2.20130 Making-Hole

ROTARY DRILLING
MAKING
HOLE
Third Edition
UNIT II • LESSON 1
ROTARY DRILLING SERIES
Making Hole
Unit II, Lesson 1
Third Edition



by William E. Jackson
Published by
PETROLEUM EXTENSION SERVICE
The University of Texas at Austin
Continuing Education
Austin, Texas
in cooperation with
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION
OF DRILLING CONTRACTORS
Houston, Texas
2000
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Jackson, William E., 1929—

Making hole / by William E. Jackson. — 3rd ed.
p. cm. — (Rotary drilling series ; unit II, lesson 1)
ISBN 0-88698-190-5 (alk. paper)
1. Oil well drilling. 2. Oil well drilling rigs. I. Title. II. Series.
TN871.2.J318 2000
622'.3381—dc21 00-024964
CIP
©2000 by The University of Texas at Austin

All rights reserved
First Edition published 1968. Second Edition 1983.
Third Edition 2000. Fourth Impression 2008
Printed in the United States of America
This book or parts thereof may not be reproduced in any form with
out permission of Petroleum Extension Service, The University of
Texas at Austin.
Brand names, company names, trademarks, or other identifying sym
bols appearing in illustrations and/or text are used for educational
purposes only and do not constitute an endorsement by the author
or the publisher.
Catalog no. 2.20130
ISBN 0-88698-190-5
No state tax funds were used to publish this book.

The University of Texas at Austin is an equal opportunity employer.
Figures
Tables
v
vii
Contents
Foreword ix 
Acknowledgments xi 
Units of Measurement xii 
Introduction 1
Well Planning 5
Bits 9
Bit Selection 9
Bit Design 11
How Bits Drill 12
Roller Cone Bits 13
Natural Diamond Bits 19
Fixed-Cutter Bits 21
Hybrid Bits 23
Special Purpose Bits 24
Bit Classification 26
Dull Bit Evaluation 33
Drilling Performance Records 45
Weight on Bit and Rotary Speed 51
Special Considerations 57
Rate of Penetration Control 65
Drilling Mud 71
Mud Characteristics that Affect ROP 73
Air or Gas Drilling 83
Air Drilling Equipment 84
Bit Hydraulics 91
Hydraulics Calculations 94
Formation Properties 101
New Technology 107
Glossary 111
Review Questions 131
Answers to Review Questions 137
iii
1.
2.
3.
IADC footage drilling bid-contract
Factors affecting penetration rate 4
2
“The learning curve” for drilling offshore development wells 5

Figures
4. A recommended bit or well program 9 
5. A rig site integrated drilling system for measurement-while-drill 
ing (MWD) 10

6. Bits 11
7. Drilling action of bits 12
8. Combination journal and ball bearings in a roller cone bit show
ing the journal angle 13
9. The rows of cutters on one cone intermesh with the cutters on the
other cones. 14
10. Cone offset. Each cone rotates on its own axis. 14
11. Soft-formation milled-tooth bit 15
12. Tungsten carbide inserts 16
13. Soft-formation insert bit 17
14. Medium-formation insert bit 17
15. Hard-formation insert bit 17
16. Flat tungsten carbide gauge row inserts 18
17. Four parts of a diamond bit 19
18. Natural diamond bit showing watercourses 20
19. A polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) 21
20. Six-blade PDC bit 21
21. Detail of PDCs set in blade 21
22. Combination TSP and natural diamond bit 22
23. Diamond-impregnated pad set in gauge surface of bit body 23
24. Diamond-impregnated stud backup to a PDC cutter 23
25. Ream-while-drilling bits 24
26. Air hammer bits 25
27. Special purpose bits 25
28. Steerable directional drilling bit 25
29. Industry accepted PDC bit profiles 30
30. Cutter wear measurement 34
31. Gauge ring measurement using the two-thirds rule 36
32. An evenly worn dull bit, which is in gauge. 37
33. Cone dragging or skidding caused by a locked cone 37
34. Cracked cone 38
35. Cone erosion 38
36. Off-center wear 39
37. Center coring 39
38. Broken inserts 40
39. Heat checking (small cracks) on insert cutters 41
40. Steel tooth breakage 41
41. Self-sharpened tooth wear 42
42. Bit gauge wear or rounding 43
43. Undergauge hole caused by bit gauge wear or rounding 43
v
44. Bit record form 46
45. Rig site daily drilling report form 47
46. Office drilling report 48
47. Computerized drilling information network 49
48. Effect of rotary RPM on drilling rate 54
49. Dogleg produced by reduced weight 57
50. Rotary drive power required at various torque loads and RPM 58
51. Tension and compression on drill string during rotation 59
52. Cut-away drawing of a downhole motor powered by drilling mud 60
53. Turbodrill design 60
54. Drilling assembly using a downhole motor and a bent sub 61
55. Horizontal turn radii 61
56. Short radius articulated downhole motor equipped with PDC bit 62
57. Adjustable kick-off (AKO) downhole motor assembly can be used
for drilling vertical to short-radius horizontal holes. 63
58. GeolographTM chart. Note drilling break at 4,915 feet where average
ROP decreases from average 6.5 min/ft to 3.5 min/ft. 66
59. Pick-up and slack-off chart 68
60. Functions of drilling mud 72
61. Daily drilling mud report (water base mud) from previously
drilled well. Computerized report as printed out at rig site by
mud engineer. 74
62. Effect of mud weight on drilling rate 78
63. Effect of mud solids on drilling rate 80
64. Buildup of filter (mud) cake on borehole walls. Solid particles in the
drilling mud plaster the wall of the hole forming an impermeable
barrier. 81
65. Skid-mounted air compressors for air drilling 84
66. Air drilled cuttings blown through a blooey line with flare set to
ignite any gas encountered 85
67. Air hammer (percussion) drilling tool 86
68. Arrangement of equipment for air drilling 87
69. Blowout preventers and lines for air drilling 88
70. Hydraulic power losses in rig mud system 92
71. Factors affecting rig hydraulics 94
72. Overburden (formation pressure increases with depth) 101
73. Drilling through alternating hard and soft zones can produce off
set ledges. 102
74. In formations with dip of less than 45 degrees, the bit tends to drift
or walk up-dip. 103
75. Faster drilling may be achieved if the bit is allowed to drift into the
target area. 103
76. In formations with dip of 45 degrees or more, the bit tends to drift
(slide) down-dip along bedding planes. 104
77. Single-cone bit for drilling small diameter holes 109
vi
1.
2.
3.
Steel tooth bit specifications relative to formation type
Insert bit specifications relative to formation type
IADC roller cone bit classification chart 27
18
15
Tables
4. IADC classification chart for PDC bits 28

5. IADC classification chart for TSP and natural diamond bits 29

6. Tooth bit comparison chart 31–32

7. IADC dull grading chart 35
8. Typical weights and RPMs for roller cone bits 52–53
9. Typical specifications and operating guidelines for natural dia
mond bits run on downhole mud motor 55
10. Sample drill-off test in sandy shale 67
11. Mud density conversion table 76
12. Mud-weight adjustment with barite or water 77
13. Approximate rate of circulation in ft3/min in 8¾-inch hole
(m3/min in 222-mm hole) with 4½- inch (114-mm) drill pipe
with volumes to produce lifting power equivalent to a velocity
of 3,000 ft3/min (915 m3/min) 89
14. Pressure losses as illustrated in figure 70 with mud pumping
rate of 400 gal/min at 2,000 psi (1.5 m3/min at 13,791 kPa) 93
15. Determining pressure loss through drill stem bore 96
15A. Determining pressure loss through drill stem bore (metric) 97
16. Determining pressure drop in psi across bit nozzle 98
16A. Determining pressure drop in kPa across bit nozzle (metric) 99
vii
Foreword



D rilling an oil or gas well, or “making hole,” as people in the

oil industry sometimes refer to it, is a complicated operation.
Drilling situations vary a great deal throughout the world. Con
sequently, it is difficult to explain the fine points of field geology,
engineering, technology, and economics that apply to every well.
Moreover, in spite of great advances in drilling technology, as
much art as science is sometimes involved in drilling a well. For a
particular well, even experienced drillers and engineers may not
agree on the right way to make hole. Nevertheless, basic principles
apply to all wells and this book emphasizes these factors.
Thus, this third edition of Making Hole deals in a general way
with the factors that affect the rate of penetration in drilling. It
includes the basics of well planning and cost control, and takes a
brief look at some recent innovations in drilling technology.
Keep in mind that this manual is for training purposes only;
readers should therefore be aware that nothing in it is approval or
disapproval of any product or practice. PETEX made every effort
to ensure accuracy, but on occasion, mistakes may occur. Indeed,
when readers find errors, please inform us so that we can correct
future reprints and editions. Moreover, PETEX welcomes sugges
tions from readers that would make this book better. Although
PETEX received a great deal of assistance from many manufactur
ers, suppliers, and contractors, PETEX is wholly responsible for
the book’s content.
Ron Baker
ix
Acknowledgments



T he author expresses a sincere appreciation to the many people

who contributed to this edition of Making Hole. Those who
provided illustrations, background information and/or also re
viewed manuscript drafts include:
John Baer, Division Engineer, Helmerich & Payne Interna
tional Drilling Co., Oklahoma City, OK.
Randy Brown, District Engineer, Hughes Christensen, Okla
homa City, OK.
Mark Franklin, Sales Engineer and Brian Jeffery, Field Engi
neer, Reed-Hycalog Tool Company, Oklahoma City, OK.
R. L. Hilbun, Licensed Professional Engineer and owner,
Summa Engineering Inc., Oklahoma city, OK.
Ken Fischer and Jason McFarland with IADC, Houston, TX,
provided many official IADC forms and charts for inclu
sion in this edition.
Others who kindly provided illustrations and permissions
to publish their material include:
Tom Rogers, Mid-Continent Area Manager, Baker Hughes
INTEC, Oklahoma City, OK.
Tom Enegonio, Sperry-Sun Drilling Services, Oklahoma
City, OK.
The staff at the Oklahoma Commission on Marginally Pro
ducing Wells in Norman, OK, provided generous use of materials
from their excellent library.
My sincere thanks to all.
xi
Units of Measurement



T hroughout the world, two systems of measurement domi-

nate: the English system and the metric system. Today, the
United States is almost the only country that employs the English
system.
The English system uses the pound as the unit of weight, the
foot as the unit of length, and the gallon as the unit of capacity.
In the English system, for example, 1 foot equals 12 inches, 1 yard
equals 36 inches, and 1 mile equals 5,280 feet or 1,760 yards.
The metric system uses the gram as the unit of weight, the
metre as the unit of length, and the litre as the unit of capacity. In
the metric system, for example, 1 metre equals 10 decimetres, 100
centimetres, or 1,000 millimetres. A kilometre equals 1,000 metres.
The metric system, unlike the English system, uses a base of 10;
thus, it is easy to convert from one unit to another. To convert from
one unit to another in the English system, you must memorize or
look up the values.
In the late 1970s, the Eleventh General Conference on Weights
and Measures described and adopted the Système International
(SI) d’Unités. Conference participants based the SI system on
the metric system and designed it as an international standard of
measurement.
The Rotary Drilling Series gives both English and SI units. And
because the SI system employs the British spelling of many of the
terms, the book follows those spelling rules as well. The unit of
length, for example, is metre, not meter. (Note, however, that the
unit of weight is gram, not gramme.)
To aid U.S. readers in making and understanding conversion
to the SI system, we include the following table.
xii
English-Units-to-SI-Units Conversion Factors
Quantity Multiply To Obtain
or Property English Units English Units By These SI Units
Length, inches (in.) 25.4 millimetres (mm)
depth, 2.54 centimetres (cm)
or height feet (ft) 0.3048 metres (m)
yards (yd) 0.9144 metres (m)
miles (mi) 1609.344 metres (m)
1.61 kilometres (km)
Hole and pipe diameters, bit size inches (in.) 25.4 millimetres (mm)
Drilling rate feet per hour (ft/h) 0.3048 metres per hour (m/h)
Weight on bit pounds (lb) 0.445 decanewtons (dN)
Nozzle size 32nds of an inch 0.8 millimetres (mm)
barrels (bbl) 0.159 cubic metres (m3)
159 litres (L)
gallons per stroke (gal/stroke) 0.00379 cubic metres per stroke (m3/stroke)
ounces (oz) 29.57 millilitres (mL)
Volume cubic inches (in.3) 16.387 cubic centimetres (cm3)
cubic feet (ft3) 28.3169 litres (L)
0.0283 cubic metres (m3)
quarts (qt) 0.9464 litres (L)
gallons (gal) 3.7854 litres (L)
gallons (gal) 0.00379 cubic metres (m3)
pounds per barrel (lb/bbl) 2.895 kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
barrels per ton (bbl/tn) 0.175 cubic metres per tonne (m3/t)
gallons per minute (gpm) 0.00379 cubic metres per minute (m3/min)
Pump output gallons per hour (gph) 0.00379 cubic metres per hour (m3/h)
and flow rate barrels per stroke (bbl/stroke) 0.159 cubic metres per stroke (m3/stroke)
barrels per minute (bbl/min) 0.159 cubic metres per minute (m3/min)
Pressure pounds per square inch (psi) 6.895 kilopascals (kPa)
0.006895 megapascals (MPa)
°F - 32
Temperature degrees Fahrenheit (°F) degrees Celsius (°C)
1.8
Thermal gradient 1°F per 60 feet –– 1°C per 33 metres
ounces (oz) 28.35 grams (g)
Mass (weight) pounds (lb) 453.59 grams (g)
0.4536 kilograms (kg)
tons (tn) 0.9072 tonnes (t)
pounds per foot (lb/ft) 1.488 kilograms per metre (kg/m)
Mud weight pounds per gallon (ppg) 119.82 kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) 16.0 kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Pressure gradient pounds per square inch
per foot (psi/ft) 22.621 kilopascals per metre (kPa/m)
Funnel viscosity seconds per quart (s/qt) 1.057 seconds per litre (s/L)
Yield point pounds per 100 square feet (lb/100 ft2) 0.48 pascals (Pa)
Gel strength pounds per 100 square feet (lb/100 ft2) 0.48 pascals (Pa)
Filter cake thickness 32nds of an inch 0.8 millimetres (mm)
Power horsepower (hp) 0.7 kilowatts (kW)
square inches (in.2) 6.45 square centimetres (cm2)
square feet (ft2) 0.0929 square metres (m2)
Area square yards (yd2) 0.8361 square metres (m2)
square miles (mi2) 2.59 square kilometres (km2)
acre (ac) 0.40 hectare (ha)
Drilling line wear ton-miles (tn•mi) 14.317 megajoules (MJ)
1.459 tonne-kilometres (t•km)
Torque foot-pounds (ft•lb) 1.3558 newton metres (N•m)
xiii
Introduction



I t’s true: to drill a hole you put the bit on the bottom and turn it
to the right. In simple terms, that’s how you “make hole”; but,
of course, the whole story is more complicated. What type of bit
do you put on bottom? How much weight do you put on the bit?
Do you rotate the bit fast or slow? What about mud properties?
What should pump pressure be? All these questions, and more, are
related and critical to drilling progress. Thus, if one factor changes,
it can result in unforeseen difficulties unless the crew makes other
adjustments as drilling proceeds.
Drilling situations vary widely throughout the world. A suc-
cessful drilling program in South Louisiana could be wrong for
a contractor in Oklahoma’s hard-rock country. A well plan for
drilling the deep overpressured gas zones of West Texas could
not be used in California’s shallow tar sands. A wildcat well only
a few miles from a producing field can encounter vastly different
conditions. The field may be in flat-lying beds, for instance, while
the wildcat may encounter steeply dipping beds. Further, not all
wells are drilled vertically. The operator may specify that a devi-
ated or a horizontal hole be kicked off at a certain depth.
To safely operate in such widely divergent conditions, every
drilling operation must be carefully planned. Whatever the condi-
tions, the drilling contractor’s goal is the same: to drill a usable hole
to the operator’s specifications for the least possible cost. Indeed,
the contractor’s survival depends on meeting that goal. The contrac-
tor must usually accomplish the objectives set out in the drilling
contract (fig. 1) in the shortest time possible. (A “footage contract”
means that the operator pays the contractor so much money for
every foot (ft) or metre (m) of well the contractor drills, regardless
of how long it takes. “Day rate” means that the operator pays the
contractor so much money for every day the contractor is drilling,
regardless of how many feet per day the rig drills.)
1
MAKING HOLE
Figure 1. IADC footage drilling bid-contract (Courtesy of IADC)
Cost per foot (metre) drilled is the ultimate gauge of drilling

success. A hole drilled fast, but crooked or out of gauge, can create
costly problems that wipe out the apparent savings. Similarly, a
hole drilled in picture-perfect condition can have such high mud
2
INTRODUCTION
costs or take so many bits and so much rig time that the venture
becomes a business failure. The following equation can be used
to calculate the cost per foot (metre) drilled:
B + Cr (t + T)
Ct =
F
where
Ct = cost per foot or metre drilled
B = bit cost
Cr = rig cost in dollars per hour
t = rotation time in hours
T = tripping time in hours
F = footage (metreage) per bit.
For example, suppose that a bit cost $10,000 and that rig costs are
$400 per hour. Further, the total time a bit was on bottom and
rotating was 128 hours, crew members spent 10 hours tripping,
and the bit drilled 1,920 feet (585 metres). Thus,
10,000 + 400 (128 + 10)
Ct =
1,920

10,000 + 400 (138)
=
1,920

10,000 + 55,200
=
1,920
65,200
=
1,920
Ct = about $34/ft ($112/m).

In general, contractors can reduce drilling costs by maximizing
rotating time and minimizing tripping time. Although rig costs
vary from rig to rig and bit costs change from well to well, cor-
rect drilling practices can assure that each bit drills further, which
reduces tripping time. A driller is concerned with six basic factors
that affect the rate of penetration (ROP):
1. bit selection;
2. weight on bit;
3. rotary speed;
4. drilling fluid properties;
5. hydraulics; and
6. formation properties.
3
MAKING HOLE
A successful drilling operation requires the most efficient com-

bination of the six factors for the formation being drilled (fig. 2).
These basic factors remain the same for a vertical, deviated, or
horizontal hole.
ROTARY
SPEED To summarize—
• The goal of any drilling project is to drill a usable hole to
the operator’s specifications for the least possible cost.
• Cost per foot (metre) of hole gauges drilling success; the
FORMATION
PROPERTIES equation to calculate cost per foot (metre) of hole is:
B + Cr (t + T)
Ct =
F
Factors that affect ROP

• bit selection
• weight on bit
MUD • rotary speed
PROPERTIES
• drilling fluid properties
• hydraulics
• formation properties
WEIGHT
ON BIT
BIT
SELECTION
BIT

HYDRAULICS 

Figure 2. Factors
affecting penetration rate
4
Well Planning



G ood well planning is the first step towards successful, least-

cost, or “optimized drilling.” Hill and Lee in an article in the
oilfield magazine World Oil, defined optimized drilling as, “the
well plan and drilling operation that results in the lowest-cost well
meeting final construction specifications and drilled safely with
respect to people, property, and the environment.”
Every well can be planned with the benefit of information
from previous drilling in the area, whether the planned well is an
offset well or a remote wildcat. Examples of information available
include bit records, mud reports, electrical logs, mud logs, daily
drilling reports, and geological reports. The computer allows the
well planner to try numerous combinations of complex factors to
arrive at a final well plan. The best planning, using the best and
most complete information, still does not replace the learning
curve (fig. 3), which demonstrates that the experience gained in
early high-cost wells permits savings on subsequent, similar wells.
500
450
400
DAYS
350
OFFSHORE U.S.
300
250
200 Figure 3. “The learning

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 curve” for drilling
SEQUENCE DRILLED offshore development wells
(Courtesy of World Oil)
5
MAKING HOLE
Selecting the right rig to drill the hole is a critical part of well
planning. API Bulletin D10, Procedure for Selecting Rotary Drilling
Equipment, offers a method of coordinating rig specifications with
the demands of the drilling operation. The rig’s specifications must
fit the conditions of the drilling operation. The rig must be prop-
erly rated for depth, hoisting capacity, pumps, and other criteria
that affect the rig’s ability to do the job. For example, in soft-rock
drilling, the rig’s circulating system must have good hole-cleaning
ability; in hard-rock drilling, on the other hand, the rig must have
the hoisting capacity to handle a heavier drill string. A rig’s circula-
tion system is a critical factor when downhole motors or turbines
are used. Compromises may be necessary, but a rig can always
be found and adapted to handle the drilling conditions expected.
Before drilling begins, a pre-spud meeting is usually held at
which representatives of the operator and the contractor review
the drilling contract. These meetings benefit those directly involved
in drilling the well. Among the items discussed are the location
preparation, time of move-in, water supply, vendor and service
contractors, mud program, well data reporting, the well program,
including well testing, coring, deviation, geological hazards, envi-
ronmental precautions, or any special provisions included in the
contract. The pre-spud meeting thus establishes a plan of action and
sets out how certain problems will be handled should they arise.
It is impossible to foresee everything that may occur during
drilling; therefore, the rig manager (toolpusher) and the operator’s
representative must make many, possibly critical, decisions while
drilling is underway. The rig manager and the drilling crew have
the responsibility for rig maintenance, safety, service company
performance, and overall execution of the well program unless
operations fall under the day rate provisions of the drilling contract.
6
WELL PLANNING
To summarize—
• Well planning is the operation that results in the lowest-cost
well meeting final construction specifications and drilled
safely with respect to people, property, and the environment.
• To plan new wells, information from previously drilled
wells used includes—
- bit records
- mud reports
- electric logs
- mud logs
- drilling reports
- geologic reports
• Earliest wells drilled usually cost more than later wells in
the same field.
• Rig specifications must meet the demands of the drilling
situation.
• Pre-spud meetings are essential to reduce later drilling costs.



