace their homeland from Sidama highlands.

 Cont’d
 King Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata and controlled
the area between Omo and Bilate Rivers, which he
incorporated into the Christian kingdom.

 In 1532, the region was captured by Imam Ahmed’s army,

which furthered the interaction of peoples.

 The people were enset farmers, sharing similar culture and

speaking the same language called Kambatissa. The
Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called
the Hambericho Council.
 Cont’d
Hadiya
 The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the 13th century and it
referred to the area west of the Islamic states in the federation of
Zeila.

 The people were heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally.

 Semitic-speaking agricultural people dominated north of the state

while the southern part was largely inhabited by Cushitic-
speaking pastoral communities.

 By about 1332, the ruler of the Christian kingdom, Amde-Tsion,

subjugated Hadiya after defeating its ruler, Amano.
 Cont’d
 In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against Emperor
Zara-Yaqob and was consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo.

 To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage

in which he married Princess Elleni, from Hadiya.

 Another Hadiya leader, Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to

Emperor Sartsa-Dengel, but was suppressed in 1568/9.

 The relations between Hadiya and the Christian Kingdom was

interrupted following the wars between the Christian Kingdom
and Adal and the Oromo population movement, until Hadiya's
incorporation into the Imperial state in the late 19th century.
 Cont’d
3) South
Sidama
 Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern
parts of Ethiopia occupying lowlands of about 1500 m a.s.l
in the Great East Africa Rift Valley.

 Agriculture, although practiced traditionally, remained the

basis of Sidama’s economy.

Enset and coffee are Sidama’s important food and cash

crops respectively.
 Cont’d
 The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the
Mote (king), who exercised political and administrative authority in
consultation with the council of elders called Songo.

 Songo members raised any agenda for discussion within the

council and submitted their decisions to the Mote for approval.

 The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma.

 He was selected for his ability as a peacemaker, bodily

perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution.

 He could not participate in war or cattle raiding as he was

considered a man of peace.
 Cont’d
 The Woma handled cultural matters such as offering
sacrifices to the spirits.

He also performed other rituals such as circumcision

and marriage.

 Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called

Luwa.

 The system had five grades each lasting for eight years,
namely Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and
Mogissa.
 Cont’d
 Candidates for Luwa received a five-month military training
and war songs like gerarsha under the leadership of the
gaden with his deputy called Ja’lawa.
 The gaden settled disputes within his Luwa, besides
handling the defense of Sidama society together with the
Mote.
 Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera.
 Seera was the social constitution of the Sidama people
governing social life based on the Sidama moral code, halale
(the ultimate truth) to judge the right and wrong.
 Cont’d
Gedeo
 The dominant tradition relates the ancestors of the Gedeo
to Daraso, who was the older brother of Gujo (father of
Guji Oromo).

 Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended

from the seven sons of Daraso.

 The clans were grouped in two houses: shole batte (senior

house) the first four clans and sase batte (junior house)
the second three clans .
 Cont’d
 The Gedeo had a traditional governance system called

baalle, that worked with age classes and ranking.

The baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period

each creating a 70- year cycle.

 Sasserogo was a federation of three territories;

Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta

 Cont’d
 Abba Gadaa leaves office every eight years to be

replaced by a new holder with the next age set at

baalle ceremony.

 It was at this ceremony that all positions ranging from

the top, Abba Gada down to Hayitcha were assumed.

 Like the neighboring Sidama, their economy was

based on the cultivation of enset

 Cont’d
Konso
 The name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the
ancient peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn who spoke
affa Konso (Konso language) and their land.
 The literal meaning of the term is a “heavily forested
hill/ area.”
 Konso attracted the attention of local and international
researchers, as it is one of the earliest human settlement
sites in the world.
 Cont’d
 Economically, agriculture remains to be the major activity of
the Konso with cattle breeding, bee keeping and craftworks.