7
Bits



T he ideal bit is always the one that does the job for the least
overall cost, but the great variety of available bits complicates
the bit selection process. Manufacturers make bits for virtually
Bit Selection
every drilling need. Given reasonable time, bit manufacturers can

deliver custom-designed bits for any given drilling situation. With
the aid of computers, a bit supplier can review all previous drill-
ing records in an area and deliver a customized, recommended
bit program to customers (fig. 4).
A good geological prognosis is an invaluable aid in selecting the
proper bit. The prognosis provides critical data on the formations
and type rock to be expected at depth. For instance, if soft shale
and medium limestone are expected from 6,800 to 7,400 ft (2,072
to 2,256 m) and hard, cherty limestone from 7,400 to 7,750 ft (2,256
to 2,362 m), the bit program can be set up accordingly. That is, a
Figure 4. A recommended bit or well program (Courtesy of

Hughes Christensen)
9
MAKING HOLE
bit designed for drilling soft-to-medium hard formations would

be selected for the first formation and a bit designed for drilling
hard formations for the second formation. Or, it may be possible
to select a bit that could drill both types of formation and thereby
save a trip to change bits.
Where it is not possible to predict formation tops or rock
characteristics, a computer system tied to sophisticated downhole
instruments can provide information while drilling. Such systems
are termed “measurement while drilling” (MWD) and can identify
the rock type, hardness, compressive strength, porosity, and other
properties—information that can influence bit selection and trip
scheduling (fig. 5).
PETRON'S INTEGRATED MUD DATA, DRIL DATA AND DRIL GRAF MONITORS
SENSORS
PIT VOLUME MUD DATA

INTRINSICALLY DRIL GRAF
TRIPTANK
SAFE BARRIER
PUMP STROKES SYSTEM
FLOW
GAS
DRIL DATA
DEPTH INTRINSICALLY
SAFE BARRIER
HOOK LO AD SYSTEM
ROTARY
TORQUE
PUMP PRESSURE
CASING PRESSURE
MUDWEIGHTS
TEMPERATURE TO OTHER
REMOTE
CONDUCTIVITIES COMPUTERS
REMOTE REMOTE CHART

COMPUTER PRINTER
Figure 5. A rig site integrated drilling system for measurement-while-drilling (MWD)
10
BITS
The most important consideration affecting bit design is the type Bit Design
of rock the bit will be drilling. Is the formation hard or soft? Is it
composed of abrasive sand? Is it a sticky, heavy shale? Is it porous
chalk? In nature, subsurface formations change with depth. Unfor-
tunately, however, no single bit can drill these variable rock types
with equal efficiency. If that were the case, rotary drilling would be
a simple, automated process from surface to total depth. The right
bit must be selected to drill different formations (fig. 6). Knowing
how bits drill and how they are designed, as well as being aware of
formation (rock) properties, can facilitate the bit selection process.
All drilling bits are of two basic designs—roller cone bits, also
called “rock bits,” and fixed cutter bits, sometimes referred to as
“fixed head,” or “shear bits.” Roller cone bits are either steel tooth
(milled or forged), or tungsten carbide inserts. Two types of fixed
cutter bits are available: natural diamond or synthetic diamond.
Figure 6. Bits
11
MAKING HOLE
How Bits Drill No matter the type, all bits are designed to crush, scrape, plow, or
shear a rock with a substance that is harder than the rock, namely
steel, tungsten carbide alloy, or a natural or synthetic diamond (fig.
7). A roller cone bit crushes the rock because of the great weight
applied on the rock by the bit’s cutters. By offsetting the cones, the
crushing action is combined with a scraping action that is highly
effective, especially in soft formations.
A natural diamond bit plows the rock by pushing the rock
aside to form a groove, much like a plowed furrow, grinding the
rock like a millstone. This type bit drills very slowly but is effective
for hard, abrasive formations and in smaller size bits.
A synthetic diamond (polycrystalline diamond compact or
PDC) shears or slices the rock and, like natural diamond bits, is
usually used on fixed cutter bits. Shearing the rock is an efficient
drilling action that takes only a third of the weight and energy
required to crush rock.
TUNGSTEN CARBIDE DIAMOND BIT

INSERT BIT
PDC BI T TSP BIT
Figure 7. Drilling action of bits
12
BITS
Roller cone bits are made with cones mounted on rugged bear- Roller Cone Bits
ings. The bearings may be made of balls, rollers, or journals, or a
combination of the three types (fig. 8). Journal bearings distribute
the load over a maximum area and therefore tolerate the highest
weight on the bit. The cone rolls around the bottom of the hole as
the drill string is rotated or as the bit is turned by a downhole mo-
tor. There are usually three cones (tricone bits) but some designs
may have two or only one.
JOURNAL
BEARINGS
BALL
BEARINGS
CONE
CONE
INLAY
JOURNAL
ANGLE
Figure 8. Combination journal and ball bearings in a roller cone

bit showing the journal angle
13
MAKING HOLE
Figure 9. The rows of cutters on one cone intermesh with the

cutters on the other cones.
Each cone has rows of teeth that do the actual cutting. The teeth
(cutters) may be either steel, tungsten carbide inserts, or diamond
enhanced inserts. Steel-tooth bits have teeth that have been milled
out of the cone body or, less often, forged from a metal powder.
Insert bits have teeth made of tungsten carbide that are pressed
into drilled openings in the cone. The placement, number, composi-
tion, shape, and quality of the teeth or inserts affect the efficiency
CONE A XIS
of the bit. The rows of teeth are carefully interfit to allow the rows
a. On-center of teeth on one cone to project into spaces on the other cones as
the bit rotates (fig. 9).
OFFSET
Steel-Tooth Bits
Steel-tooth bits are used for a wide variety of formations. Table 1
shows how bit design varies with the formation drilled. Generally,
soft formation bits have fewer and longer teeth and hard formation
bits have more, but shorter, teeth.
Manufacturers install the cones of soft-formation bits with offset,
CONE AXIS
which means the cones do not rotate around the center of the bit
b. Off-center (fig. 10). Offset imparts a twisting, scraping action that is highly
effective in soft formations. Soft formations include gypsum, red
Figure 10. Cone offset. beds, clays, marl, and soft shale. Soft-formation bits have widely
Each cone rotates on its spaced, self-cleaning teeth (fig. 11). This design prevents interfer-
own axis.
ence from the cuttings that cause a bit to ball up. Soft-formation
14
BITS
Table 1
Steel Tooth Bit Specifications Relative to Formation Type
Tooth Journal Offset

Quantity Tooth Tooth Sharpness Angle Angle
Formation of Teeth Spacing Height Angle Degrees Degrees Hardmetal
Soft Few Wide Tall 39-42 32-33 2-5 Partial to full

IADC 1XX
Medium Moderate Moderate Medium 43-45 32-36 2-3 None to full

IADC 2XX
Hard Many Close Short 45-50 33-36 0-2 None to

IADC 3XX partial
Courtesy of Reed-Hycalog
bits have thinner cones and smaller, lighter bearings and journals;
therefore, they are best used with lighter weights on the bit and
with higher rotary speed (rpm).
In soft limestone and tough, waxy shale, or in soft formations
containing thin beds of hard rock, a slight variation in bit specifi-
cations may result in faster penetration rates. For instance, the
same offset might be retained but more teeth per cone and tungsten
carbide hardfacing could reduce tooth abrasion and improve the
footage per bit.
Dolomite and hard limestone require higher weights on the
bit to overcome the greater compressive strength of these harder
rocks. Typically, bits used to drill harder formations have more,
but shorter, teeth and have less cone offset. These changes in bit
design allow heavier cones and bearings, which hold up under Figure 11. Soft-formation
the added weight required, to achieve the crushing action needed milled-tooth bit (Courtesy
to drill the harder rocks. Tooth hardfacing also may enhance and
of Hughes Christensen)
extend bit life in these formations.
The hardest rocks are quartzite, granite, dolomite, and hard lime-
stone containing chert and quartz sand. The compressive strength
of these rocks may vary but the most efficient steel-tooth bit will
have closely spaced, short teeth, no cone offset, and high-strength
bearings. Thus constructed, the heavy bit weight needed to crush
the rock can be effectively employed. Insert bits have now virtually
replaced tooth bits for drilling the hardest rocks, because tungsten
carbide is considerably harder than the steel used in tooth bits and
is therefore usually more effective in hard, abrasive rocks.
15
MAKING HOLE
Insert Bits Insert bits have chisel, conical, or hemispherical tungsten carbide
insert cutters (compacts) set in the cones instead of steel teeth (fig.
12). Insert bits were originally developed to drill the hardest rock,
which quickly wore out conventional steel-tooth bits. However,
they were generally unsatisfactory in soft rocks or formations with
variable hard and soft streaks. Because the cones were relatively
soft, cone erosion was a serious problem in the early models but
improvements in metallurgy have resulted in modern insert bits that
are extremely durable and able to drill in many different formations
(figs. 13, 14, and 15). In some areas, like the mid-continental U.S.,
they are the dominant bit type. The decision to change to an insert
bit is based on economics. Insert bits cost twice as much as steel-
tooth bits. However, they provide more consistent penetration rates
and last longer, which means more drilling hours and fewer trips.
Figure 12. Tungsten carbide inserts
16
BITS
Figure 13. Soft-formation insert bit Figure 14. Medium-formation insert bit
(Courtesy of Reed-Hycalog) (Courtesy of Hughes Christensen)
Figure 15. Hard-formation insert bit (Courtesy of Hughes

Christensen)
17
MAKING HOLE
Table 2
Insert Bit Specifications Relative to Formation Type
Journal Offset
Quantity Tooth Tooth Angle Angle
Formation of Teeth Spacing Height Degrees Degrees
Soft Few Wide Tall 32-33 2-5

IADC 4XX-5XX
Medium Moderate Moderate Medium 32-36 0-3

IADC 6XX
Hard Many Close Short 36 0-2

IADC 7XX-8XX
Table 2 is a guide to insert bit design for various formations. Note that
the shape, offset, and placement of the inserts vary in the same way
as steel-tooth bits and generally affect drilling efficiency in a similar
manner. Tungsten carbide inserts in the outer area of the bit (fig.
16) help prevent wear that results in an undergauge hole. Hardfac-
ing, tungsten carbide inserts, or both hardfacing and inserts on the
exterior of the bit’s body also help extend the drilling life of the bit.
Natural diamond bits and PDC bits, which are also called fixed-
cutter bits, are used when the performance of roller cone bits falls
below some rate (feet or metres per hour—usually established in
a long shaley section). When such conditions occur, a diamond
bit or a PDC bit offers a good alternative. These types of bits have
no moving parts and are thus radically different from cone bits.
Figure 16. Flat tungsten

carbide gauge row inserts
18
BITS
Because there are no moving parts, the general term “fixed-head

bits” is sometimes used. They have cutting surfaces of either
natural diamond, synthetic diamond, or diamond impregnated
material. As always, cost must be considered before a decision is
made. Natural diamond bits, polycrystalline diamond compact
(PDC), or diamond impregnated bits can cost up to $30,000, several
times the cost of an insert bit. Bit suppliers can offer alternatives
to buying these expensive bits. They can also be leased or rented,
usually on a specified charge per foot drilled.
In spite of the higher price, a natural diamond bit or a PDC bit
can often be a cost-effective choice. In some situations, like deviated
or horizontal holes drilled with downhole motors, low weight, or
high rotation speeds, they may be mechanically necessary.
The natural diamonds used in drilling bits are industrial-grade Natural Diamond
stones of various size and shape. The body of the bit is made of Bits
a tungsten carbide powder and a bonding agent that results in a
metal that is harder than steel. A diamond bit has a one-piece, cone-
shaped body with a center fluid passage (fig. 17). The bit’s ability
to drill a particular formation is determined by the bit shape and
CUTTERS
BODY
FLUI D
PASSAGE
SHANK
Figure 17. Four parts

of a diamond bit
19
MAKING HOLE
the size, number, and placement of the diamonds. There are no

nozzles. The pattern of the watercourses directs the flow of drilling
fluid across the bit-rock interface (fig. 18). This is an important de-
sign factor because diamonds are thermally unstable; if overheated
they decompose. Proper cooling by the drilling fluid is therefore
critical and circulation must be carefully watched.
Diamond bits are nearly always used on rocks classified as
hard. Like cone bits, the size of the diamond cutters varies by the
formation drilled—fewer, larger diamonds for drilling softer rock
and smaller, densely-set diamonds for harder rock. The shape of the
bit body (profile) also varies for different type formations. In gen-
eral, steeper-side cones are used in softer formations and the flatter
profile bits are used in harder rocks. When diamond bits are used,
the hole must be totally junk free to avoid breaking the diamonds.
WATERCOURSES
Figure 18. Natural diamond bit showing watercourses (Courtesy

of Reed-Hycalog)
20
BITS
The original rotary bit, the fishtail bit, (named for its design) was a Fixed-Cutter Bits
drag bit. Modern drag bits, now called fixed-cutter bits, were intro-
duced in 1976 and are rapidly becoming as common as roller cone
bits. These polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits have cutters
made of synthetic diamond crystals bonded to a tungsten carbide
insert brazed into pockets in the body or blades of the bit (fig. 19).
Like a natural diamond bit, a PDC bit has no moving parts. The
cutters sit sideways in clusters on the blades of the bit (figs. 20, 21).
POLYCRYSTALLINE
DIAMOND LAYER
(0.5mm)
TUNGSTEN
CARBIDE
SUBSTRATE
(2.7mm)
Figure 19. A polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC)
Figure 20. Six-blade PDC bit (Courtesy of Figure 21. Detail of PDCs set in blade
Hughes Christensen) (Courtesy of Hughes Christensen)
21
MAKING HOLE
The fixed cutters scrape the rock away as the drill string and bit
rotate together (see fig. 7) or as the bit is turned by a downhole mo-
tor or turbine. Nozzles direct the flow of drilling fluid and cuttings
similar to roller cone bits. The combination of a diamond’s hardness
and abrasion resistance with tungsten carbide’s durability allows
long bit runs. PDC bits require less weight to scrape and shear the
rock so they are efficient when run at high rotation speeds. This is
especially important in horizontal drilling applications. PDC bits
are expensive, but, when compared to conventional bits, their fast
penetration rates and increased time in the hole (fewer trips) result
in significant savings in many drilling situations.
Figure 22. Combination The main disadvantage of the PDC bit is that the synthetic dia-
TSP and natural diamond mond is less stable than a natural diamond at high temperatures.
bit (Courtesy of Reed- Synthetic diamonds called TSPs (thermally stable polycrystalline)
Hycalog)
are more stable at higher temperatures than the PDC. TSPs are larger
and closer in size to a natural diamond than to a PDC diamond and
are usually round or triangular in shape. A TSP functions directly
as a cutter and is cast into the bit matrix rather than being brazed
into pockets like a PDC insert. Both types are mounted sideways
on the bit and exert a similar shearing action. The TSP bit profile
also resembles a natural diamond bit more than a PDC (fig. 22).
The penetration rate of TSP bits is about like a diamond bit and
both are slower than PDCs or tricone bits. The main disadvantage
of TSPs is their poor performance in shale, and that has limited
their use to date.
22
BITS
Hybrid bits attempt to combine the best qualities of natural dia- Hybrid Bits
monds, PDCs, TSPs, or tungsten carbide insert cutters in one bit.
For example, some PDC bits will use natural diamonds or TSPs as
gauge cutters where their slow rate of penetration is unimportant
because they are reaming and not actually cutting new hole. Other
combinations include a diamond-impregnated pad in the gauge
area of a PDC bit (fig. 23) or a shorter diamond-impregnated backup
stud behind a PDC cutter (fig. 24). As the bit wears, the backup
stud assumes part of the load (and the heat), thus extending the
life of the PDC. This type of hybrid works well in soft formations
that become harder at depth or that have stringers of hard rock.
PAD,
BIT'S OR STUD
GAUGE
SURFACE DIAMONDS
Figure 23. Diamond-impregnated pad set in gauge surface of bit body
PDC CUTTER DIAMOND-IMPREGNATED

STUD
BLADE
BIT BODY
Figure 24. Diamond-impregnated stud backup to a PDC cutter
23
MAKING HOLE
Special Purpose Some bits are designed to accomplish a specific task, such as cutting
a core or starting a sidetracked hole. Because these bits are only used
Bits
for special situations, the decision to run them is not usually within
the routine bit selection process. Often, their use is preplanned when
drilling operations reach a certain depth or formation.
Special purpose bits may be either roller cone or fixed-head
designs. The more common cone bits include those with extended
nozzles, two-cone bits, air bits, and jet-deflection bits (a type of
two-cone bit). Ream-while-drilling (RWD) bits are designed to
enlarge a hole below the casing (fig. 25). Air-hammer bits (fig. 26)
are used where hard rocks are at or near the surface and sufficient
weight cannot be applied to a rotary bit to achieve penetration.
Special fixed-head designs include antiwhirl, core, eccentric, side-
tracking, special purpose (fig. 27), and steerable bits for directional
drilling (fig. 28).
Figure 25. Ream-while-drilling bits (Courtesy of Hughes

Christensen)
24
BITS
An eccentric bit
Figure 26. Air hammer bits (Courtesy of Smith Bits)
For a detailed treatment of rotary drilling bits, refer to Unit

I, Lesson 2, The Bit, which is published by Petroleum Extension A core bit
Service.
Figure 28. Steerable directional drilling bit (Courtesy of Reed-

Hycalog)
A sidetracking bit
Figure 27. Special

purpose bits
25
MAKING HOLE
Bit Classification Considerable confusion exists over the different ways bit manu-
facturers identify their products. This led the IADC to devise a
standard classification system. With this system, manufacturers
can indicate the characteristics of their bits, including the primary
formations for which the bit is designed (table 3). By comparing
charts from different suppliers, a contractor can evaluate the per-
formance of similarly rated bits. Separate forms are available for
roller cone, PDC, diamond, and TSP bits.
A four character code is used for classifying each bit. The first
number is the bit series; numbers 1, 2, and 3 are for milled-tooth
bits suitable for soft, medium, and hard formations, respectively.
Series numbers 4 through 8 are for insert bits, also classified ac-
cording to formation hardness. Thus, in the IADC system, a series
1 milled-tooth bit is classified for the same formations as a series
4 insert bit.
The second number designates the type of cutting structure
and divides each series into four degrees of hardness, 1 for the
softest formation in the series and 4 for the hardest.
The third character describes the bearings and gauge protec-
tion of the bit with the numbers 1 to 7. Codes 1 to 5 refer to roller
bearings and 6 and 7 are for journal bearings. The chart divides
bearing types into sealed, nonsealed, and air-cooled. Codes 3, 5,
and 7 indicate gauge protection features.
The last character in the code indicates the most important
of 16 special features a bit may have. This fourth code is optional
but is useful.
In 1990 the IADC adopted a classification system for natural
diamond, PDC, and TSP bits (tables 4 and 5). The codes for these
bits also have four characters. The four characters indicate—
1. Body material—steel or matrix.
2. Cutter density—indicated by a number from 1 to 4 for
PDC bits and 5 to 8 for TSP and natural diamond bits.
3. Cutter size or type—a number from 1 to 4 indicates the
size of the PDC cutter (table 4) or type of bit, if natural
diamond or TSP (table 5).
26
Table 3
IADC Roller Cone Bit Classification Chart
Manufacturer:____________________________________________________________ Date: _____________________________
S T BEARING TYPE AND GAUGE SURFACE

E Y Roller Roller Sealed Sealed
R P Standard Bearing Bearing Sealed Roller Brg. Sealed Friction Brg. FEATURES
FORMATIONS
I E Roller Air Gauge Roller Gauge Friction Gauge AVAILABLE
E S Bearing Cooled Protected Bearing Protected Bearing Protected
S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Soft Formations 1 A – Air Application
with 2
Low Compressive 1 B – Special Bearing Seal
3
Strength and
High Drillability 4
C – Center Jet
Medium to Medium 1
STEEL- Hard Formations 2 D – Deviation Control
TOOTH with 2 3
BITS High Compressive E – Extended, Full-Length
Strength 4 Jets
Hard 1
G – Additional Gauge and
Semiabrasive 2
Body Protection
and 3 3
Abrasive
4 H – Horizontal or Steer-
Formations
ing
Soft Formations 1 Application
with 2
Low Compressive 4 J – Jet Deflection
3
Strength and
High Drillability 4 L – Lug Pads
Soft to Medium 1 M – Motor Application

Formations 2
with 5 S – Standard Steel Tooth
3
Low Compressive Model
Strength 4
1 T – Two-Cone Bit
Medium-Hard
Formations 2 W – Enhanced Cutting
INSERT with 6 3 Structure
BITS High Compressive
Strength 4 X – Predominantly
Hard 1 Chisel-Tooth
Semiabrasive Insert
2
and 7 3 Y – Conical Tooth
Abrasive
Formations 4 Insert
1 Z – Other Shape
Extremely
Hard 2 Insert
and 8 3
Abrasive
Formations 4
1) Several features may be available on any particular bit. The fourth character should describe the predominant feature.
2) All bit types are classified by relative hardness only and will drill effectively in other formations. Courtesy of IADC
3) Please check with the specific bit supplier for additional information.
Table 4
IADC Classification Chart for PDC Bits
Cutters Body Style (M) = Matrix Body (S) = Steel Body
Density Size 1 Fishtail 2 Short 3 Medium 4 Long
EC DBS HYC STC SEC EC DBS HYC STC SEC EC DBS HYC STC SEC EC DBS HYC STC SEC
1 >24 R522(M) B943(M) B17-4(M)

R573(M)
R523(M)
1 2 14-24 PD12(S) DS40(S) S95(S) B933(M)
DS33(S)
3 <14 R423(M) PD10(S) S98(S) B923(M)

AR423(M) PD11(S) S93(M)
1 >24 R525(M) DS30(S) B254(M) R516(M)
2 2 14-24 R526(M) TD19L(M) B925(M) S25(S) DS34(S)
3 <14 R426(M) TD2A1(M) DS39(M) S93(M) B935(M) R482(M) PD1(S) DS46(S) S10(S) HZ232(M) LX201(M) DS26(S) S45(S)
Z426(M) B2S(M) LX101(M) DS31(S)
1 >24 R535(M)
3 2 14-24 TD19M(M) R535S(M) PD4(S)
3 <14 TD5A1(M) B927(M) AR435(M) TD268(M) DS23(S) MX42(M) R435(M) PD2(S) S85(S) B272(M)
TD260(M) DS49(M) S43(S) Z528(M)
1 >24
4 2 14-24 TD19H(M) PD5(S) PD4HS(S)
3 <14 TD290(M) HZ352(M) R437(M) LX401(M) D247(M) S35(M) S292(M) R419(M) LX271(M) DS18(M) B102(M)
B352(M) Z437(M) LX301(M) R428(M) TD115(M) DS19(M) B362(M)
Z428(M) LX291(M) DS29(M)
JC001
Courtesy of IADC
Table 5
IADC Classification Chart for TSP and Natural Diamond Bits
Cutters Body Style

Size Element 1 Flat 2 Short 3 Medium 4 Long
EC DBS HYC STC SEC EC DBS HYC STC SEC EC DBS HYC STC SEC EC DBS HYC STC SEC
1 NAT D262 TB16 901 N37 D18 N42
D311 932
6 2 TSP S725 S225 TT16 211

<3 SPC 241
3 COMB TBT16 211ND

241ND
1 NAT D411 TB26 828 N4S D41 TB521 D262 TB601 901 N39 T51 TB593 901DT
D331 730 N50 T54 TB703
D311 753
744
7 2 TSP SST 828TSP TT521 263 P443 S248 TT601 243 P341 TT593
3-7 SPC S226 223 P343
3 COMB TBT521 263ND TBT601 243ND TBT593

223ND TBT703
1 NAT D24 525 N60

585
2 TSP
8
>7 SPC 3 COMB
4 IMP S279 TB5211
JC002
Courtesy of IADC
MAKING HOLE
FISHTAIL SHORT MEDIIUM LONG
Figure 29. Industry accepted PDC bit profiles (Courtesy of Society of Petroleum Engineers)
4. Body style and profile—a number from 1 to 4 gives a

general idea of the bit profile: fishtail or flat, short, me-
dium, and long profile (fig. 29).
Bit manufacturers provide charts that show the IADC code and list
the bit models from various makers for that code (table 6). The IADC
classification system gives only approximate information about
a bit but provides a starting point to compare bits from different
manufacturers. For example, table 6 shows a comparison for IADC
code 136 (soft formation) tooth bits. It shows that a Reed HP 13,
a Hughes ATJ3, a Smith FDG, and a Security S44F are equivalent.
30
Table 6
Tooth Bit Comparison Chart
IADC Code Reed-Hycalog Hughes Christensen Smith Security
111 Y11 R1 DSJ S3SJ,

S3SJD,
2S3JD
114 ATX1, GTX1, X3A SDS S33S,
MS33S,
SS33S
115 EMS11G, EMS11DH, ATXG1, MAXG1, MSDSH, MSDSHOD, S33SG,
MS11G, MS11DH MAXGT1, GTXG1 MSDSSH SS33SG
116 HP11, HP11+, EHT11 ATJ1, ATJS, ATM1, FDS, FDS+, S33SF,
ATM1S, ATM1H, GT1, FDSS+ S33SFX,
ATJ1S PSF
117 MHT11G, MHT11DH ATMG1, ATMG1S MFDSH, MFDSSH, S33SGF
ATJG1H, GTG1, GT1H, MFDSHOD
ATMGT1
121 Y12 R2 DTJ S3J, S3TJ
124 S33
125 S33G,
SS33G
126 EHP12, HP12, EHT12 ATJ2, J2, J2T FDT S33F
127 JG2 S33TGF
131 Y13 R3 DGJ S4J, S4TJ,
S4T
134 ATX3, GTX3 S44
135 EMS13G, EMS13DH, ATXG3, MAXG3, SDGH, MSDGH, S44G,
MS13G, ETS 13G MAXGT3, GTXG3 MSDGHOD SS44G
136 HP13 ATJ3 FDG S44F
137 HP13G, MHT13G, JG3, ATMG3, ATMGT3 FDGH, MFDGH, S44GF
MHT13DH MFDSHOD
211 R4 V2J M4NJ
214 M44N
215 SVH, MSVH M44NG,
MM44NG
216 HP21 J4, ATJ4 FV M44NF
217 HP21G JG4 FVH M44NGF
221 DR5
415 EMS41H, EMS41HDH ATX05, MAX05, GTX03, M02SOD, M015 SS80
MAX03, MAX00, MAX00, M025, M025OD,
MAXGTOD, MAXGT03 02M
Table 6, cont.
Tooth Bit Comparison Chart
IADC Code Reed-Hycalog Hughes Christensen Smith Security
417 EHP41, EHP41H, ATJ00, ATM00, ATJ05 F05 S80F

EHP41A, EHP41ADH, ATM05, GT03, ATMGT03,
HP41A GT00, ATMGT00
425 ATX05C, MAX05C M05S, 05M, 05MD SS81
427 ATJ05C, ATM05C, F07, F05, MF05, S91F
GT05, GT03C 05MF, 05MFD
435 EMS43A, EMS43ADH, ATX11H, ATX11S, M1S, M15OD, 10M, S82,
MS43A-M, MS43AD-M MAX11H, ATX11, 10MD, 12M, 12MD, SS82
GTX09, MAXGT09 12MY
437 EHP43, EHP43A, ATJ11H, ATM11, F1, F1S, MF1, F10D, S82F,
EHP43H, EHP43ADH, ATM11H, ATMGT09, MF10D, 10MF, S82CF,
EHP43HDH, HP43, ATJ11, ATJ11S, 10MFD, 12MFD, SS82F
HP43A, HP43A-M ATM11HG, GT09 12MF, 12MFY
HP43-M
445 EMS44H, EMS44HDH, ATX11C, MAX09 15JS, M15SD,
EMS44A, EMS44ADH M15S, M15SOD,
15M, 15MD
447 HP44-M, EHP44H, ATM11C, ATM11CG, F15, F15S, F17, S83F,
EHP44HDH, HP44 ATM18, ATJ11C, ATJ18, MF15, MF15D, SS83F
GT18C, GT09C, MA15, MF15,
ATMGT18 15MF, MF15OD,
MF15D, 15MFD
515 EMS51A, EMS51H, ATX22, MAX22, GTX18, 2JS, M2S, M2SD, S84,
EMS51ADH, MS51A, MAXGT18, MAX22G A1JSL, MA1SL SS84
MS51A-M, MS51ADHM,
ETS51, ETS51H
517 EHP51, EHP51A, ATJ22, ATJ22G, ATM22, F2, F2H, F25, A1, S84F,
EHP51H, EHP51ADH, ATM22G, ATJ22S, GT20, F15H, F17, F25A, S84CF
EHP51HDH, EHP51X GT18, ATMGT18, MF2D, MF2, F2D DS84F,
EMS51A, HP51, HP51A, ATMGT20 SS84F
HP51A-M, HP51H,
HP51H-M, HP51X-M,
HP51X
525 M27S, M27SD SS85
527 HP52, HP52A, HP52X, ATJ22C, ATM22C, ATM28, F27, MF27D, S85F,
HP52-M ATJ28, GT28, GT18C, F27i, MF27 S85CF
GT20C, GT28C, ATJ28C
535 EMS53A, MS53, ATX33, 3JS, M3S, S86,
MS53DH ATX33A M3SOD SS86
537 EHP53, EHP53A, ATJ33, ATJ33S, ATJ33A, F3, F3H, MF3H, S86F,
EHP53DH, EHP53ADH, ATM33, ATJ35, ATJ33D, MF3D, MF3OD, S86CF,
HP53, HP53A, ATJ33G, ATJ33H MF3, F3D SS86F
HP53A-M, HP53ADH,
BITS
The decision to change bits can greatly influence the cost of drilling. Dull Bit Evaluation
A bit pulled too soon means extra trip time (about 1 hour/1,000
When to Pull the Bit
feet or 300 metres at moderate depths) and inefficient use of the
bit; pulled too late means hours of less-than-optimum penetration
and the danger of cone loss that could require fishing time.
All bits wear out. The primary clues to bit condition include
rotating hours, slowing of penetration rate, torque variations, jerky
rotary action, and pump pressure changes. Decreasing penetra-
tion rate is the most common reason to change bits. Other com-
mon reasons to pull a bit include an increase in torque, a change
of formation, junk in the hole, and reaching a testing, casing, or
logging depth.
Operations such as logging, testing, or coring often influence a
decision to change bits because the pipe is already out of the hole.
Thus, crew members may sometimes run a new bit while there is
still significant wear remaining on the old bit (the old bit is still
“green”). For instance, if a DST is run only 150 feet (50 metres)
above an expected change to a harder formation, a hard forma-
tion bit may be run early in order to save a trip a few hours later.
Similarly, mechanical problems, on the rig or downhole, often
dictate a bit change at an unscheduled moment.
An operator’s well plan may include a bit program or the com-
pany may request a bit manufacturer to furnish a recommendation.
Bit companies usually have extensive information on nearby wells
and can provide computer-generated programs that lay out the
planned bit-change depths, bit selection, recommended weight
and rpm, and cost data (see fig. 4). If followed, the recommended
program can predetermine the bit-change schedule.
Once pulled, an examination of the bit by the driller, rig man-
ager, or bit company representative can reveal useful information
about how the bit performed. Proper grading of dull bits is im-
portant because it can indicate what changes, if any, are needed
in the company’s drilling program. Good dull-bit evaluations can
help guide a bit maker’s design of future products by revealing
problems and ways to correct them.
33
MAKING HOLE
IADC Dull Bit The IADC has devised a standardized system for grading dull
Grading System bits (table 7). The system is used for both roller and fixed-cutter
(diamond) bits. Both types of bit are graded on eight categories
of wear. Since fixed-cutter bits have no bearings, the column for
bearing wear (B) is marked with an X. The list of cutter wear codes
includes some that apply only to roller cone bits and some that
apply only to fixed-head cutter wear.
Dull bits are graded on the basis of cutter wear, bearing wear
(not for diamond and PDC bits), and gauge wear. The first four
columns refer to the condition of the cutters and their location on
the cone or bit body (for both roller cone and fixed-cutter bits).
Cutter wear can be measured directly, compared to the new con-
dition, then given an accurate grade of 0 to 8 (fig. 30). Select the
appropriate code(s) for the dull character of the bit and record in
column 3, and also under Remarks, column 7.
Bearings and seals in column B (5), whether sealed or nonsealed,
are more difficult to grade and are estimates, at best. Only expe-
rienced drillers can make a good estimate of bearing wear. Note
that sealed and nonsealed bearings use different codes—numbers
0–8 for nonsealed and E, F, and N for sealed bearings.
Figure 30. Cutter wear measurement (Courtesy of Society of

Petroleum Engineers)
34
Table 7
IADC Dull Grading Chart
NONSEALED BEARINGS
0 – NO LIFE USED
•
•
C – CONE •
N – NOSE (ROW) 8 – ALL LIFE USED
T – TAPER
S – SHOULDER SEALED BEARINGS
G – GAUGE E – SEALS EFFECTIVE
A – ALL AREAS/ROWS F – SEALS FAILED I – IN GAUGE
M – MIDDLE ROW N – NOT ABLE TO GRADE ⁄ ⁄
8 38 – 8 ⁄ 3⁄ 8" UNDERGAUGE
H – HEEL ROW X – FIXED CUTTER BITS 9 ⁄ 3⁄ 8 – 8 ⁄ " UNDERGAUGE
CUTTING STRUCTURE B G REMARKS
INNER OUTER DULL BRNG/ GAUGE OTHER REASON

ROWS ROWS CHAR. LOCATION SEALS 8 ⁄ 3⁄ 8 " CHAR. PULLED
0 – NOWEAR BHA – CHANGE BOTT OMHOLE ASSEMBL Y

•
• DMF – DOWNHOLE MOTOR FAILURE
• DSF – DRILL STRING FAILURE
8 – NO USABLE DST – DRILL STEM TEST
CUTTING STR UCTURE DTF – D OWNHOLE TOOL FAILURE
LOG – RUN LOGS
RIG – RIG REPAIR
CM – CONDITION MUD
*BC – BROKEN CONE CP – CORE POINT
BF – BOND FAILURE DP – DRILL PLUG
BT – BROKEN TEETH/CUTTERS FM – FORMATION CHANGE
BU – BALLED UP HP – HOLE PROBLEM S
*CC – CRACKED CONE HR – HOURS
*CD – CONE DRAGGED PP – PUMP PRESSURE
CI – CONE INTERFERENCE PR – PENETRATION RATE
CR – CORED TD – TOTAL DEPTH/CSG. DEPTH
CT – CHIPPED TEETH/CUTTERS TQ – TORQUE
ER – E ROSION TW – TWIST-OFF
FC – FLAT CRESTED WEAR WC – WEA THER CONDITIONS
HC – HEAT CHECKING WO – WASHOUT - DRILL STRING
JD – JUNK DAMAGE
*LC – LOST CONE
LN – LOST NOZZLE
LT – LOST TEETH/CUTTERS
NR – NOT RER UNNABLE
OC – OFF-CENTER WEAR
PB – PINCHED BIT
PN – PLUGGED NOZZLE/FLOW PASSAGE
RG – R OUNDED GAUGE
RO – RING OUT
Courtesy of IADC
RR – RERUNNABLE
SD – SHIRTTAIL DAMAGE
SS – SELF SHARPENING WEAR
TR – TRACKING
WO – WASHED OUT BIT
WT – WORN TEETH/CUTTERS
NO – NO MAJOR/OTHER DULL CHARACTERISTICS
*Show Cone Number(s) Under Location
MAKING HOLE
Column G (6) is used to record whether the bit can still drill
a full-gauge hole. This is an important measurement because an
undergauge hole requires expensive reaming time. For tricone bits,
use a gauge ring and the two-thirds rule to record the amount of
undergauge to the closest ¹⁄-inch (in.) or millimetre (mm) (fig. 31).
Measure the distance from the ring to the third cone and multiply
it by ⅔ (0.6666) then record the result to the nearest ¹⁄ in. (mm) in
column G. If the hole is seriously out of gauge, special care while
going back to bottom and low weight on the bit is recommended.
Reamers may need to be selectively placed in the drill string.
The last column is used to record the reason the bit was pulled.
The parts that usually fail in roller cone bits are the cone, the
teeth, and the bearings (fig. 32).
Cone Wear Cone skidding, or dragging, occurs when a cone stops turning
as the bit rotates (fig. 33). The usual causes of cone skidding are
locked cones that result in bearing failure. Excessive weight or
rotary speed is the usual cause of bearing failure. Junk in the hole,
a balled up, or a pinched bit can also cause cone skidding.
MEASURED
DISTANCE
RING
GAUGE
Figure 31. Gauge ring AMOUNT OUT = MEASURED X

OF GAUGE DISTANCE
measurement using the
two-thirds rule
36
Figure 32. An evenly
worn dull bit, which is
in gauge. (Courtesy of
Hughes Christensen)
Figure 33. Cone dragging

or skidding caused by a
locked cone
MAKING HOLE
Cone interference is a condition in which the cones or cutters run

into each other. Interference occurs when the cones are pinched in
by too much weight while reaming or by bearing wear. The result
of cone interference is broken teeth or cracked cones (fig. 34) or a
cut off nose of a cone.
Cracked cones may stay attached to the bit; if, however, they
break into two or more pieces and fall off they must be retrieved
or milled before drilling ahead. Dropping the drill string or hitting
the bit on a ledge during a trip can break cones. Cone interference
can also cause cones to break.
Cone erosion is the wearing away of the cone body (fig. 35). It
is more common in air or gas drilling where the circulating fluid
is charged with abrasive cuttings and is moving at a very high
velocity, producing a sand-blasting effect. Severe cone erosion can
cause cracked or broken cones and loss of inserts.
Figure 34. Cracked cone
Figure 35. Cone erosion
38
BITS
Off-center wear often occurs when the rate of penetration is too

slow because of slow rpm or insufficient weight on the bit. When
penetration is too slow, the cone offset can cause the bit to rotate
off-center (whirling). This is a condition where two cones drill
the bottom of the hole and one drills the side. The cone drilling
the side will show excessive gauge area wear (fig. 36). Off-center
bit wear is also common when downhole motors are used with a
directional bottomhole assembly (bent sub). Excessive mud weight
and a bit too hard for the formation can also cause off-center wear.
Center coring is a condition in which the inside rows of cut-
ters wear, are lost, or the nose of a cone is worn away. Junk in the
hole or cone erosion is the usual cause of center coring (fig. 37).
Improper break-in can cause center coring so it is important that
the first few feet (metres) be drilled light and slow.
Figure 36. Off-center

wear
Figure 37. Center coring
39
MAKING HOLE
Tooth Wear Insert Bits. Broken inserts slow penetration and are a common
problem; however, it is normal in some formations (fig. 38). Of-
ten, the wrong bit was selected if broken inserts occur early and
appear excessive. Longer inserts used in soft formations cannot
withstand the shock encountered in harder rock. Other causes of
broken inserts are junk in the hole, high rotary speeds, excessive
weight, improper break-in, slamming into a ledge or the bottom
of the hole, and cone interference.
Excessive wear or broken inserts on the outside rows of hard-
formation bits indicates that the rotary speed was too high.
Insert loss is usually the result of a cone problem—erosion,
cracking, interference, or corrosion. Once lost, inserts on the bottom
of the hole nearly always cause further damage to the bit because
they are so hard. Being dense (heavy), they are difficult to circulate
out of the hole and must usually be recovered in a junk sub.
Repeated dragging (heating) and cooling of the inserts causes
heat checking or cracking (fig. 39). A lower rpm may correct the
problem.
Steel-tooth bits. Steel teeth will often be chipped. Cone interfer-
ence and rough formation conditions cause chipped teeth. On the
other hand, tooth breakage on a milled-tooth bit is not normal and
indicates the wrong bit was used (long tooth instead of short, for
instance) or improper weight on bit (WOB) or rpm (fig. 40).
Figure 38. Broken inserts
40
Figure 39. Heat checking (small cracks) on insert cutters
Figure 40. Steel tooth breakage

MAKING HOLE
Self-sharpening and flat-crested wear are two types of nor-

mal tooth abrasion. Self-sharpening wear is desirable and can be
designed into the bit by placing hard metal on one side of each
tooth and softer material on the other side. The rock abrades the
softer metal on each tooth thus keeping them sharp (fig. 41). Self-
sharpening is seen less now that full-tooth hardfacing is in common
use. In flat-crested wear, the teeth wear evenly and flat.
Bradding usually affects the inner rows of teeth. It occurs when
excessive weight cracks the hardfacing on the teeth and exposes
the softer metal underneath.
Tracking is a condition usually confined to plastic shale and
seen more often in smaller bits or with downhole motors. The pat-
tern on the bottom of the hole matches the tooth pattern and they
mesh together like gears, greatly slowing penetration. A longer
tooth bit may solve the problem.
Figure 41. Self-sharpened tooth wear
42
BITS
FULL GAUGE
Figure 42. Bit gauge wear or rounding

UNDERGAUGE
Excessive gauge wear can result from an unstable drill string Figure 43. Undergauge
hole caused by bit gauge
(too few or too light collars) or high rpm. Gauge wear or rounding
wear or rounding
(fig. 42) in any bit is a serious problem if the bit no longer drills
a full-size hole (fig. 43). The next bit will have to ream to bottom,
possibly causing gauge wear to that bit. Using a bit with greater
gauge protection can help correct the problem.
Bearing wear and failure often make it necessary to replace the bit. Bearing Wear
Sealed bearings and improved metallurgy extend bit life but have
not eliminated bearing wear. Both the journal and roller bearings
can fail if the WOB or the rotary speed is too high, an abrasive
drilling fluid is used, the bit is used for reaming an undergauge
hole, or is run too long.
The outer bearings of a bit are the large bearings under the
gauge cutters. They may fail for various reasons—too many hours
or excessive weight are common causes. Skid marks on the cones
or locked cones are usual signs of outer bearing failure.
The inner bearings are the small inside ball bearings and the
nose bearing. They fail when drilling a formation that is too hard
for the bit. Flat-crested tooth wear is a sign of inner bearing wear.
43
MAKING HOLE
To summarize—
• Geologic prognosis aids in bit selection for a particular well.
• MWD provides information while hole is being drilled.
• Type of formation is the most important factor in bit design.
• Bit types include:
- Roller cone, or rock, bits
Steel tooth bits
Tungsten carbide insert bits
- Fixed-cutter, or fixed-head, bits
Natural diamond bits
PDC bits
• Steel-tooth and tungsten carbide bits are available for drilling
soft, medium soft, medium, medium hard, hard, and very
hard formations.
• Soft formation roller cone bits have more offset than hard
formation bits.
• Soft formation roller cone bits have fewer and longer cutters
than hard formation bits.
• Natural diamond bits are fixed-head bits in which several
industrial-grade diamonds are embedded.
• A diamond bit’s shape and the size, number, and placement
of the diamonds determine a diamond bit’s ability to drill a
particular formation.
• PDC bits have cutters made of synthetic diamond crystals
bonded to a tungsten carbide insert. The insert is brazed
into pockets in the bit head or onto blades.
• Thermally stable polycrystalline (TSP) diamond bits are
more stable than PDC bits at high temperatures.
• Hybrid bits combine the best qualities of natural diamond,
PDC, TSP, or tungsten carbide cutters into one bit.