 The location of mainland Konso within hot and dry lowlands

led farmers to adopt intensive agriculture.
 They adopted soil conservation techniques notably the
construction of terraces, which proved helpful to convert rugged
and hilly areas into permanent cultivation.

 Farmers were also adept at selecting plant varieties that

withstood harsh climatic conditions that enabled them to produce
sufficient food on small plot of land for their sustenance.
 Cont’d
 Until the late 19th century, the Konso people lived in
walled villages (paletas), which were further divided
into wards called Kanta.

 Each village was ruled by a council of elders called

hayyota, whose membership was rotated every eighteen
years.

 The socio-political organization of the Konso appear to

be the clan or lineage group and generation set, Tselta.
 Cont’d
4) Southwestern
Wolayta
 Wolayta first emerged as a state in the 13th century.

 According to local traditions, before the emergence of

Wolayta as a political unit, the area was inhabited by different

communities such as the Badia, Badiagadala and Aruja.

 At the apex of the social and political hierarchy was the Kawo

(king), assisted by a council of advisors.

 Cont’d
 From the 13th to the late 19th centuries, two successive dynasties
ruled Wolayta: the Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre.
 Wolayta-Malla was founded by Motalami in the 13th c and
ruled until the end of the 15th c.
 was superseded by the Tigre dynasty, which ruled Wolayta
until the 19th c.

 The land of Wolayta is known for its fertility and moderate

climate, with green vegetation cover for the most part of the year.

 The dominant food crop was enset (Enset Ventricosum).

 Cont’d
Kafa
 According to traditions, Kafa kingdom emerged in the 14th
century and had come to prominence around the mid-17th
century.

 The Minjo was the ruling dynasty of Kafa which had had
close contact with the medieval kingdom of Ennarya.

 Kafa’s economy was based on the cultivation of enset on

peasant farms supported by trade.
 Cont’d
 The royal title for the king of Kafa was tato, who was at
the apex of the administration and was assisted by a
council of seven advisors called Mikrecho.

 The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called

Kuripo as defensive barrier.

 The Gojeb also served as natural protection against

external invasion and it might have contributed to their
relative independence until 1897.
 Cont’d
Yem
 was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe or to the northeast
of the Kafa kingdom.
 Yem’s economy combined agriculture, trade and crafts.
 Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma
ruled Yem from its palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma, in the vicinity of
Bor Ama Mountain.
 Amno (king) of Yem acted as the top of the political ladder and a
chief priest with attributes of divinity.
 A state council of 12 members named Astessor with its chairperson
Waso assisted the Amno in administering the state.
 Cont’d
 Erasho were the provincial governors who were

responsible for digging ditches called bero and

erecting wooden or iron pillars so that the war father,

the Nomiaw, could patrol the surroundings.

 Special messengers, Wosi carried orders from Amno

down to district chiefs, Gagna and vice versa.

 Cont’d
 In the fourteenth century, the last King Oyokam/Amo,
Dasha was overthrown by people from the north who
founded a new dynasty called Mowa (Howa) with its
center at Angari.

 In the nineteenth century, the neighboring state of

Jimma Abba Jifar tried to control the Yem, which itself
was absorbed into the imperial state of Ethiopia under
Emperor Menilek II towards the end of the century.
 Cont’d
Gamo
 Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes
Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe Mountain and beyond.

 Gamo’s physical landscape can be divided into two: the

geze (highland) and the bazo (lowland).

 A set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga

defined land-use in the Gamo highlands.
 Cont’d
 The cultivation of enset had been central to the
subsistence of Gamo highlands while maize and sweet
potato were staple food crops in the lowlands.

 Besides farming, most farmers kept cattle for food,

farming and manure.

 Craft making, pot making, tanning and metalworking

were other modes of the subsistence system.
 Cont’d
 The first mention of the Gamo in written records dates back to
the 15th century in the praise songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30),
which mentioned the Gamo as one of the tributary states to the
monarch.

 The Gamo maintained relative autonomy from control by the

Christian Kingdom after Christian- Muslim war that weakened
the latter.

 Between the 16th and the 19th centuries, the Gamo lived in scattered
settlements and organized in different communities called dere.
 Cont’d
Dawuro
 The land Dawuro is divided into three climatic zones.
geziya (highland),
dashuwa (mid-altitude)
gad’a (lowland)
 The livelihood of Dawuro people is based on mixed
agricultural activities.
 The language of Dawuro people is Dawurotsuwa, a sub-
group of the Omotic family.
 Cont’d
 Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by three
major clans namely Malla, Dogolla, and Amara,which
altogether were regarded as Gok’as or K’omos.

 By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big

state from a great number of petty chieftainships on the
territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers.

 Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro,

Kati Irashu and Kati Halala were famous.
 Cont’d
Ari
 The Omo River basin had been home to different groups of people since early times.

 These included the Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom,
Bodi, Male, etc.

 Major economic activities in the region were sedentary agriculture, pastoralism and
handcrafts.

 The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one branch of the Omotic
language family. The people were sedentary agriculturalist. The society was organized
into ten independent clan based chiefdoms. Hereditary clan chief known as Babi headed
each of these chiefdoms. The clan chief was entitled with both political and ritual
authorities over the people of his respective domain. The clan chief was assisted by
officially appointed prominent figures in the administration of the political unit.The
assistants included Godimis (religious leaders), Zis (village heads) and Tsoikis
(intelligence agents of Babi).
 Cont’d
5) West
Berta and Gumuz
 The Berta people inhabit the present Beni-Shangul Regional State.
 The earliest record of Berta settlement in this region dates from the
sixteenth century.
 The Berta people speak the Berta language as their mother tongue.
 It is a tonal language classified as a branch of the Nilo-Saharan
linguistic group. In addition to the Berta, the Beni-Shangul is home
for the Gumuz.
 They are mentioned by the Scottish explorer James Bruce. He notes
that they hunted with bows and arrows, a custom that survives today.
 The Gumuz speak the Gumuz language, which belongs to the Nilo-
Saharan family.
 It is subdivided in several dialects. Islamic influence had been strong
on the Berta and other Nilotes because of their trade and social
contacts with the northern Sudan.
 Cont’d
Anywa
 Historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor,
Sobat, Gila, Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the
western borderlands of the present-day Gambella region.
 The people speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo- Saharan
language family.
 The Anywa had an indigenous administrative system whereby each
village lived under a chief called Kuaari who along with the nobles,
Nyiye, managed the distribution of farm and grazing fields, settled
disputes etc with the community.
 Although local traditions mention a certain person by the name
Oshoda as the founding father of the Anywa, the administration of
the territory was not centralized. Economically, they are engaged in
smallscale cultivation, fishing and hunting. While most Anywa
practiced Christianity, they also believed in traditional religion.
 Cont’d
Nuer
 Historically, the Nuer lived in areas that extended across the
savannas and marshes of the Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper Nile
regions of the Sudan.
 Since the nineteenth century, they had been largely settled in the
plains of Gambella along the Sobat and Baro Rivers and parts of
the Sudan.
 The mainstay of Nuer’s economy was cattle breeding supplemented
by crop production.
 The Nuer had developed a rather complex spiritual culture around
their cattle, which were used as bride wealth as well.
 The Nuer had an age-set system combining social and political
functions.
 Nuer boys had to pass through a rigorous test and a series of rites
connected with it before they were initiated into adulthood.
 Cont’d
Majang
 The Majang formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan settlement that
covered the escarpment of the Oromo inhabited highlands to the Baro
plains.
 Linguistic evidence relates the origin of the Majang to the Boma plateau
in South Sudan.
 Gradually, they moved northwards and settled in forested areas of western
Ethiopia.
 By mid twentieth century, their settlement extended to areas near Dembi-
Dollo in the north.
 Economically, the Majang practiced shifting cultivation and animal
husbandry. Other economic activities of the Majang include beekeeping,
hunting and fishing.
 Cont’d
The Kunama
 The Kunama people also called the Baza are one of the ancient
inhabitants of western Eritrea on the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers and
in today’s northwestern and western Tigray.
 The Arab traveller al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A.D. mentions the kingdom
of Baza, which is a self-designation of the Kunama.
 The Kunama had a customary institution called sanga-anene
mandated with the administration of the society.
 Other responsibilities of the sanga-anene included granting asylum
to new comers in the sanctuary of their compounds and
performing rituals as part of reconciliation process in case of
homicides.
 The office of the sanga-anene was held by male members of the
society.
 Cont’d
 The mainstay of Kunama’s economy is mixed agriculture,which
based on the use of hoe, spades, sickles and the ox (camel)-drawn
plough.
 Signs of past practices of terraced agriculture are still visible in
some areas of the Kunama.
 The staple crop among the Kunama is sorghum (kina), which also
has a ceremonial value.
 Other crops grown are millet (bortaor
beca), pulses and maize (afokina).
 The Kunama also keep livestock mainly goats, sheep, oxen, and
camels.
5.6.The Gondarine Period and Zemena Mesafint