44
Drilling Performance
Records



A ccurate drilling performance records are of great value. They

directly influence the selection of bits and help determine
proper operating procedures that impact total drilling costs.
Bit records show many critical facts about the operation (fig.
44). The most important statistics describe each bit run, including
bit type, drilling hours, footage drilled, nozzle size, reason pulled,
and dull condition. Other information shown on the bit record
includes the rotary weight and speed, circulation system, and
deviation, all of which affect cost calculations.
The daily drilling report is another important performance record
(fig. 45). The report is a 24-hour record of the drilling operation and
provides a complete and accurate account of the drilling progress
by each tour. The driller signs and is responsible for the report on
his tour. The daily drilling report helps achieve consistency in the
drilling process because each driller can refer to the progress made
by the last tour. Continuity of operations is assured because the
report sets out the current conditions or problems assumed by the
new crew, including bit performance, mud program, drilling as-
sembly, and time required for various rig operations or mechanical
problems. The operator will usually extract information from the
rig’s daily report and condense it for office use (fig. 46).
The increasing use of computers in integrated drilling systems
allows instant communication between the drill site and multiple
remote stations (fig. 47). Measurement-while-drilling systems
(MWD) may steer a downhole motor or relay data from downhole
instruments that measure formation properties (see fig. 4).
45
MAKING HOLE
Figure 44. Bit record form (Courtesy of Reed-Hycalog)
46
DRILLING PERFORMANCE
Figure 45. Rig site daily drilling report form (Courtesy of IADC)
47
MAKING HOLE
XYZ Corporation Foster 19-1

0000 1st, Suite 100 C NW/4
Tulsa, OK 74100 Section 19-13N-04W
918 555 1212 ofc Oklahoma County, Oklahoma
918 555 0000 fax KB Elevation, 1533'
WELL REPORT
01/14/99 Settled the surface damages.

01/15/99 thru 01/19/99 Building location.
01/20/99 Building location. Set the conductor and drilled the rat and mouse hole.
01/21/99 Started moving in the rig and rigging up.
01/22/99 Rigging up.
01/23/99 Finished rigging up. Spud at 2 p.m. on 1/22/99.
Drilling at 1523', (1523', 14 hrs), day 1, mw 9.2, vis 32, wl n/c, bit 1, 12!/4", !/2° at 500', !/2° at
1011', $101,633/$101,633
01/24/99 Depth 1523', (0'), day 2, bit 1, 12!/4". Ran 34 joints, 9%/8", 36#, J-55, ST&C, casing set at 1523.69',
cemented with 446 sacks, 35/65 POZ containing 2% CC, 6% gel and !/4 pps cello-flake and 130
sacks of class C containing, 2% CC, and !/4 pps cello-flake. Plug down at 7:05 p.m., cut off casing
and welded on head. $37,819/$139,452
01/25/99 Waited on cement 6 hours. Installed bop in 5!/2 hours. Ran bit, dc and dp and tested bop to 1500
psi in 2!/2 hours. Drilling at 1,981', (458', 7.00 hrs), day 3, mw 9.1, vis 31, wl n/c, bit 2, 7&/8",
$13,765/$153,217
01/26/99 Drilling at 3,589', (1608', 22.00 hrs), day 4, mw 9.1, vis 32, wl n/c, pH 11.5, bit 2, 7&/8", 2!/4° at
2003', $32,962/$186,179
01/27/99 Drilling at 4,857', (1273', 23.50 hrs), day 5, mw 9.1, vis 35, wl 72, pH 10.0, bit 2, 7&/8", 0° at
3682', $25,954/$212,133
01/28/99 Drilling at 6,147', (1290', 22.75 hrs), day 6, mw 9.2, vis 35, wl 42, pH 10.5, bit 2, 7&/8", #/4° at
4857', 1° at 5868', $27,953/$240,086
01/29/99 Drilling at 6,885', (738', 21.50 hrs), day 7, mw 9.3, vis 35, wl 62, pH 10.5, bit 2, 7&/8", 1!/4° at
6861', $16,161/$256,247
01/30/99 Drilling at 7,034', (149', 16.50 hrs), day 8, mw 9.3, vis 34, wl 68, pH 10.0, bit 3, 7&/8", 7!/2 hours
tripping. $5,300/$261,547
01/31/99 Drilling at 7,230', (196', 16.00 hrs), day 9, mw 9.3, vis 35, wl 56.0, pH 10.0, bit 3, 7&/8", 6!/2 hours
tripping. $4,698/$266,245
02/01/99 Drilling at 7,525', (295', 23.75 hrs), day 10, mw 9.3, vis 35, wl 56.0, pH 10.5, bit 4, 7&/8",
$7,453/$273,698
$5,945/$279,643
02/03/99 Drilling at 7,909', (119', 14.75 hrs), day 12, mw 9.3, vis 37, wl 26.0, pH 11.0, bit 4, 7&/8", 1° at
7834', $4,422/$284,065
$6,064/$290,129
$4,947/$302,832
$4,189/$307,021
02/08/99 Drilling at 8,855', (150', 14.50 hrs), day 17, mw 9.4, vis 50, wl 12.0, pH 9.5, but 6, 7&/8",
$3,651/$310,672
$5,499/$316,171
$5,399/$321,570
$6,218/$327,788
Questions? Call Summa Engineering Inc. at (405) 232-8338.
Figure 46. Office drilling report (Courtesy of Summa Engineering Inc.)
48
DRILLING PERFORMANCE
RIG SITE NETWORK
HISTORICAL
DATA
COMPANY MAN
RIG SENSORS
GEOLOGIST
DOWNHOLE
TOOLS REAL-TIME
SERVER AND
DATABASE DRILLER
3RD PARTY
SYSTEMS
REMOTE USER INTERNET, SATELLITE, OR DIRECT
CUST
OMER OFFICE NETWORK CUSTOMER PARTNER’S
HEADQUARTERS OFFICE
Figure 47. Computerized drilling information network
49
MAKING HOLE
To summarize—
Bit records show
• bit type
• drilling hours
• footage (metreage) drilled
• nozzle size
• reason pulled
• dull condition
Daily drilling reports give
• an accurate account of drilling progress per tour
• a consistent record of drilling progress
• a continuity in operations



50
WEIGHT ON BIT AND ROTARY SPEED
Weight on Bit and

Rotary Speed



T he mechanical factors of bit weight and rotary speed must be

coordinated with bit selection to achieve optimal drilling
rates. Generally, an increase in either weight or rpm increases
the rate of penetration, provided the right bit is in place and
bottomhole cleaning is attained through proper bit hydraulics.
However, weight and rpm cannot be increased indiscriminately
without considering other factors. The extra wear imposed on
the bit bearings and cutting structures must be considered. For
instance, drill string failure is more common at high rotary speed.
The increase in shock loads can shatter bit teeth, especially if
the formation contains both soft and hard layers. One extra trip
can exceed the costs of a few hours of slower penetration. Hole
deviation may also become a problem with increased weight un-
less the drill string is not stiff and well stabilized. Also, as the bit
becomes dull, hole deviation tends to increase. When all factors
are considered, simply increasing the weight or rotary speed will
not always result in least-cost drilling.
With new automatic driller technology it is possible to maintain
a steady weight on the bit. This technology enhances penetration
rates significantly and increases both the bit life and number of
reusable bits. Drilling with automatic drillers can control weight,
differential pressure, or rotary amps (torque), all of which contribute
to lower drilling costs per foot.
Weight and rotary speed are usually applied in inverse propor-
tion—that is, higher speeds require lower weights and vice versa.
Table 8 gives suggested weight and speed ranges for roller cone
bits in formations of different hardness. The shearing action of a
long-tooth soft formation bit is well-suited for high rotary speeds.
51
Table 8
Typical Weights and RPMs for Roller Cone Bits
IADC psi of diameter rpm IADC psi of diameter rpm

Code (dN/mm of dia.) Range Code (dN/mm of dia.) Range
116 2,000-5,000 300-80 517 2,000-5,500 120-60

(890-2,225) (890-2,448)
117 2,000-5,000 300-80 517 2,000-6,000 120-50
(890-2,225) (890-2,670)
137 2,000-5,000 300-80 527 2,000-6,000 120-50
(890-2,225) (890-2,670)
417 2,000-5,000 280-70 537 3,000-5,500 110-50
(890-2,225) (1,335-2,448)
437 2,000-5,000 280-60 537 3,000-6,000 110-40
(890-2,225) (1,335-2,670)
437 2,000-5,500 240-60 537 3,000-5,000 80-40
(890-2,448) (1,335-2,225)
447 2,000-5,500 240-60 547 3,000-6,000 100-40
(890-2,448) (1,335-2,670)
517 2,000-6,000 240-50 547 3,500-7,000 80-40
(890-2,670) (1,558-3,115)
527 2,000-6,000 240-50 617 3,000-6,000 80-40
(890-2,670) (1,335-2,670)
537 3,000-6,000 220-40 617 3,000-5,500 80-40
(1,335-2,670) (1,335-2,448)
547 3,000-6,000 200-40 627 3,500-7,000 80-40
(1,335-2,670) (1,558-3,115)
637 3,000-6,000 70-35
116 2,000-5,000 180-80 (1,335-2,670)
(890-2,225) 637 4,000-7,000 70-40
126 2,000-5,500 150-70 (1,780-3,115)
(890-2,448) 637 3,000-6,000 70-35
417 2,000-5,000 140-70 (1,335-2,670)
(890-2,225) 737 3,000-6,000 65-35
427 2,000-5,000 140-60 (1,335-2,670)
(890-2,225) 837 4,000-6,500 55-30
437 1,500-5,000 140-60 (1,780-2,893)
(668-2,225) 837 3,000-6,000 65-35
437 2,000-5,000 140-60 (1,335-2,670)
(890-2,225)
437 2,000-5,500 120-60 115 1,000-4,000 350-80
(890-2,448) (445-1,780)
447 2,000-5,500 120-60 135 1,000-4,000 350-80
(890-2,448) (445-1,780)
WEIGHT ON BIT AND ROTARY SPEED
Table 8, cont.
Typical Weights and RPMs for Roller Cone Bits
IADC psi of diameter rpm IADC psi of diameter rpm

Code (dN/mm of dia.) Range Code (dN/mm of dia.) Range
415 1,000-3,500 350-80 127 2,000-5,500 150-70

(445-1,558) (890-2,448)
435 1,000-4,000 350-80 136 2,000-6,000 120-60
(445-1,780) (890-2,670)
137 2,000-6,000 120-60
(890-2,670)
114 1,500-4,000 200-80
216 3,000-7,000 90-50
(668-1,780)
(1,335-3,115)
115 1,500-4,000 200-80
217 3,000-7,000 90-50
(668-1,780)
(1,335-3,115)
135 1,500-4,000 200-80
316 3,000-7,500 80-50
(668-1,780)
(1,335-3,338)
415 1,000-3,500 200-80
317 3,000-7,500 80-50
(445-1,558)
(1,335-3,338)
435 1,000-4,000 200-80
347 3,000-7,500 80-50
(445-1,780)
(1,335-3,338)
435 1,500-4,000 200-80
(668-1,780)
445 1,500-4,500 200-80 612 3,000-6,000 80-40
(668-2,005) (1,335-2,670)
515 1,500-4,500 200-80 632 3,000-6,000 80-40
(668-2,005) (1,335-2,670)
732 3,000-6,000 70-40
(1,335-2,670)
126 2,000-5,500 150-70 832 3,000-6,000 70-35
(890-2,448) (1,335-2,670)
NOTE: It is not recommended that the upper limits of weight and rpm be run simultaneously without
consultation with a bit company representative.
Note that in soft formations (IADC code 1), a rotary speed of 300
to 380 rpm is combined with lighter bit weights from 2,000 to 5,000
pounds (lb) or 890 to 2,225 decanewtons (dN) times bit diameter
in ft or mm. In hard formations, weights of 3,000 to 7,500 lb (1,335
to 3,338 dN), times bit diameter, are required for the short tooth’s
crushing and chipping action to overcome the rock’s high com-
pressive strength. Steady improvements in the quality of insert
bits allow higher speeds in soft formations and higher weights
in hard formations than previously possible, but the maximum
weight and maximum rpm are not to be run simultaneously.
53
MAKING HOLE
SOFT
FORMATIONS
DRILLING RATE
(NO BIT WEAR)
HARD
FORMATIONS
RPM
Figure 48. Effect of rotary RPM on drilling rate
For roller cone bits, an increase in rotary speed rate does not corre-
spond directly to an increase in penetration rate—that is, doubling
the speed does not double the penetration rate, but more nearly
does so in soft formations than in hard (fig. 48).
Natural diamond bits and PDCs are best run at lighter weights
and sometimes at higher speeds than roller cone bits. Because of
their cost and nature of their cutting action, diamond bits should
be run with the lightest weight possible that still achieves a good
penetration rate. Weights of 900 to 4,500 lb per in. of bit diameter
(15 to 80 dN per mm of bit diameter) are typical, but higher weights
may be used in some situations (table 9). Rotary speeds in the range
of 100 rpm are normal but a range from 200 to 600 rpm is feasible
with downhole mud motors, or even higher with turbine motors.
With smooth running, proper hydraulics, and the optimum weight,
drilling rates usually increase in direct proportion to rotary speed;
however, lower speed improves bit durability.
54
Table 9
Typical Specifications and Operating Guidelines for
Natural Diamond Bits Run on Downhole Mud Motor
Specifications 8½ in. 6½ in. 4¾ in.

(215.9 mm) (165.1 mm) (120.7 mm)
Diamond Size, 4-8 4-8 4-8

stones/carat
API Pin Connection, 4½ Reg. 3½ Reg. 2⅞ Reg.

in. (mm) (114.3) (88.9) (73.0)
Nominal Gauge 4.5 3.5 1.5

Length, in. (mm) (114.3) (88.9) (38.1)
Operating Guidelines 8½ in. 6½ in. 4¾ in.

(Optimum Ranges) (215.9 mm) (165.1 mm) (120.7 mm)
Flow Rate, Range, 325-475 175-250 90-150

gpm (m3) (1.23-1.8) (0.66-0.95) (0.34-0.56)
HSI, Range, hhp/in2 1.0-3.0 1.0-3.0 1.0-3.0

(hhp/cm2) (6.45-19.35) (6.45-19.35) (6.45-19.35)
Weight on Bit, Range, 9,000-38,000 6,000-25,000 5,000-20,000

lbs (dN) (4,000-17,000) (2,700-11,000) (2,225-9,000)
Pressure Drop, Range 200-600 200-600 200-400

in psi (kPa) (1,379-4,137) (1,379-4,137) (1,379-2,758)
rpm up to 250 400 600
MAKING HOLE
To summarize—
• Generally, an increase in either weight or rpm increases
ROP, provided the right bit is in place and bottomhole
cleaning is adequate.
• Other factors play an important role, such as increased
likelihood of drill string failure, extra bearing and cutter
wear, and hole deviation.
• Normally, higher rotary speeds require lower weight on
bit and vice versa.
• In general, diamond bits should be run at lighter weights
and higher speeds than roller cone bits.



56
Special
Considerations



S pecific contract requirements, the rig’s capability, and other

factors must be considered when calculating the appropriate
bit weight and rotary speed.
For example, additional, or heavier, drill collars may be needed
to provide the added weight or stiffness. If more and heavier drill
collars are required, one question the rig owner must ask is, “Can
the derrick safely handle the heavier load?” Other considerations
include costs. Drill collars are expensive to buy, or rent, and to
maintain. They are hard to handle and require safety clamps and
lifting subs that add to the trip time. If ten stands (30 collars) are
used, it may require several hours to break out and make up the
collars in a round trip.
Another consideration is that deviation and doglegs tend to
develop when the bit weight is changed (fig. 49). If the drilling
NORMAL
BIT WEIGHT
DOGLEG
CAUSED BY
SUDDEN
DECREASE IN
BIT WEIGHT
REDUCED Figure 49. Dogleg

BIT WEIGHT
produced by reduced
weight
57
MAKING HOLE
contract imposes strict deviation controls, or if dipping formations

are present, increasing the bit weight to attain faster penetration
may be ill-advised.
The rig owner must also bear in mind that the rig’s power
system may limit the ability to increase both weight and rpm.
Increased weight and rpm increase rotary torque, or resistance
to turning. Adding drill collars can increase the torque because
of the extra weight and closer hole contact. Higher torque means
that more horsepower is required to operate the rotary (fig. 50).
Other situations may also require extra horsepower. For instance,
long-tooth bits require more rotary power than short-tooth bits
drilling the same formation. Doglegs and slanted holes require
more horsepower because of the greatly increased wall friction. A
dogleg also increases the possibility of drill string failure because
of the alternating stresses imposed on the drill string with each
rotation (fig. 51).
TORQUE x RPM
ROTARY T ABLE HP =
5250
700
B
B
HORSEPO WER RATIO (OUTPUT)
B
-L
T-L
600 -L B
FT
FT -L
0F
0 FT -LB
00
0
00 FT LB
,0 0
,0
,0
500 12 10,0 000 FT- LB

15
20
9, ,000 FT-
8 00 0 -LB
400 7, 00 FT
6,0 T-L
B
0F
5,00 -LB
300 0 FT
4,00
FT-LB
200 3,000
-LB
2,000 FT
100
1,000 FT-LB
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
ROTARY TABLE RPM
Figure 50. Rotary drive power required at various torque loads

and RPM
58
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
MOST STRESS
ON DRILL STRING
DRILL PIPE HERE (UPSET
RUNOUT)
TOOL JOINT
PIN
COMPRESSION
TENSION
BOX
Figure 51. Tension and compression on drill string during rotation
The combination of high rotary speed, torque, and extra weight

on the bit creates great stress on the drill string. The drill string is a
flexible shaft and smooth running is important. A certain amount
of irregularity is unavoidable, but if centrifugal forces are severely
unbalanced, wall friction will increase or the bit may wear unevenly.
These situations can lead to serious problems such as joint failure,
twist-off, bit tooth breakage, or bearing failure.
59
MAKING HOLE
Slant and horizontal drilling use a downhole motor to overcome