 The period of Gondar began from the reign of Sartsa-

Dingil when the political center of Ethiopian Christian
kings shifted to Gondar area.

 Sartsa-Dingil established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571

 Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar
in such places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
 Cont’d
Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas
established his political seat there.

Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first

three successive emperors:

Fasiledas (r.1632–67)
Yohannes I (r.1667-82)
Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706)
 Cont’d
Major reforms during these periods were
 the restoration of Orthodox Church as state
religion

 the establishment of a royal prison at Amba

Wahni to solve problems stemming from power
rivalry.

Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a

separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem.
 Cont’d
 Iyasu I:
reformed land tenure system,
introduced a system of land measurement in Begemder, taxes, and
customs,

revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).

 However, Gondar becomes the center of intrigues, assassinations,
and poisoning of kings by power claimants.

Iyasu the Great was assassinated by a faction under the

leadership of his own son, Tekle Haymanot, which ushered in
political instability in Gondar
 Cont’d
Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of
his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708

Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was also

poisoned in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III, who himself
was poisoned and replaced by Bakafa in 1721.

Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his

followers and his wife, Berhana Mogasa/Walatta Giorgis/
Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728.
 Cont’d
The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased
involvement of the Oromo in Imperial politics and the
army.

From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with

her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767)
dominated the Gondarine court politics.

Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of

Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69).
 Cont’d
 Following the death of Walda Le’ul in 1767, Etege
Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito, her
daughter-in-law from Wollo.

 To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in

the royal court, Mentewab made alliance with Ras
Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute
and militarily powerful

 Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation

 Cont’d
 Later after the death of Mentewab, Iyoas asked
Mika'el Sehul to return to Tigray, but he refused

 Ras Mika'el then killed Iyoas and replacement him by

an old man, Yohannes II

 Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son

Takla Haymanot II (1769-77) on power.

 This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-

Mesafint (1769-1855).
 Achievements of the Gondarine Period

 Achievements of the Gondarine Period include:

• Architecture

• Painting

• Literature

• Trade and Urbanization

The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
 Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual political
power was in the hands of different regional lords.

 The period lasted from the time Ras Michael Sehul

"assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa
Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.
 Ras Mika’el who was a king-maker in the period,
attempted to dominate the other regional lords, but he was
fought and defeated by the coalitions of lords of Gojjam,
Amhara, Lasta and Wollo at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771
 Cont’d
 Yejju dynasty was the leading power during the
Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debre-tabor.

 Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as

the founder of Yejju dynasty in 1786.

 The period of Zemene Mesafint was brought to an end

by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of battles
that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
 Cont’d
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint

 absence of effective central government;

 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
 rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the position of
king-maker;
 establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role of
unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “closed-door” policy.

 developments in terms of literature, arts, architecture etc.