MUD the wall friction problem (torque) and to avert drill string failure. A
downhole motor is a length of strong pipe inside of which there is a
spiral device called the stator/rotor or, in turbines, a series of blades.
The downhole motor or turbine is attached directly to the bit. The
pump pressure forces the mud past the stator or turbine device,
turning it along with the bit. The bit rotates but the drill string does
not (figs. 52, 53). Downhole motors require more pump capacity
than regular rotary drilling in order to rotate the bit at extremely
high speeds (up to 2,000 rpm).
POWER
SECTION
FLEX
SHAFT FLOW
DOWNHOLE
MOTOR
ROTATION
DRIVE
SUB
Figure 52. Cut-away

drawing of a downhole
motor powered by drilling
mud (Courtesy of Baker
Hughes INTEQ) Figure 53. Turbodrill design
60
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
To initiate the turn in a horizontal hole, the drilling assembly

usually includes a bent sub or a bent housing placed above the
down-hole motor (fig. 54). The turn radius may be short or long
DRILL PIPE TO
SURFACE
DRILL COLLARS
BENT SUB
DOWNHOLE MOTOR
BI T
Figure 54. Drilling
assembly using a downhole
motor and a bent sub
WELLBORE RADIUS
LONG MEDIUM INTERMEDIATE SHOR T
RADIUS RADIUS RADIUS RADIUS
(STIFF (STIFF (FLEX MOTORS) (ARTICULATED
MOTORS) MOTORS) MOTORS)
70˚– 150˚/100 FT
40˚– 70˚/100 FT 82–40 FT RADII
6˚– 40˚/100 FT 140–82 FT
3,000–140 FT RADII 300–1,000 FT
RADII
300–3,000 FT
1,500–4,000 FT
2˚– 6˚/100 FT Figure 55. Horizontal
3,000–1,000 FT
RADII 3,000–1,000 FT RADII turn radii (Courtesy of
Baker Hughes INTEQ)
61
MAKING HOLE
(fig. 55). The turn is steered by use of sophisticated downhole in-

struments tied into the rig site computers. With bent subs, the drill
string must be pulled and the bent sub changed in order to change
the angle of inclination. In the newest adjustable kick-off (AKO)
motors the bit can be steered without pulling the drill string to reset
the angle or direction of inclination (figs. 56 and 57). Downhole
mud motors may be stiff, flexible or articulated.
Figure 56. Short radius articulated downhole motor equipped with

PDC bit (Courtesy of Baker Hughes INTEQ)
62
TOP STABILIZER
BYPASS VALVE
FLEXIBLE MOTOR
SECTION (FOR
TURNS >6° /100 FT)
ADJUSTABLE
KICK-OFF SUB
BEARING ASSEMBLY
WITH STABILIZER
BI T
Figure 57. Adjustable kick-off (AKO) downhole motor assembly

can be used for drilling vertical to short-radius horizontal holes.
(Courtesy of Baker Hughes INTEQ)
MAKING HOLE
To summarize—
Special considerations when determining appropriate bit weight and
rotary speed:
• More drill collars are required to put additional weight on
bit
• Can derrick handle additional loads?
• Drill collars are expensive
• Drill collars are more difficult to handle than drill pipe
• Doglegs and hole deviation can occur when weight on bit
is changed
• Rig power system limitations
• Drill string stresses
• Downhole motors



64
Rate of Penetration
Control



V ariations in the drilling rate are normal. Changes can indicate

bit wear, change in formation, weight, rotary speed, or hy-
draulics. The driller must evaluate all these possibilities before
taking corrective action.
An unworn bit matched to the right formation, and properly
run, will drill faster than a worn bit or a bit not matched to the
formation. A driller can use this fact to determine the optimum
weight to maintain by measuring how much time is required to
drill a certain distance—1 ft, 10 ft (1 m, 10 m), or a kelly length.
This time measurement is then converted to ft/h or m/h (the usual
basis for comparing bit performance) or minutes (min) per ft or
m. The rig’s drilling rate recorder (GeolographTM) allows a quick
visual evaluation of the drilling rate (fig. 58). Computers tied
directly to the rig instruments are increasingly being used to col-
lect such data. If automatic devices are not available, the driller
can determine drilling rate by marking the kelly, maintaining a
constant speed and bit weight, then measure the time it takes to
drill one foot. This provides a rough estimate of bit performance
under that particular weight and speed.
65
MAKING HOLE
Figure 58. GeolographTM chart. Note drilling break at 4,915 feet

where average ROP decreases from average 6.5 min/ft to 3.5 min/ft.
(Courtesy of GLB Explorer)
66
RATE OF PENETRATION CONTROL
A common method to determine the optimum weight and rotary

speed is the drill-off technique. A drill-off test uses the fact that a drill
string is elastic. Its length varies with the tension on the string. As
more drill string weight is suspended from the crown block, there
is less weight on the bit. Maintaining a constant rotary speed and
circulation, a given amount of weight is imposed (slacked off) on the
bit and the brake tied down. The time it takes for the bit to drill off
some increment (usually 2,000 to 5,000 lb or 1,000 to 2,000 dN) of
the applied weight is recorded. As the weight is drilled off, more of
the drill string weight is suspended from the crown block and less is
applied to the bit. The time it takes to drill off the next increment of
weight is then recorded, and so on until the test is completed (table
10). The time it takes to drill off each increment of bit weight varies.
In the test recorded on table 10, the best time was 25 seconds using
a weight of 60,000 lb (26,700 dN). This weight is the optimum bit
weight for the existing conditions at the time of the test.
Table 10
Sample Drill-Off Test in Sandy Shale
Weight Interval, 1,000 lb Drill-Off Time, seconds

(dN)
70–65 26
(31,150–28,925)
65–60 26
(28,295–27,000)
60–55 25
(27,000–24,475) (Best Run)
55–50 28
(24,475–22,250)
50–45 31
(22,250–20,025)
45–40 34
(20,025–17,800)
40–35 36
(17,800–15,575)
35–30 52
(15,575–13,350)
30–25 70
(13,350–11,125)
67
MAKING HOLE
By making a pick-up and slack-off chart the time (in seconds)

to drill off a certain amount of weight can be converted into ft (m)
drilled per hour. Figure 59 is based on the drill-off test of table 10.
The chart shows that the kelly moved 0.06 ft (0.018 m) for each
1,000 lb (445 dN) drilled off. Using the best run of 25 seconds to
drill off 5,000 lb (2,225 dN), the hourly drilling rate can be calcu-
lated as follows.
Drilling rate = 3,600 seconds × 0.06 × weight drilled off
in 1,000-lb increments ÷ 25 seconds = 3,600 × 0.06 ×
= 43 ft/h (13 m/h).
2.9' – 0.5
'
KELLY MOVEMENT/1,000 LB =
230 – 190
2.4'
=
40 (1,000 LB)
= 0.06'/1,000 LB
5.0
(1.5)
KELLY MO VEMENT , FT (M)
4.0
(1.2)
3.0
(0.9)
2.0 P
KU F
(0.6) PIC K OF
C
SLA
1.0
(0.3)
0.5
(0.2)
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
(66,750) (71,200) (75,650) (80,100) (84,550) (89,000) (93,450) (97,900) (102,350)(106,800)(111,250)
SUSPENDED WEIGHT, 1,000 LB (dN)
Figure 59. Pick-up and slack-off chart
68
RATE OF PENETRATION CONTROL
Drill-off tests can be used to determine the effectiveness of

other drilling variables. The weight and hydraulics can be held
constant and the rotary speed varied, for instance. Optimum
hydraulics can likewise be determined. Drill-off tests should be
repeated periodically or when there is a change in formation or
other operating conditions.
To summarize—
Drill-off technique to determine optimum weight on bit and rotary speed
• Maintain constant rotary speed and circulation
• Slack off a given amount of weight on bit
• Record time it takes for bit to drill off a given increment
of weight (e.g., 2,000 to 5,000 lb or 1,000 to 2,000 dN);
repeat several times
• From tests, determine least amount of time to drill off
weight



69
Drilling Mud



D rilling mud properties impact the penetration rate by per-

forming functions vital to cost-effective drilling (fig. 60). The
basic functions of drilling mud are to:
1. clean the bit teeth and the bottom of the hole;
2. transport formation cuttings to the surface;
3. prevent formation fluids from entering the wellbore caus-
ing a kick or blowout;
4. protect and support the walls of the wellbore;
5. cool and lubricate the bit and drill string;
6. provide hydraulic power for downhole motors or turbines
(see figs. 52 and 53); and
7. help detect the presence of oil, gas, or saltwater in forma-
tions.
Drilling mud contains three types of material—one liquid and
two solid. The liquid component may be water (water base) or oil
(oil base), or a mixture of both.
One type of solid is reactive with liquid. The main reactive solids
in most drilling muds are clays. Clays swell in water and thicken
the mud. The other type of solids is nonreactive which means
they do not react with the liquid phase of the mud. Nonreactive
solids include formation cuttings of all sizes. Solids are generally
undesirable because they add weight to the mud and are abrasive
to equipment. One common nonreactive solid is barite, which is
purposely added to the mud to increase the weight as needed to
control formation pressure.
71
SUPPORTS
WELLBORE
WALLS
PROVIDES
POWER FOR
DOWNHOLE
MOTORS
HELPS PREVENT PROVIDES A MEANS

THE ENTR Y OF TO DETECT THE
FORMA TION PRESENCE OF
FLUIDS INTO FORMATION FLUIDS
THE WELLBORE THAT MAY ENTER
WELLBORE
CIRCULATES COOLS AND

FORMATION LUBRICATES
CUTTINGS OUT THE BIT AND
OF THE HOLE DRILL STEM
CLEANS BIT
AND BOTTOM
OF THE HOLE
Figure 60. Functions of drilling mud

DRILLING MUD
The mud program is not the same for every well. In the course of Mud Characteristics
drilling a well, the mud can be changed to deal with changes in That Affect ROP
formation and mechanical factors that affect the drilling rate. Mud
companies have formulated sophisticated compositions of mud
that allow the driller more control under different drilling condi-
tions. Mud records from nearby wells provide a good reference
for cost control and well planning (fig. 61). Mud properties with
the greatest effect on penetration rate are—
• density,
• viscosity,
• solids content,
• fluid loss, and
• oil content.
Density is the weight of a mud. Mud weight, or mud density, is Density

usually expressed as a unit of weight per unit of volume, such as
pounds per gallon (ppg), pounds per cubic foot (pcf), or kilograms
per cubic metre (kg/m3). Density directly affects the hydrostatic
pressure of the mud column—the pressure the column of mud exerts
at a given depth. A heavy mud exerts more hydrostatic pressure at
a given depth than a light mud. For example, a mud with a density
of 12 ppg (1,437.8 kg/m3) exerts more hydrostatic pressure at 1,000
ft (300 m) than a 10-ppg (1,198.2-kg/m3) mud. Crew members can
measure mud weight and calculate its hydrostatic pressure at a
given depth using a simple formula. The formula is—
Ph = D × Wm × C
where
Ph = hydrostatic pressure
D = depth
Wm = mud weight
C = a constant
The value of C, the constant, depends on the units used to
express the mud weight. If the mud weight is in ppg, the constant
is 0.052. If the mud weight is in pcf, the constant is 0.00694. If the
mud weight is in kilopascals (kPa), the constant is 0.0098. Thus,
hydrostatic pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) where mud
weight is measured in ppg is—
Ph (psi) = D (ft) × Wm (ppg) × 0.052.
For example, determine the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of
a hole 5,750 ft deep that is full of a mud whose weight is 11.4 ppg.
73
XYZ
John Doe
Figure 61. Daily drilling mud report (water base mud) from previously drilled well.
Computerized report as printed out at rig site by mud engineer. (Courtesy of M-I L.L.C.)
DRILLING MUD
Thus—
Ph = 5,750 ft × 11.4 × 0.052
= 65,550 × 0.052
Ph = 3,409 psi.
Hydrostatic pressure in psi where mud weight is measured in pcf is—
Ph (psi) = D (ft) × Wm (pcf) × 0.00694.
For example, determine the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of a
hole 5,750 ft deep that is full of mud whose weight is 85.3 pcf. Thus—
Ph = 5,750 ft × 85.3 × 0.00694
= 490,475 × 0.00694
Ph = 3,404 psi.
Hydrostatic pressure in kPa where mud weight is measured in
kg/m3 is—
Ph (kPa) = D (m) × Wm (kg/m3) × 0.0098.
For example, determine the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of
a hole 1,750 m deep that is full of mud whose weight is 1,365.9
kg/m3. Thus—
Ph = 1,750 × 1,365.9 × 0.0098
= 2,390,325 × 0.0098
Ph = 23,425 kPa.
Table 11 is a mud-weight density conversion table using common
mud-density measurements. When the mud weight is in ppg, crew
members can use table 12 to make mud weight adjustments using
barite or water to attain a specific hydrostatic pressure.
Lightweight muds (less than 10 ppg or 1,198.2 kg/m3) exert less
pressure on the bottom of the hole and allow cuttings to be removed
efficiently with lower weight and rotary speed. In effect, the rock drills
more easily, provided the circulation system is properly maintained.
Drilling with lightweight mud with its lower hydrostatic pressure
can, however, increase the risk of a kick.
On the other hand, if mud density is too high, high differential
pressure exists between the mud column and the formation. Put
another way, the mud’s hydrostatic pressure is higher than the for-
mation pressure. Hydrostatic pressure higher than formation pres-
sure creates a chip hold-down effect that tends to hold the cuttings
on the bottom of the hole. Unless mechanical energy is increased, a
drop in drilling rate occurs because the bit will be drilling the same
material over and over.
75
Table 11
Mud Density Conversion Table
grams per kilograms grams per kilograms

pounds per pounds per cubic per cubic pounds pounds per cubic per cubic
gallon cubic foot centimetre metre per gallon cubic foot centimetre metre
(lb/gal) (lb/ft3) (g/cm3)* (kg/m3) (lb/gal) (lb/ft3) (g/cm3) (kg/m3)
6.5 48.6 0.78 780 16.0 119.7 1.92 1,920

7.0 52.4 0.84 840 16.5 123.4 1.98 1,980
7.5 56.1 0.90 900 17.0 127.2 2.04 2,040
8.0 59.8 0.96 960 17.5 130.9 2.10 2,100
8.3 62.3 1.00 1,000 18.0 134.6 2.16 2,160
8.5 63.6 1.02 1,020 18.5 138.4 2.22 2,220

9.0 67.3 1.08 1,080 19.0 142.1 2.28 2,280
9.5 71.1 1.14 1,140 19.5 145.9 2.34 2,340
10.0 74.8 1.20 1,200 20.0 149.6 2.40 2,400
10.5 78.5 1.26 1,260 20.5 153.3 2.46 2,460
11.0 82.3 1.32 1,320 21.0 157.1 2.52 2,520

11.5 86.0 1.38 1,380 21.5 160.8 2.58 2,580
12.0 89.8 1.44 1,440 22.0 164.6 2.64 2,640
12.5 93.5 1.50 1,500 22.5 168.3 2.70 2,700
13.0 97.2 1.56 1,560 23.0 172.1 2.76 2,760
13.5 101.0 1.62 1,620 23.5 175.8 2.82 2,820

14.0 104.7 1.68 1,680 24.0 179.5 2.88 2,880
14.5 108.5 1.74 1,740
15.0 112.5 1.80 1,800
15.5 115.9 1.86 1,860
*Same as specific gravity (sg).
Mud Gradient, lb/ft3 lb/gal kg/m3

= , , or
psi/ft 144 19.24 2,309
lb/ft3 lb/gal
Density = g/cm3 = =
62.3 8.345
Table 12
Mud-Weight Adjustment with Barite or Water
Initial
Mud Desired Mud Weight (ppg)
Weight
(ppg) 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0
9 29 59 90 123 156 192 229 268 308 350 395 442 490 542 596 653 714 778
9.5 29 60 92 125 160 196 234 273 315 359 405 452 503 557 612 672 735
10 43 30 61 93 128 164 201 239 280 323 368 414 464 516 571 630 691
10.5 85 30 31 62 96 131 167 205 245 287 331 376 426 479 531 588 648
11 128 60 23 31 64 98 134 171 210 251 294 339 387 437 490 546 605
11.5 171 90 46 19 32 66 101 137 175 215 258 301 348 397 449 504 562
12 214 120 69 37 16 33 67 103 140 179 221 263 310 357 408 462 518
12.5 256 150 92 56 32 14 34 68 105 144 184 226 271 318 367 420 475
13 299 180 115 75 48 27 12 34 70 108 147 188 232 278 327 378 432
13.5 342 210 138 94 63 41 24 11 35 72 111 150 194 238 286 336 389
14 385 240 161 112 76 54 36 21 10 36 74 113 155 199 245 294 345
14.5 427 270 185 131 95 68 48 32 19 9 37 75 116 159 204 252 303
15 470 300 208 150 110 82 60 43 29 18 8 37 77 119 163 210 259
15.5 513 330 231 169 126 95 72 54 39 26 16 8 39 79 122 168 216
16 556 360 254 187 142 109 84 64 48 35 24 15 7 40 81 126 172
16.5 598 390 277 206 158 123 96 75 58 44 32 23 14 7 41 84 129
17 641 420 300 225 174 136 108 86 68 53 40 30 21 13 6 42 86
17.5 684 450 323 244 189 150 120 96 77 62 49 38 28 20 12 6 43
18 726 480 346 262 205 163 132 107 87 71 57 45 35 26 18 12 5
The lower left half of this table shows the number of barrels of water that must be added to 100 bbl of
mud to produce desired weight reductions. To use this portion of the table, locate the initial mud weight in
the vertical column at the left, then locate the desired mud weight in the upper horizontal row. The number
of barrels of water to be added per 100 bbl of mud is read directly across from the initial weight and directly
below the desired mud weight. For example, to reduce an 11 ppg mud to a 9.5 ppg mud, 128 bbl of water
must be added for every 100 bbl of mud in the system.
The upper right half of this table shows the number of sacks of barite that must be added to 100 bbl of
mud to produce desired weight increases. To use this portion of the table, locate the initial mud weight in the
vertical column to the left, then locate the desired mud weight in the upper horizontal row. The number of
sacks of barite to be added per 100 bbl of mud is read directly across from the initial weight and directly below
the desired mud weight. For example, to raise an 11 ppg mud to 14.5 ppg, 251 sacks of barite must be added
per 100 bbl of mud in the system.
MAKING HOLE
Using low-weight muds when possible is a definite cost saver

(fig. 62). Savings include less rotating time and trip time, lower bit
costs, fewer occurrences of lost circulation, stuck pipe, and other
work interruptions.
Sometimes a heavy mud of 16 to 18 ppg (1,917 to 2,157 kg/
m ) is required to control overpressured formations. If sufficient
3
hydrostatic pressure is not maintained, the well may kick. Keep

in mind, however, that hydrostatic pressure should not exceed
formation pressure by too much. A hydrostatic pressure that is too
high may fracture the formation or enlarge existing fractures and
circulation may be lost. Drilling with the proper mud weight and
carefully maintaining other mud characteristics is the best way to
prevent lost circulation and kicks.
If an overpressured formation is anticipated, an intermediate
string of casing (protection pipe) may be run. Intermediate casing
protects normally pressured shallow formations from excessive
hydrostatic pressure and prevents lost circulation within up-hole
zones as mud weights are increased.
2,000
(612)
3,000
(914)
4,000
(1,219)
5,000
DEPTH, FT (M
(1,524)
)
6,000
(1,829)
AVERAGE
MUD WEIGHT
7,000 10.4 PPG
(1,246.1 kg/m3)
(2,134)
8,000
(2,438) AVERAGE
AVERAGE MUD WEIGHT
MUD WEIGHT 9.7 PPG
9.6 PPG (1,162.3kg/m3 )
9,000 (1,150.3 kg/m )
3
(2,743) 0 100 200 300 400 500

Figure 62. Effect of mud ROTATING TIME, HR
weight on drilling rate
78
DRILLING MUD
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. To increase the Viscosity

viscosity of natural mud, a reactive clay that swells in water is added
to the system. Bentonite clay is the most common viscosity additive
but chemical polymers are often used. A thick, or viscous, mud is
more difficult to pump than a thin, less viscous mud. The more vis-
cous a mud is, the more pressure that is required to pump it. Thus,
as mud viscosity increases, circulating (pump) pressure decreases.
A decrease in circulation pressure decreases the bit hydraulic horse
power (bhhp). Loss of bhhp means bottomhole cleaning is less efficient
and the penetration rate slows because the thick mud tends to hold
formation chips on the bottom.
Gel strength, the ability of a mud to keep cuttings from settling
when circulation is stopped, is a function of viscosity. Gel strength, as
well as viscosity, should be closely monitored to assure a clean hole.
Sometimes a quantity of high-viscosity mud is circulated
through the system for hole-cleaning purposes. Known as a high-
viscosity sweep, this operation clears the hole of junk before setting
casing or running a diamond bit.
If the viscosity is too high, water can be added to thin the mud
but water will also lower the mud density. When water lowers the
density too much, weighting material must be added to the mud to
bring the density back to the proper level. Mud companies supply
chemical polymers that lower viscosity without reducing density.
The proportion, size, and type of solids in mud greatly affect its Solids Content
properties. Mud engineers control these properties by installing
equipment to remove drilled solids and supervising the amount,
timing, and types of solids added to the mud. Figure 63 illustrates
the effect of mud solids content on the drilling rate.
Low-solids mud is maintained in drilling situations where mud
weights are no greater than 10 ppg (1,198.2 kg/m3) and circulation
rates are kept high enough to lift cuttings out of the hole. Small
particles of weighting material (barite) can retard penetration by
plugging fractures induced by the bit cutters. This tends to hold
the chips in place and inhibits cuttings removal, thus decreasing
the penetration rate.
There are a number of ways to maintain low-solids content in mud.
Circulating mud through the reserve pit allows fine solids to settle out.
Devices like desilters, desanders, and centrifuges (for heavy muds)
mechanically control solids content. Chemicals are also used to cause
fine particles to aggregate and settle out as larger particles.
79
MAKING HOLE
2,000
(612)
4,000
(1,219)
6%–10% SOLIDS MUD
6,000
DEPTH, FT (M
(1,829)
)
A
8,000
(2,438)
B
2% SOLIDS MUD
10,000
(3,046)
0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
Figure 63. Effect of mud ROTATING TIME, HR
solids on drilling rate
Water is the ultimate low-solids drilling fluid, enabling even

faster penetration rates than lightweight mud. Where water supply
and downhole conditions permit, so-called clear water drilling is
employed, often to depths of several thousand feet (metres).
Fluid Loss The hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud column forces some
of the liquid component of the mud into the pore spaces of the
rocks. Because water-base muds are so often used, the liquid
component of the mud is often water. Consequently, fluid loss
is often termed water loss. Because other liquids besides water
make up mud, fluid loss is also termed filtration loss. As liquid
is lost to the formation, a layer of particles called wall cake (filter
cake) builds up on the wall of the hole. Three benefits of wall cake
are: 1) it protects the borehole walls; 2) it helps prevent the entry
of formation fluids into the borehole; and 3) it seals the borehole
walls which prevents the loss of whole mud into the formation.
Excessive water loss, however, causes serious problems. A
thick filter cake buildup can cause a stuck drill string (fig. 64). The
amount of formation wetting is apparently related to the water loss
of the drilling mud. Wetting of a shale formation causes slough-
ing and caving to occur that may, again, lead to stuck drill pipe.
Excessive water loss may also hinder wireline log interpretation
and cause well completion problems.
An oil-emulsion mud is a water-base mud with a little oil mixed
in. Oil and water do not mix, so an emulsifier is added to the mud,
80
DRILLING MUD
FORMATION
WITH LOW THIN WALL
PERMEABILITY CAKE
EXCESSIVE
FLUID LOSS
THICK WALL
CAKE Figure 64. Buildup of
filter (mud) cake on bore-
PERMEABLE hole walls. Solid particles
FORMATION in the drilling mud plaster
the wall of the hole forming
an impermeable barrier.
along with the oil, to disperse the oil and prevent it from separating
in the water-base system. The addition of oil to the mud can affect the
penetration rate in certain formations, particularly where high tem-
peratures, sloughing shale, or drill pipe sticking may be expected. The
oil in the mud lowers friction and torque, thus reducing horsepower
requirements. The lubricating ability of oil increases bit life. Oil in the
mud also keeps the bit from balling in hydrating clays and shales.
Oil-base mud has oil, usually diesel, as the liquid phase (instead
of water). Some water is always present but kept at 5 percent or lower.
Oil-base mud must contain an emulsifier for the water. Because of
environmental concerns when using oil-base muds, mud companies
have developed synthetic oil-base muds. Instead of using diesel or
other aromatic mineral oils, synthetic muds have vegetable oils or
nontoxic mineral oils. Whether synthetic or not, oil-base mud is much
more expensive than water-base mud, so its use is usually restricted
to specific, difficult drilling situations. Such situations include—
• water soluble formations,
• protecting producing formations,
• severe corrosion problems,
• deep, high-temperature holes,
• coring, and
• unsticking of downhole equipment.
Invert-emulsion mud is another type of oil-base mud in which
the water is spread out (dispersed) in the oil. The water content
may be as high as 10 to 60 percent. The emulsified water lessens
the concentration of mixed soap emulsifiers and asphaltic materials
required to carry the cuttings and weighting material. The use of
invert-emulsion mud is similar to that of oil-base mud.
81
MAKING HOLE
Mud costs are a significant part of the total drilling cost of a well
and the mud program is a critical part of well planning. Mud records
(or recaps) from nearby wells (see fig. 61) are usually available and allow
operators to forecast mud costs accordingly. Special equipment, storage
facilities, additives, and chemicals all represent added costs, as does the
time used to mix, treat, maintain, and circulate the mud. A low-density
clay-water mud system is relatively inexpensive because water is the
cheapest material that can be added to drilling mud. High-density mud is
more expensive to prepare and maintain than low-density mud because
barite is the most expensive mud additive. Regardless of the type of mud
used, the lowest total mud costs are obtained by using the minimum
mud weight and volume that meet the demands of the drilling operation
Many mud additives and chemicals are classed as hazardous
materials. It is therefore imperative that the crew is trained in the
safe and efficient handling of the mud system.
To summarize—
Drilling mud
• Cleans the bit teeth and bottom of hole
• Transports cuttings to the surface
• Prevents formation fluids from entering the hole
• Protects and supports the walls of the wellbore
• Provides hydraulic power for downhole motors
• Helps detect oil, gas, or salt water in formations
Three phases of drilling mud
• Liquid, usually water, oil, or a mixture of water and oil
• Reactive solids, such as bentonite or other clays
• Nonreactive solids, such as barite or some drilled solids
Mud properties that affect ROP
• Density (weight)
• Viscosity (thickness)
• Solids content
• Fluid loss
• Oil content



82
Air or Gas Drilling



I n certain areas, use of air or gas rather than mud as the cir-
culating fluid permits much lower-cost drilling. Generally, air or
gas drilling is used in areas where the subsurface formations are
older, hard rocks, and where soft, sloughing shale is not a problem.
Moreover, formation water production cannot exceed 50 barrels per
hour (bbl/h) or 8 m3/h. These requirements virtually eliminate the
Gulf Coast and offshore for the application of air or gas drilling.
Where conditions are favorable, air or gas drilling can offer
advantages—
1. Faster penetration rates than drilling with mud because
air or gas is the least-dense circulation medium available.
An air or gas column does not create a hold-down effect
because it holds very little hydrostatic pressure on the rock.
Air removes the cuttings instantly so there is no redrilling
of loose chips and less dulling of the bit.
2. Air or gas does an excellent job of cooling the bit. As air or
gas leaves the bit, it expands and cools. Effective cooling
reduces bit bearing wear, which means that bits last longer.
3. Formation changes are instantly recognized by changes at
the blooey line—the line out of which the air or gas and cut-
tings blow to the surface. Rock type can be easily identified.
4. Shows of water, gas, or oil are quickly evident. Formation
evaluation is thus accomplished while drilling, negating
the need for expensive testing operations.
Significant disadvantages to the use of air or gas as a circulating
fluid exist, however. Air or gas cannot exert enough pressure on the
walls to prevent formation fluids from entering the borehole. Most wells
encounter water-bearing formations at some point during drilling. A
limited ability to handle large volumes of water is a serious disadvantage
when drilling with air. A second, and near equal disadvantage, is that
air or gas cannot prevent the formation, especially shale, from slough-
83
MAKING HOLE
ing into the borehole and sticking the drill pipe. If water is present, the
problem of sloughing or swelling shale is made worse.
Two other problems must be addressed when drilling with
air: 1) the ever-present danger of explosion and fire at the sur-
face, or downhole explosions that cause lost hole or stuck pipe. A
spark- and explosion-proof electrical system is required and fire
prevention rules must be strictly enforced; 2) corrosion of the drill
string can occur. Chemicals are available to combat this problem
but the added cost must be considered.
Air Drilling In air or gas drilling, the circulating fluid does not circulate
continuously as does drilling mud. Skid-mounted air compres-
Equipment
sors furnish the high-pressure air supply for a regular rotary rig
equipped for air drilling (fig. 65). The air makes a single trip from
the air compressors down the drill stem and returns through
the annulus to the surface where it is vented to the atmosphere
through a blooey line. To reduce the fire hazard, the blooey line
Figure 65. Skid-mounted air compressors for air drilling
84
AIR OR GAS DRILLING
FLARE
BLOOEY
CUTTINGS LINE
Figure 66. Air drilled cuttings blown through a blooey line with
flare set to ignite any gas encountered
is extended 200 feet or more downwind from the rig where a

flare is installed to ignite any formation or drilling gas that may
be vented (fig. 66).
In drilling with gas, the gas supply is run directly (through a
meter) from a nearby high-pressure gas line. Gas is often used for
drilling through producing oil zones.
Air compressors may be single-stage or multiple-stage units.
Their capability may range from 50 to 3,000 ft3/min (1.4 to 84 m3/
min), with pressures up to 3,500 psi (24,133 kPa). Booster com-
pressors can be hooked up if water is encountered and foam or
mist drilling is necessary. Foam or mist drilling involves inject-
ing a surface active agent, a surfactant, into the air or gas stream.
The surfactant makes it possible to continue drilling when the
borehole encounters relatively small amounts of water because
it suspends the drilled formation solids in the water and keeps
them from balling up.
Other specialized equipment required for air drilling includes
chemical treatment equipment to combat corrosion, mist pumps
for injecting foaming agents and fluids, rotating head blowout
preventers, and air bits with heavy shanks.
85
MAKING HOLE
An air hammer and bit is a special air-drilling tool (fig. 67)

that may be used to achieve good penetration rates in certain
hard rock formations. Air operates the hammer and circulates
cuttings. A constant weight and slow rotary speed is applied to
the bit while the hammer tool directs repeated blows to the bit,
much like holding a chisel firmly against an object and striking the
chisel repeatedly with a sledge. Hammer bits may be fitted with
tungsten carbide or diamond enhanced inserts similar to cone bits.
PIN UP CONNECTION
BACK FLOW VALVE
CONTROL ROD
PISTON CASE
CONTR OL ROD WINDOWS (4)
PISTON
LOCK RINGS
DRIVER SUB
Figure 67. Air hammer (percussion) drilling tool (Courtesy of

Smith Bits)
86
AIR OR GAS DRILLING
A hammer tool and bit is especially useful where hard rocks are
at the surface and it is difficult to apply sufficient weight to the
bit. When the hammer tool cuts enough hole, or water overcomes
the air supply, drilling may then be changed over to regular rotary
methods. In hard rock areas like the Appalachian and Arkoma
Basins, the hammer tool may be used to drill the entire hole.
To convert a rotary rig from mud to air drilling, the following
procedure is commonly used (fig. 68):
1. Rig up for using mud as the circulating fluid.
2. Install compressors or a connection to a high-pressure gas
line.
3. Hook up blowout preventers (BOPs) and bypass lines.
4. Put safety precautions into effect to minimize the fire
danger.
5. Install a rotating BOP to make a seal around the kelly or drill
pipe. The BOP prevents air or gas from escaping around
the drill string but allows the drill string to rotate (fig. 69).
6. Connect a blooey line to vent the air, gas, and cuttings a
safe distance downwind from the rig.
COMPRESSOR LINE
FLEXIBLE LINE
MUD TANKS PILOT LIGHT
CHEMICAL PUMP
BYPASS LINE
STANDPIPE
SUCTION PIT
BLOOEY LINE
PUMPS
COMPRESSOR RIG
PREVAILING WINDS
Figure 68. Arrangement of equipment for air drilling
87
MAKING HOLE
PRESSURE GAUGE
AIR OR GAS
SUPPLY LINE
FROM MUD PUMP

ROTATING BLO WOUT
PREVENTER
BLOOEY
(DISCHARGE) LINE
BOP
STAC K
BYPASS LINE MUD KILL LINE
Figure 69. Blowout preventers and lines for air drilling
7. Set up a pilot light, or flare, to burn any gas leaving the

blooey line.
8. Install equipment needed for special chemical and mist or
foam treatment.
The operator will often rent an entire air drilling package and the
contractor will then convert the rig to air or gas drilling.
Volume, pressure, and velocity are variables that must be
controlled in air or gas drilling and each are related. A decrease or
increase in one factor affects the other two. Most of the problems
encountered in air drilling are caused by insufficient volume of
air to create the annular velocity needed to clean the hole of cut-
tings. This condition may occur because of insufficient compressor
capacity or hole enlargement.
88
AIR OR GAS DRILLING
Table 13
Approximate Rate of Circulation in ft3/min in 8¾-inch hole (m3/min in 222-mm hole) with
4½-inch (114-mm) Drill Pipe with Volumes to Produce Lifting Power Equivalent
to a Velocity of 3,000 ft3/min (915 m3/min)
ROP 30 ft3/min 90 ft3/min 30 ft3/min 90 ft3/min

(9 m3/min) (27 m3/min) (9 m3/min) (27 m3/min)
Well Compressed Air Natural Gas

Depth
Circulation Rates
2,000 ft 1,039 ft3/min 1,113 ft3/min 1,326 ft3/min 1,426 ft3/min

(609.6 m) (29.421 m3/min) (31.517 m3/min) (37.548 m3/min) (40.380 m3/min)
(1,219.2 m) (33.244 m3/min) (37.463 m3/min) (42.079 m3/min) (46.666 m3/min)
(1,828.8 m) (37.095 m3/min) (44.542 m3/min) (46.610 m3/min) (55.105 m3/min)
The air velocity in the annulus must be high enough to carry

the cuttings to the surface. With greater depth and increased
penetration rate, an increase in the volume of air is required. An
increase in volume can be attained by increased output, or pres-
sure, from the compressors. Gas, being lighter than air, requires
even higher volumes to lift the cuttings to the surface (table 13).
Other variables affecting the air velocity include the amount of
water entering the hole, the hole size, drill pipe diameter, and the
size of the cuttings (which varies by formation).
Foam or mist drilling becomes necessary when the amount of
water entering the borehole begins to fill the hole. Water is heavier
than air or gas and it soon exceeds the capacity of the compressors
and air circulation system to remove it. A second bad effect then
occurs—cuttings stick together clogging the annulus and sticking
to the drill string and bit. Stuck pipe is the frequent result.
To overcome the excess water problem, a surfactant, or foam-
ing agent, which is a chemical similar to soap, is added to the air
or gas system to initiate a mist or foam drilling operation. The
crew mixes the agent and other chemicals (about 1 to 1.5 percent
by volume) with water in a small tank and pumps it into the in-
going air or gas stream. The foaming agent causes the water in
the annulus to froth and foam. Foam is lighter than water so less
air pressure is required to move the water up the hole.
89
MAKING HOLE
Mist or foam drilling can move up to 50 bbl/h (8 m3/h) of water

from the annulus. Larger amounts of water require switching to
an aerated mud system or to regular water-base mud.
Aerated mud is created when both air and mud are pumped
into the standpipe under controlled conditions. Air in the mud
reduces hydrostatic head to the point where the rig compressors
can circulate the aerated mud. An aerated mud system can also
be used to overcome lost circulation problems while increasing
penetration rates above those for regular drilling mud.
The mud must have low gel strength and corrosion inhibitors
may be needed. Low gel strength allows the air to break out so
that the mud can be recycled through the mud pumps.
Also be aware that rapid expansion of the air in the upper por-
tion of the hole can create annular velocities as high as 2,000 or 3,000
ft/min (600 to 1,000 m/min). In most cases, casing must be set in the
hole to protect formations from being eroded by such high velocities.
To summarize—
Advantages of air or gas drilling over mud
• Faster penetration rates
• Reduced bit wear
• Easy to identify type of rock being drilled
• Oil, gas, and water shows are easy to see
Disadvantages of air or gas drilling
• Cannot prevent formation fluids from entering the hole
• Large volumes of water entering hole impede drilling
• Shale can slough into hole
• Risk of explosion or fire
• Drill string corrosion



90
Bit Hydraulics



H ydraulics deals with the behavior of a liquid in motion. Bit

hydraulics concerns the circulating pressure available at
the bit to clean the bottom of the hole. The hydraulic horsepower
of the circulating fluid at the bit is critical to the penetration rate
because this horsepower removes the cuttings from the bottom
of the hole. Hydraulic horsepower at the bit must be sufficient to
efficiently remove the cuttings. If the cuttings are not removed
quickly, the bit merely regrinds them instead of deepening the
hole. Increasing the weight and rotary speed does not increase the
rate of penetration if the hole is not cleared of cuttings.
Hydraulic horsepower is determined by pump output, which
is usually measured in gallons per minute or cubic metres per
minute (gpm or m3/min), and circulating pressure in psi or kPa.
A change in either output or pressure directly affects hydraulic
horsepower at the bit. The mud pumps generate hydraulic pres-
sure and transmit it down the drill string, out of the bit, and up
the annulus to the surface. When the mud reaches the surface,
all its pressure is used up. The mud may leave the pump under
thousands of pounds of pressure but at every point in the system
pressure losses occur (fig. 70). Substantial pressure is lost as the
mud travels through the surface equipment and down the drill
string because the inside of the pipes is rough. The roughness
creates friction and turbulence that reduce pressure. The largest
loss, 50 to 60 percent of the total, should occur at the bit nozzles.
91
LOSS IN THE
SURFACE
EQUIPMENT –
50 PSI
PUMP (345 kPa)
OUTPUT–
2,000 PSI
(13,791 kPa)
ZERO
PRESSURE
MUD PIT
LOSS IN THE
DRILL STRING
– 650 PSI
(4,482 kPa)
LOSS IN THE
ANNULUS –
100 PSI
(690 kPa)
LOSS
THROUGH
THE BIT –
1,200 PSI
(8,274 kPa)
Figure 70. Hydraulic power losses in rig mud system

BIT HYDRAULICS
This large pressure loss at the bit nozzles is beneficial. The mud
leaves the nozzle at great velocity, creating strong turbulence at
the bottom of the hole, cleaning it and lifting the cuttings upward
into the annulus where they are transported to the surface. Table 14
tabulates the pressure losses illustrated in figure 70. Keep in mind
that the figures shown are the pressure losses in one circulating
system in one specific drilling situation. Pressure losses vary with
the system and the situation.
Table 14
Pressure Losses as Illustrated in Figure 70
with Mud Pumping Rate of 400 gal/min
at 2,000 psi (1.5 m3/min at 13,791 kPa)
Circulation
Component Pressure Loss Percent of Loss
Surface equipment 50 psi 2.5

(345 kPa)
Drill stem 650 psi 32.5
(4,482 kPa)
Bit nozzles 1,200 psi 60.0
(8,274 kPa)
Return annulus 100 psi 5.0
(690 kPa)
Total loss 2,000 psi 100.0

(13,791 kPa)
93
MAKING HOLE
Hydraulics Many factors affect hydraulic pressure in a system, including

Calculations pump output, depth, mud weight and viscosity, nozzle size,
pipe and collar size (and whether its inside diameter is lined or
unlined), and annulus volume and configuration (fig. 71). The
greater the pressure loss in the system the more powerful the
mud pumps must be. Drilling engineers attempt to design and
maintain a circulating system that delivers 50 to 75 percent of a
pump’s output pressure to the bit nozzles. To achieve this goal,
they must consider every variable factor that affects hydraulic
WELL NAME: 12
CUSTOMER: Y
LOCATION: Y
WELL DATA RECOMMENDED HYDRAULICS

DEPTH......................... 9500 ft NOZZLES 11 10 10
HOLE SIZE................... 7.875 inches TFA.................................. 0.2462 sqin
MUD WEIGHT............. 13.50 ppg PUMP PRESSURE.......... 2998 psi
PLAS. VISC.................. 27.6 cp FLOW RATE..................... 305 gpm
YIELD PT..................... 10.00 lbs/ 100 ft2 BIT HSI............................ 6.99
HYDRAULIC DETAILS
FLOW RATE / HOLE DIAMETER....................................................... 38.8 gpm/in.
SYSTEM PRESSURE LOSS................................................................ 1086 psi
BIT NOZZLE PRESSURE DROP......................................................... 1912 psi
ANNULAR PRESSURE LOSS............................................................. 190 psi
NOZZLE PRESSURE DROP (% of available pressure)..................... 63.8 %
PUMP OUTPUT HYDRAULIC POWER............................................... 534 hhp
BIT HYDRAULIC POWER................................................................... 341 hhp
NOZZLE VELOCITY............................................................................ 398 ft/sec
JET IMPACT FORCE........................................................................... 849 lbs
IMPACT FORCE / HOLE AREA.......................................................... 17.43 psi
HYDROSTATIC HEAD......................................................................... 6662 psi
EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY.............................................. 13.88 ppg
CUTTINGS SLIP VELOCITY (chip size = .30 inch)............................ 33.7 ft/min
SURFACE EQUIPMENT LENGTH....................................................... 250 ft x 3.0 in.
AVAILABLE BUOYANT COLLAR WEIGHT.......................................... 39304 lbs
Figure 71. Factors affecting rig hydraulics (Courtesy of Reed-Hycalog)
94
BIT HYDRAULICS
pressure. Formerly, calculations incorporating these variables

required a lot of an engineer’s time, but computers now allow
them to quickly predict the results from changes in nozzle size,
pump output, or other variables in the drilling program. Hydraulic
horsepower, drilling cost per foot, and other parameters can be
easily determined either in the office, utilizing a computerized
drilling information network, or on site using hand-held computer-
calculators.
Tables 15A and 15B show pressure losses in the drill string
and can be used to determine the effect of different drill stem
sizes. For example, a pump output of 320 gpm (1.21 m3/m) and
4½-in. (114.3-mm) drill pipe with 3-in. (76.20-mm) tool joint bore,
pressure losses are 47 psi for every 1,000 ft (106 kPa/100 mm) of
drill stem length.
The best nozzle combination can be determined from tables
16A and 16B, provided the amount of pressure available at the
nozzle is known (initial pressure at pump outlet minus pressure
losses before the fluid reaches the bit). Assume 1,791 psi (12,349
kPa) at the bit and pump flow rate of 320 gpm (1.21 m3/m), across
from 320 (1.21) is the value 1,782 (12,287) which comes closest to,
but does not exceed, 1,792 psi (12,356 kPa). The table shows that
the optimum pressure will be expended through a combination of
three nozzles whose inside diameter is ⁵⁄₁₆ inch (7.94 mm).
The mathematical data used to derive hydraulics tables vary.
Drillers and rig managers should become familiar with the methods
and tables preferred by their particular company.
95
Table 15
Determining Pressure Loss through Drill Stem Bore
PIPE SIZE *2&/8" 2&/8" 3!/2" 4" 4!/2" 4!/2" 5" 5!/2" 6%/8"
TYPE OF S.L. F.H. A.S.L. A.S.L. D.S.L. Reg. Reg.
TOOL JT. I.F. I.F. H-90 S.H. X.H. I.F. S.H. I.F. X.H. I.F. I.F. F.H. I.F. F.H. I.F. I.F. F.H. X.H. I.F. I.F. X.H. F.H. F.H. S.H. Acme API X.H. Reg. API Full Hole API F.H.
TOOL JT.
BORE 2!/8" 2&/16"2.151" 1#/4" 1&/8" 2!/8" 2!/8" 2!!/16"2&/16"2!!/16"2!!/16"2!#/16"3!/4"2!#/16"3!/4" 3!/4" 3" 3!/4" 3#/4" 3#/4" 3!/4" 3%/32" 3" 2!!/16" 2!/2" 2!/4" 3#/4" 2#/4" 3" 3!#/16" 4" 3!/2" 5"
**PIPE WT. 10.40 LB. 13.30 LB. 15.50 LB. 14.00 LB. 15.70 LB. 16.60 LB. 20.00 LB. 19.50 21.90 LB. 25.20 LB.
LB.
† LWDP WT. 6.85 LB. 9.50 11.85 13.75
LB. LB. LB.
‡ TUBING 6.50 LB. 9.30 11.00 12.75
LB. LB. LB.
GALLONS
PER MIN. PRESSURE LOSS—PSI PER 1,000 FEET OF DRILL STEM
290............... 323 303 304 626 596 563 191 168 228 220 111 72 67 82 77 53 39 37 34 28 46 46 48 53 53 59 21 18 16 13 13 6 4
300............... 344 323 325 666 635 600 204 179 243 235 119 77 71 87 82 56 42 39 37 30 49 49 51 57 57 63 23 19 17 14 13 6 5
310............... 365 343 345 708 675 637 217 190 258 249 126 82 76 93 87 60 44 42 39 32 52 53 54 60 60 67 24 20 18 15 14 6 5
320............... 388 364 366 751 716 676 230 201 274 264 134 86 80 98 92 64 47 44 41 34 55 56 58 64 64 71 25 21 19 16 15 7 5
330............... 410 386 387 795 758 716 243 213 290 280 142 91 85 104 97 67 50 47 44 36 58 59 61 68 68 76 27 23 20 17 16 7 6
340............... 434 408 409 841 802 757 257 225 306 296 150 97 90 110 103 71 53 50 46 38 61 62 65 72 72 80 28 24 21 18 17 8 6
350............... 458 430 432 888 846 799 272 238 323 312 158 102 95 116 109 75 56 52 49 40 65 66 68 76 76 84 30 25 22 19 18 8 6
360............... 483 454 455 935 892 842 286 251 341 329 167 108 100 122 114 79 59 55 51 42 68 69 72 80 80 89 32 26 24 20 19 9 6
370............... 508 477 479 984 938 886 301 264 358 346 175 113 105 129 120 83 62 58 54 44 72 73 76 84 84 93 33 28 25 21 20 9 7
380............... 534 502 503 1034 986 931 317 277 377 364 184 119 110 135 126 88 65 61 57 47 75 77 79 88 88 98 35 29 26 22 21 10 7
390............... 560 526 528 1085 1035 977 332 291 395 382 193 125 116 142 133 92 68 64 60 49 79 81 83 92 93 103 37 31 27 23 22 10 7
400............... 587 552 554 1138 1085 1024 348 305 414 400 203 131 121 149 139 96 72 67 63 51 83 85 88 97 97 108 38 32 29 24 23 11 8
410............... 615 578 580 1191 1136 1072 365 319 434 419 212 137 127 155 146 101 75 70 65 54 87 88 91 102 102 113 40 34 30 25 24 11 8
420............... 643 604 606 1246 1188 1121 381 334 454 438 222 143 133 163 152 106 78 73 68 56 91 92 96 106 106 118 42 35 31 26 25 12 9
430............... 671 631 634 1302 1241 1171 398 349 474 458 232 150 139 170 159 110 82 77 71 59 95 97 100 111 111 123 44 37 33 27 26 12 9
440............... 701 659 661 1358 1295 1223 416 364 495 478 242 156 145 177 166 115 85 80 75 61 99 101 104 116 116 129 46 39 34 29 28 13 9
450............... 731 687 695 1416 1350 1275 434 380 516 498 252 163 151 185 173 120 89 84 78 64 103 105 109 121 121 134 48 40 36 30 29 13 10
460............... .... .... .... .... .... .... 452 396 537 519 263 170 157 193 180 125 93 87 81 66 108 110 113 126 126 140 50 42 37 31 30 14 10
470............... .... .... .... .... .... .... 470 412 559 540 274 177 164 201 188 130 97 91 84 69 112 114 118 131 131 146 52 44 39 32 31 14 11
480............... .... .... .... .... .... .... 489 428 582 562 284 184 170 209 195 135 101 94 88 72 116 118 123 136 136 152 54 45 40 34 32 15 11
490............... .... .... .... .... .... .... 508 445 604 584 296 191 177 217 203 141 104 98 91 75 121 123 127 141 142 158 56 47 42 35 34 15 12
500............... .... .... .... .... .... .... 527 462 627 606 307 198 184 225 211 146 108 102 95 78 126 128 132 147 147 164 58 49 43 36 35 16 12
510............... .... .... .... .... .... .... 547 479 651 629 318 206 191 233 218 151 112 106 98 81 130 133 137 152 152 170 60 51 45 38 36 17 12
* API LIGHTWEIGHT DRILL PIPE AND TUBING ONLY Courtesy of IADC
** REGULAR DRILL PIPE WEIGHT
† LIGHTWEIGHT DRILL PIPE WEIGHT
‡ TUBING WEIGHT
Table 15A
Determining Pressure Loss through Drill Stem Bore (Metric)
PIPE SIZE *73.03 73.03 88.90 101.60 114.30 114.30 127.00 139.70 168.28
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
TYPE OF S.L. F.H. A.S.L. A.S.L. D.S.L. Reg. Reg.
TOOL JT. I.F. I.F. H-90 S.H. X.H. I.F. S.H. I.F. X.H. I.F. I.F. F.H. I.F. F.H. I.F. I.F. F.H. X.H. I.F. I.F. X.H. F.H. F.H. S.H. Acme API X.H. Reg. API Full Hole API F.H.
TOOL JT. 53.98 61.91 54.64 44.45 47.63 53.98 53.98 68.26 61.91 68.26 68.26 71.44 82.55 71.44 82.55 82.55 76.20 82.55 95.25 95.25 82.55 80.17 76.20 68.26 63.50 57.15 95.25 69.85 76.20 96.84 101.60 88.90 127.00
BORE mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
**PIPE WT. 15.48 kg/m 19.79 kg/m 23.06 kg/m 20.83 kg/m 23.36 kg/m 24.70 kg/m 29.76 kg/m 29.02 35.59 kg/m 34.50 kg/m
kg/m
† LWDP WT. 10.19 kg/m 14.14 17.63 20.46
kg/m kg/m kg/m
‡ TUBING 9.67 kg/m 13.84 16.37 18.97
kg/m kg/m kg/m
m3/min PRESSURE LOSS—kPa PER 100 M OF DRILL STEM

1.10............. 731 686 687 1,417 1,349 1,274 432 380 516 498 251 163 152 186 174 120 88 84 77 63 104 104 109 120 120 134 48 41 36 29 29 14 9
1.14.............. 778 731 735 1,507 1,437 1,358 461 405 550 532 269 174 161 197 186 127 95 88 84 68 111 111 115 129 129 143 52 43 38 32 29 14 11
1.17.............. 826 776 781 1,602 1,528 1,442 491 430 584 563 285 186 172 210 197 136 100 95 88 72 118 120 122 136 136 152 54 45 41 34 32 14 11
1.21............. 878 824 828 1,700 1,620 1,530 520 455 620 597 303 195 181 222 208 145 106 100 93 77 124 127 131 145 145 161 57 48 43 36 34 16 11
1.25............. 928 873 876 1,799 1,715 1,620 550 482 656 634 321 206 192 235 220 152 113 106 100 81 131 134 138 154 154 172 61 52 45 38 36 16 14
1.29............. 982 923 926 1,903 1,815 1,713 582 509 692 670 339 220 204 249 233 161 120 113 104 86 138 140 147 163 163 181 63 54 48 41 38 18 14
1.33............. 1,036 973 978 2,010 1,914 1,808 616 539 731 706 358 231 215 263 247 170 127 118 111 91 147 149 154 172 172 190 68 57 50 43 41 18 14
1.36............. 1,093 1,027 1,030 2,116 2,019 1,905 647 568 772 745 378 244 226 276 258 179 134 124 115 95 154 156 163 181 181 201 72 59 54 45 43 20 14
1.40............. 1,150 1,079 1,084 2,227 2,123 2,005 681 597 810 783 396 256 238 292 272 188 140 131 122 100 163 165 172 190 190 210 75 63 57 48 45 20 16
1.44............. 1,208 1,136 1,138 2,340 2,231 2,107 717 627 853 824 416 269 249 306 285 199 147 138 129 106 170 174 179 199 199 222 79 66 59 50 48 23 16
1.48............. 1,267 1,190 1,195 2,455 2,342 2,211 751 660 894 864 437 283 263 321 301 208 154 145 136 111 179 183 188 208 210 233 84 70 61 52 50 23 16
1.52............. 1,328 1,249 1,254 2,575 2,455 2,317 788 690 937 905 459 296 274 337 315 217 163 152 143 115 188 192 199 220 220 244 86 72 66 54 52 25 18
1.55............. 1,392 1,308 1,314 2,695 2,571 2,426 826 722 982 948 480 310 287 350 330 229 170 158 147 122 197 199 206 231 231 256 91 77 68 57 54 25 18
1.59............. 1,455 1,367 1,371 2,820 2,688 2,557 862 756 1,027 991 502 324 301 369 344 240 177 165 154 127 206 210 217 240 240 267 95 79 70 59 57 27 20
1.63............. 1,518 1,428 1,435 2,946 2,808 2,650 901 790 1,073 1,036 525 339 315 385 360 249 186 174 161 134 215 220 226 251 251 278 100 84 75 61 59 27 20
1.67............. 1,591 1,491 1,496 3,073 2,931 2,768 941 824 1,120 1,082 548 353 328 401 376 260 192 181 170 138 224 229 235 263 263 292 104 88 77 66 63 29 20
1.71............. 1,654 1,555 1,573 3,204 3,055 2,885 982 860 1,168 1,127 570 369 342 419 391 272 201 190 177 145 233 238 247 274 274 303 109 91 81 68 66 29 23
1.74............. .... .... .... .... .... .... 1,023 896 1,215 1,174 595 385 355 437 407 283 210 197 183 149 244 249 256 285 285 317 113 95 84 70 68 32 23
1.78............. .... .... .... .... .... .... 1,064 932 1,265 1,222 620 401 371 455 425 294 220 206 190 156 253 258 267 296 296 330 118 100 88 72 70 32 25
1.82............. .... .... .... .... .... .... 1,107 970 1,317 1,272 643 416 385 473 441 306 229 213 199 163 263 267 278 308 308 344 122 102 91 77 72 34 25
1.86............. .... .... .... .... .... .... 1,150 1,007 1,367 1,322 670 432 401 491 459 319 235 222 206 170 274 278 287 319 321 358 127 106 95 79 77 34 27
1.90............. .... .... .... .... .... .... 1,193 1,046 1,419 1,371 695 448 416 509 477 330 244 231 215 177 285 290 299 333 333 371 131 111 97 81 79 36 27
1.93............. .... .... .... .... .... .... 1,238 1,084 1,473 1,423 720 466 432 527 493 342 253 240 222 183 294 301 310 344 344 385 136 115 102 86 81 38 27
* API LIGHTWEIGHT DRILL PIPE AND TUBING ONLY
** REGULAR DRILL PIPE WEIGHT
† LIGHTWEIGHT DRILL PIPE WEIGHT
‡ TUBING WEIGHT
Table 16
Determining Pressure Drop in psi Across Bit Nozzle
GAL. TRI-CONE BITS TWO-CONE BITS

PER
MIN. !/4" (/32" %/16" !!/32" #/8" !#/32" &/16"!%/32" !/2" (/16" %/8" !!/16" #/4" 1" !/2" (/16" %/8" !!/16" #/4" !#/16" 1"
100 424 265 174 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
110 514 321 210 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
120 611 382 250 171 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
130 717 448 294 201 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
140 832 520 341 233 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
150 955 597 392 267 189 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 84 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
160 1,087 679 445 304 215 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 96 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
170 1,227 766 503 343 242 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 108 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
180 1,375 859 563 385 272 197 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 194 121 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
190 1,532 957 628 429 303 220 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 216 134 88 ..... ..... ..... .....
200 1,698 1,061 695 475 335 244 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 239 149 98 ..... ..... ..... .....
210 1,872 1,169 768 524 370 269 200 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 264 164 108 ..... ..... ..... .....
220 2,054 1,283 842 575 406 295 219 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 289 180 118 ..... ..... ..... .....
230 2,245 1,403 920 629 443 323 240 ..... ..... 87 ..... ..... ..... ..... 316 197 129 88 ..... ..... .....
240 ..... 1,527 1,002 684 483 351 261 198 ..... 95 ..... ..... ..... ..... 344 215 141 96 ..... ..... .....
250 ..... 1,657 1,088 743 524 381 283 215 ..... 103 ..... ..... ..... ..... 374 233 153 105 ..... ..... .....
260 ..... 1,792 1,176 803 567 412 306 232 ..... 112 ..... ..... ..... ..... 404 252 165 113 ..... ..... .....
270 ..... 1,933 1,268 866 611 445 330 250 194 120 ..... ..... ..... ..... 436 272 178 122 86 ..... .....
280 ..... 2,079 1,364 932 657 478 355 269 208 129 ..... ..... ..... ..... 469 292 192 131 92 ..... .....
290 ..... 2,230 1,463 999 705 513 381 289 223 139 92 ..... ..... ..... 503 314 206 141 99 ..... .....
300 ..... 2,386 1,566 1,070 754 549 408 309 239 149 98 ..... ..... ..... 538 335 220 150 106 ..... .....
310 ..... ..... 1,672 1,142 805 586 435 330 255 159 105 ..... ..... ..... 575 358 235 161 113 ..... .....
320 ..... ..... 1,782 1,217 858 625 464 352 272 169 112 ..... ..... ..... 612 382 251 171 121 88 .....
330 ..... ..... 1,895 1,294 913 664 493 374 289 180 119 ..... ..... ..... 651 406 266 182 128 93 .....
340 ..... ..... 2,011 1,374 969 705 524 397 307 191 126 ..... ..... ..... 691 431 283 193 136 99 .....
350 ..... ..... 2,132 1,456 1,027 747 555 421 325 203 134 91 ..... ..... 733 457 300 205 144 105 .....
360 ..... ..... 2,255 1,540 1,086 791 587 445 344 215 141 96 ..... ..... 775 483 317 217 153 111 .....
370 ..... ..... ..... 1,627 1,147 835 620 470 364 227 149 102 ..... ..... 819 510 335 229 161 117 .....
380 ..... ..... ..... 1,716 1,210 881 654 496 383 239 157 107 ..... ..... 864 538 353 241 170 124 .....
390 ..... ..... ..... 1,807 1,275 928 689 523 404 252 166 113 ..... ..... 910 567 372 254 179 130 .....
400 ..... ..... ..... 1,901 1,341 976 725 550 425 265 174 119 ..... ..... 957 597 391 267 189 137 .....
410 ..... ..... ..... 1,998 1,409 1,025 762 578 446 279 183 125 88 ..... 1,005 627 411 281 198 144 .....
420 ..... ..... ..... 2,096 1,482 1,076 799 606 468 292 192 131 92 ..... 1,055 658 432 295 208 151 .....
430 ..... ..... ..... 2,197 1,553 1,128 838 635 491 306 201 137 97 ..... 1,106 689 452 309 218 158 .....
440 ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,626 1,181 877 665 514 321 210 144 101 ..... 1,158 722 474 324 228 166 .....
450 ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,701 1,235 917 696 538 336 220 150 106 ..... 1,211 755 495 338 239 174 .....
460 ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,777 1,291 958 727 562 351 230 157 111 ..... 1,265 789 518 354 250 181 .....
470 ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,856 1,347 1,001 759 587 366 240 164 116 ..... 1,321 824 540 369 261 189 .....
480 ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,935 1,405 1,044 792 612 382 250 171 121 ..... 1,378 859 564 385 272 197 .....
490 ..... ..... ..... ..... 2,017 1,465 1,088 825 638 398 261 178 126 ..... 1,436 895 587 401 283 206 90
500 ..... ..... ..... ..... 2,100 1,523 1,133 859 664 414 272 186 131 ..... 1,495 932 612 418 295 214 93
510 ..... ..... ..... ..... 2,185 1,585 1,178 894 691 431 283 193 136 ..... 1,555 970 636 435 307 223 97
520 ..... ..... ..... ..... 2,271 1,647 1,225 929 718 448 294 201 142 ..... 1,617 1,008 661 452 319 232 101
530 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,711 1,273 965 746 465 305 209 147 ..... 1,680 1,047 687 469 331 241 105
540 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,777 1,321 1,002 774 483 317 217 153 ..... 1,744 1,087 713 487 344 250 109
550 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,843 1,370 1,039 803 501 329 225 159 ..... 1,810 1,128 740 505 357 259 113
560 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,911 1,421 1,078 833 520 341 233 164 ..... 1,875 1,169 767 524 370 269 117
Courtesy of IADC
Table 16A
Determining Pressure Drop in kPa Across Bit Nozzle (Metric)
TRI-CONE BITS TWO-CONE BITS
m3/m 6.35 7.14 7.93 8.73 9.53 10.32 11.11 11.91 12.70 14.29 15.88 17.46 19.05 25.40 12.70 14.29 15.88 17.46 19.05 20.64 25.4
0.379 2,924 1,817 1,200 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
0.417 3,544 2,213 1,448 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
0.455 4,213 2,634 1,724 1,179 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
0.493 4,944 3,089 2,027 1,448 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
0.531 5,757 3,585 2,351 1,607 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
0.569 6,585 4,116 2,703 1,841 1,303 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 579 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
0.606 7,495 4,682 3,068 2,096 1,482 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 662 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
0.644 8,460 5,282 3,468 2,365 1,669 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 745 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
0.682 9,481 5,923 3,882 2,655 1,875 1,358 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,338 834 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
0.720 10,563 6,599 4,330 2,958 2,089 1,517 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,489 924 607 ..... ..... ..... .....
0.758 11,708 7,316 4,792 3,275 2,310 1,682 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,648 1,027 676 ..... ..... ..... .....
0.796 12,907 8,060 5,295 3,613 2,551 1,855 1,379 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,820 1,131 745 ..... ..... ..... .....
0.834 14,162 8,846 5,806 3,965 2,799 2,034 1,510 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1,993 1,241 814 ..... ..... ..... .....
0.872 15,479 9,674 6,343 4,337 3,054 2,227 1,655 ..... ..... 600 ..... ..... ..... ..... 2,179 1,358 890 607 ..... ..... .....
0.910 ..... 10,529 6,909 4,716 3,330 2,420 1,800 1,365 ..... 655 ..... ..... ..... ..... 2,372 1,482 972 662 ..... ..... .....
0.948 ..... 11,425 7,502 5,123 3,613 2,627 1,951 1,482 ..... 710 ..... ..... ..... ..... 2,579 1,607 1,055 724 ..... ..... .....
0.985 ..... 12,356 8,108 5,537 3,910 2,841 2,110 1,600 ..... 772 ..... ..... ..... ..... 2,786 1,738 1,138 779 ..... ..... .....
1.023 ..... 13,328 8,743 5,971 4,213 3068 2,275 1,724 1,338 827 ..... ..... ..... ..... 3,006 1,875 1,227 841 593 ..... .....
1.061 ..... 14,335 9,405 6,426 4,530 3,296 2,448 1,855 1,434 890 ..... ..... ..... ..... 3,234 2,013 1,324 903 634 ..... .....
1.100 ..... 15,376 10,087 6,888 4,861 3,537 2,627 1,993 1,538 958 634 ..... ..... ..... 3,468 2,165 1,420 972 683 ..... .....
1.137 ..... 16,452 10,798 7,378 5,199 3,785 2,813 2,131 1,648 1,027 676 ..... ..... ..... 3,710 2,310 1,517 1,034 731 ..... .....
1.175 ..... ..... 11,528 7,874 5,551 4,041 2,999 2,775 1,758 1,096 724 ..... ..... ..... 3,965 2,468 1,620 1,110 779 ..... .....
1.213 ..... ..... 12,287 8,391 5,916 4,309 3,199 2,427 1,875 1,165 772 ..... ..... ..... 4,220 2,634 1,731 1,179 834 607 .....
1.251 ..... ..... 13,066 8,922 6,295 4,578 3,399 2,579 1,993 1,241 82 ..... ..... ..... 4,482 2,799 1,834 1,255 883 641 .....
1.289 ..... ..... 13,866 9,474 6,681 4,861 3,613 2,737 2,117 1,317 869 ..... ..... ..... 4,764 2,972 1,944 1,331 938 683 .....
1.327 ..... ..... 14,700 10,039 7,081 5,151 3,827 2,903 2,241 1,400 924 628 ..... ..... 5,054 3,151 2,069 1,414 993 724 .....
1.364 ..... ..... 15,548 10,618 7,488 5,454 4,047 3,068 2,372 1,482 972 662 ..... ..... 5,344 3,330 2,186 1,496 1,055 765 .....
1.402 ..... ..... ..... 11,218 7,909 5,757 4,275 3,241 2,510 1,565 1,027 703 ..... ..... 5,647 3,517 2,310 1,579 1,110 807 .....
1.440 ..... ..... ..... 11,832 8,343 6,075 4,509 3,420 2,641 1,648 1,083 738 ..... ..... 5,957 3,710 2,434 1,662 1,172 855 .....
1.478 ..... ..... ..... 12,459 8,791 6,399 4,751 3,606 2,786 1,738 1,145 779 ..... ..... 6,275 3,910 2,565 1,751 1,234 896 .....
1.516 ..... ..... ..... 13,107 9,246 6,730 4,999 3,792 2,930 1,827 1,200 821 ..... ..... 6,599 4,116 2,696 1,841 1,303 945 .....
1.554 ..... ..... ..... 13,776 9,715 7,067 5,254 3,985 3,075 1,924 1,262 862 607 ..... 6,930 4,323 2,834 1,938 1,365 993 .....
1.592 ..... ..... ..... 14,452 10,218 7,419 5,509 4,178 3,227 2,013 1,324 903 634 ..... 7,274 4,537 2,979 2,034 1,434 1,041 .....
1.630 ..... ..... ..... 15,148 10,708 7,778 5,778 4,378 3,386 2,110 1,386 945 669 ..... 7,626 4,751 3,117 2,131 1,503 1,089 .....
1.668 ..... ..... ..... ..... 11,211 8,143 6,047 4,585 3,544 2,213 1,448 993 696 ..... 7,984 4,978 3,268 2,234 1,572 1,145 .....
1.706 ..... ..... ..... ..... 11,728 8,515 6,323 4,799 3,710 2,317 1,517 1,034 731 ..... 8,350 5,206 3,413 2,331 1,648 1,200 .....
1.743 ..... ..... ..... ..... 12,252 8,902 6,605 5,013 3,875 2,420 1,586 1,083 766 ..... 8,722 5,440 3,572 2,441 1,724 1,248 .....
1.781 ..... ..... ..... ..... 12,797 9,288 6,902 5,233 4,047 2,524 1,655 1,131 800 ..... 9,108 5,682 3,723 2,544 1,800 1,303 .....
1.819 ..... ..... ..... ..... 13,342 9,688 7,198 5,461 4,220 2,634 1,724 1,179 834 ..... 9,501 5,923 3,889 2,655 1,875 1,358 .....
1.857 ..... ..... ..... ..... 13,907 10,101 7,502 5,688 4,385 2,744 1,800 1,227 869 ..... 9,901 6,171 4,047 2,765 1,951 1,420 621
1.895 ..... ..... ..... ..... 14,480 10,501 7,812 5,923 4,578 2,855 1,875 1,283 903 ..... 10,308 6,426 4,220 2,882 2,034 1,476 641
1.933 ..... ..... ..... ..... 15,066 10,929 8,122 6,164 4,765 2,972 1,951 1,331 938 ..... 10,722 6,688 4,385 2,999 2,117 1,538 669
1.971 ..... ..... ..... ..... 15,659 11,356 8,446 6,406 4,951 3,089 2,027 1,386 979 ..... 11,149 6,950 4,558 3,117 2,200 1,600 696
2.009 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 11,797 8,777 6,654 5,144 3,206 2,103 1,441 1,014 ..... 11,584 7,219 4,737 3,234 2,282 1,662 724
2.047 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 12,252 9,108 6,909 5,337 3,330 2,186 1,496 1,055 ..... 12,025 7,495 4,916 3,358 2,372 1,724 752
2.085 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 12,708 9,446 7,164 5,537 3,454 2,269 1,551 1,096 ..... 12,480 7,778 5,102 3,482 2,462 1,786 779
2.122 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 13,176 9,798 7,433 5,744 3,585 2,351 1,607 1,131 ..... 12,928 8,060 5,289 3,613 2,551 1,855 807
MAKING HOLE
To summarize—
• Hydraulic horsepower affects how well bottom of hole is
cleaned; if hole is not cleaned of cuttings, ROP decreases.
• Pump output in gpm or m3/min and circulating pressure in
psi or kPa determines hydraulic horsepower.
• Pressure losses in drill string should be greatest at bit nozzles
because mud leaves the bit with great speed (velocity) to
clean hole.



100
Formation Properties



T he nature of the formation being drilled greatly influences

the drilling rate and other important aspects of the overall
drilling operation. Petroleum geologists gather information from
nearby wells and predict formation depths (tops), rock character,
and geological hazards. A geologist prepares a well prognosis
setting out this information and the rig manager or drilling super-
intendent will usually have access to it. The bit program may be
based in part on the information in the prognosis. A geologist will
often be on site to examine well cuttings, call formation tops, help
pick casing, logging, and coring points, as well as the total depth
(TD). The operator may also engage a mud logging company to
provide full time, continuous monitoring of the mud stream for
shows of oil and gas and to identify the formations being drilled.
In general, porous and permeable formations drill faster than
impermeable formations. If the bit is drilling an impermeable
zone and it enters a permeable zone, a drilling break may occur. A
drilling break is an increase in the rate of penetration. If a drilling
break occurs in a possible pay horizon, drilling may be stopped Figure 72. Overburden
and the cuttings, along with any shows of hydrocarbons in the (formation pressure
mud, circulated to the surface. Formation testing may be conducted increases with depth)
at that point or an evaluation may be deferred until logs are run.
Overburden pressure increases with depth and a corresponding
increase in a rock’s compressive strength with depth occurs (fig.
72). Because rock strength increases with depth, the driller must
101
MAKING HOLE
increase the weight on the bit; otherwise, the bit cannot overcome
the compressive strength of the rock.
The ability to drill different types of rock varies greatly. This
variation occurs because rocks have different compressive strengths.
Chalk and soft limestones have compressive strengths of 5,000 psi
(34,475 kPa), or less, while granite and quartzite have compressive
strengths of 45,000 psi (310,275 kPa), or more. Generally, older
rocks in the Mid-Continent or Appalachian areas of the U.S. drill
slower than younger Gulf Coast rocks, for instance.
The reaction of some formations to water-base mud can slow
drilling. Shale and clay is especially prone to sloughing, swelling,
or forming a sticky mixture. In many cases, the circulating drill-
ing mud has difficulty in cleaning, or removing, this sticky and
sloughing shale or clay from the bottom of the hole. A balled-up
bit or stuck pipe is common in such problem formations. A switch
to expensive oil-base mud may become necessary. Again, the geo-
logical prognosis should warn the contractor of the risks associated
with certain formations.
Figure 73. Drilling The effects of rock hardness, softness, or abrasiveness on the rate
through alternating hard of penetration greatly influences bit selection. Bit design features
and soft zones can produce such as cone offset, bit type (tooth, insert, or PDC), hardfacing,
offset ledges. bearings, etc., must be carefully chosen in order to keep trip and
bit costs to a minimum.
Alternating layers of soft and hard rock can cause the bit to be
deflected from its normal course. It tends to drift and follow the
easiest path, causing changes in the angle of the hole that create
offset ledges (fig. 73). Gauge rounding and shirttail damage are
indicators of offset ledges that require extra care going in or out
of the hole.
Formation dip, a formation’s inclination from horizontal, can
cause the hole to deviate. Areas where dipping formations make
it difficult to drill a vertical hole are often referred to as “crooked
hole country.” Hole deviation in dipping formations can generally
be controlled by use of heavier, stiffer drill collars, stabilizers, and
102
FORMATION PROPERTIES
less weight on the bit. Modern measurement-while-drilling (MWD)

technology allows much closer monitoring of hole deviation than
previously possible.
Where formation dip is less than 45 degrees, the bit will tend
to walk up-dip because the up-dip edge of the bit will bear more
NORMAL SURFACE
LOCATION
2˚
3˚
4˚
Figure 74. In formations

5˚ with dip of less than 45
degrees, the bit tends to
6˚
drift or walk up-dip.
7˚
8˚
9˚
10˚
11˚
12˚
Figure 75. Faster drilling may be achieved if the bit is allowed to

drift into the target area.
103
MAKING HOLE
weight and thus drill faster (fig. 74). The rig location can be planned
to allow the bit to drift steadily up-dip and still hit the target (fig. 75).
In formations where the dip is 45 degrees or more, the bit
will tend to slide (deviate) down the bedding planes because the
rock will fracture more easily along the bed boundaries (fig. 76).
Deviation in dipping beds is a bigger problem in formations with
laminar bedding of alternating hard and soft ledges than it is in
thick, uniform, nonbedded formations.
Figure 76. In formations with dip of 45 degrees or more, the bit

tends to drift (slide) down-dip along bedding planes.
104
FORMATION PROPERTIES
To summarize—
• Nature of formation determines ROP and other aspects of
drilling.
• Generally, porous and permeable formations drill faster
than nonporous, impermeable formations.
• Rock strength increases with depth, so WOB must be in-
creased to overcome strength of deep rocks.
• Generally, older rocks drill slower than younger rocks.
• A formation’s reaction to water-base mud can slow drilling
rate.
• Formation dip can cause crooked holes to be drilled.



105
New Technology



O ngoing research conducted by companies, trade organizations,

and government will impact future drilling operations.
Some current research projects show promise and are likely to be
adopted by the industry within 3 to 5 years. While it is not pos-
sible to predict the results of research efforts, or of some future
scientific breakthrough, certain existing trends can be projected
into the future. For instance, average well depth will increase and
large fluctuations in rig employment will occur. Contractors must
therefore remain adaptable and willing to train their crews to use
new technology as it evolves.
Computers will increasingly influence all industries, includ-
ing the drilling industry. The computer is now a basic tool in the
offshore, in deep drilling, in directional drilling, and in large, mul-
tiwell operations. Integrated computer systems will probably be in
place on all rigs drilling below 10,000 ft, or drilling directional or
horizontal holes, in the near future. These sophisticated information
systems will allow drilling engineers and management to control
rig operations from the office, no matter how remote. Rigs drilling
shallow holes on land and involved in intermittent projects will
likely continue to drill without too much computerized control
because of the cost involved.
Well planning will be improved by increased use of computers.
With a computer it is possible to record and review the drilling
records of thousands of wells in a large basin-size area. Drilling
operations can be grouped into related functions to determine all
the best procedures. The best procedures can then be incorporated
into an optimized drilling program.
107
MAKING HOLE
As improvements are made to downhole motors, turbodrills,

and top drives, their use will increase, possibly replacing standard
rotary drilling offshore and on larger land rigs. Also, the use of
coiled tubing with downhole motors may prove to be a practical
drilling procedure.
Downhole electronics, such as MWD techniques, will continue
to evolve, providing more useful data while drilling proceeds.
Downhole conditions, including rock character, as well as all drilling
variables that affect penetration rate, will be routinely monitored as
the bit is turning. Logging while drilling (LWD) will undoubtedly
improve in capability and increase in use. Directional and hori-
zontal drilling activity will increase because these improvements
in downhole electronics will ultimately lead to reduced costs.
Underbalanced drilling shows promise for improving penetration
rates in certain situations. This approach to drilling depends on
maintaining well control while keeping the hydrostatic pressure
at or below formation pressure. Penetration rates improve under
such conditions because drilling rates increase as mud weights
decrease (see fig. 62). Several industry groups are actively involved
in drilling projects using underbalanced mud systems and the
practice is likely to increase.
Drill bit technology will progress in several ways. Develop-
ments in metallurgy, PDC and TSP bit design, bit bearings, and
automatic drilling technology will extend bit life. Research in disk-
cutter bits holds promise. Disk-cutter bits use technology employed
in large tunnel-boring bits—technology that may be adapted to
smaller rotary drilling bits. Early field trials using single cone bits
for drilling small holes are encouraging. The single cone is much
larger, with heavier cutters and bearings, than the cones in similar
size tricone bits (fig. 77). Given time for additional development,
the single cone bit may become common in slim-hole applications.
Depending on long-term research results, laser or helical bits could
someday replace current designs.
Improvements in drilling fluids, additives, and lost circulation
control, will lead to more drilling in problem areas where potential
has been overlooked in the past. In the future, the well-trained crew,
using the latest developments in drilling technology, will routinely
handle the deep, corrosive, deviation, or high temperature drilling
problems of today.
108
NEW TECHNOLOGY
Figure 77. Single-cone bit for drilling small diameter holes

(Courtesy of RBI-Gearhart)
To summarize—
• Computers will play an increasing role in drilling.
• Use of coiled tubing drilling will likely increase.
• MWD techniques will continue to improve.
• Use of underbalanced drilling to increase ROP will likely
increase.
• Improvements in bit technology will increase bit life.
• Improvements in drilling fluid technology will allow prob-
lem areas to be drilled that could not be drilled in the past.



109
Glossary



abrasion n: wearing away by friction.

A
absolute permeability n: a measure of a single fluid (such as water, gas, or oil)
to flow through a rock formation when the rock is totally filled (saturated) with
the single fluid. The permeability measure of a rock filled with a single fluid is
different from the permeability measure of the same rock filled with two or more
fluids. Compare effective permeability.
absolute porosity n: the percentage of the total bulk volume of a rock sample
that is composed of pore spaces or voids. See porosity.
air drilling n: a method of rotary drilling that uses compressed air as the circulat-
ing medium. The conventional method of removing cuttings from the wellbore
is to use a flow of water or drilling mud. Compressed air removes the cuttings
with equal or greater efficiency. The rate of penetration is usually increased con-
siderably when air drilling is used. However, a principal problem in air drilling
is the penetration of formation containing water, since the entry of water into
the system reduces the ability of the air to remove the cuttings.
annular space n: the space between two concentric circles. In the petroleum
industry, it is usually the space surrounding a pipe in the wellbore, or the space
between tubing and casing, or the space between tubing and the wellbore; some-
times termed the annulus.
annulus n: see annular space.
antiwhirl bit n: a drill bit, usually a polycrystalline diamond bit, that is designed
to prevent the bit’s drilling a spiral-shaped hole because it whirls off-center as
it rotates. See bit whirl.
API gravity n: the measure of the density or gravity of liquid petroleum prod-
ucts in the United States; derived from relative density in accordance with the
following equation:
API gravity at 60°F = [141.5 ÷ relative density 60/60°F] – 131.5
API gravity is expressed in degrees, 10°API being equivalent to 1.0, the specific
gravity of water. See gravity.
ball up v: to collect a mass of sticky consolidated material, usually drill cuttings,

on drill pipe, drill collars, bits, and so forth. A bit with such material attached
B
to it is called a balled-up bit. Balling up is frequently the result of inadequate
pump pressure or insufficient drilling fluid.
111
MAKING HOLE
barite n: barium sulfate, a mineral frequently used to increase the weight or

density of drilling mud. Its specific gravity is 4.2 (i.e., it is 4.2 times denser than
water). See barium sulfate, mud.
barium sulfate n: a chemical compound of barium, sulfur, and oxygen (BaSO4),
which may form a tenacious scale that is very difficult to remove. Also called
barite.
barrel (bbl) n: a measure of volume for petroleum products in the United States.
One barrel is the equivalent of 42 U.S. gallons or 0.15899 cubic metres (9,702 cubic
inches). One cubic metre equals 6.2897 barrels.
baryte n: variation of barite. See barite.
bearing n: 1. an object, surface, or point that supports. 2. a machine part in which
another part (such as a journal or pin) turns or slides.
bent housing n: a special housing for the positive-displacement downhole mud
motor, which is manufactured with a bend of 1˚ to 3˚ to facilitate directional drilling.
bentonite n: a colloidal clay, composed primarily of montmorillonite, that swells
when wet. Because of its gel-forming properties, bentonite is a major component
of water-base drilling muds. See gel, mud.
bent sub n: a short, cylindrical device installed in the drill stem between the bot-
tommost drill collar and a downhole motor. Its purpose is to deflect the downhole
motor off vertical to drill a directional hole. See drill stem.
bhhp abbr: bit hydraulic horsepower.
BHP n: bottomhole pressure.
BHT n: bottomhole temperature.
bit n: the cutting or boring element used in drilling oil and gas wells. The bit
consists of a cutting element and a circulating element. The cutting element is steel
teeth, tungsten carbide buttons, industrial diamonds, or polycrystalline diamond
compacts (PDCs). The circulating element permits the passage of drilling fluid
and utilizes the hydraulic force of the fluid stream to improve drilling rates. In
rotary drilling, several drill collars are joined to the bottom end of the drill pipe
column, and the bit is attached to the end of the drill collars.
bit cone n: on a roller cone bit, a cone-shaped steel device from which the manu-
facturer either mills or forges steel teeth, or into which the manufacturer inserts
tungsten carbide buttons. Most roller cone bits have three cones, which roll, or
rotate, on bearings as the bit rotates. As the cones roll over the formation, the
cutters on the cone scrape or gouge the formation to remove the rock.
bit cutter n: the cutting elements of a bit.
bit hydraulic horsepower n: the measure of hydraulic power expended through
the bit nozzles for cleaning the bit cutters and the hole bottom.
bit program n: a plan for the expected number and types of bits that are to be
used in the drilling of a well. The bit program takes into account all the factors
that affect bit performance so that reliable cost calculations can be made.
bit record n: a report that lists each bit used during a drilling operation, giving the
type, the footage it drilled, the formation it penetrated, its condition, and so on.
112
GLOSSARY
bit whirl n: the motion a bit makes when it does not rotate around its center but
instead drills with a spiral motion. It usually occurs to a bit drilling in a soft or
medium soft formation when the driller does not apply enough weight or does
not rotate the bit fast enough. A whirling bit drills an overgauge hole (a hole
larger than the diameter of the bit) and causes the bit to wear abnormally.
block n: any assembly of pulleys on a common framework; in mechanics, one or
more pulleys, or sheaves, mounted to rotate on a common axis. The crown block
is an assembly of sheaves mounted on beams at the top of the derrick or mast.
The drilling line is reeved over the sheaves of the crown block alternately with
the sheaves of the traveling block, which is hoisted and lowered in the derrick
or mast by the drilling line. When elevators are attached to a hook on a conven-
tional traveling block, and when drill pipe is latched in the elevators, the pipe
can be raised or lowered in the derrick or mast. See crown block, traveling block.
blooey line n: the discharge pipe from a well being drilled by air drilling. The
blooey line is used to conduct the air or gas used for circulation away from the
rig to reduce the fire hazard as well as to transport the cuttings a suitable distance
from the well. See air drilling.
blowout n: an uncontrolled flow of gas, oil, or other well fluids into the atmo-
sphere or into an underground formation. A blowout, or gusher, can occur when
formation pressure exceeds the pressure applied to it by the column of drilling
fluid. See kick.
borehole n: a hole made by drilling or boring; a wellbore.
bottomhole assembly n: the portion of the drilling assembly below the drill pipe.
It can be very simple—composed of only the bit and drill collars—or it can be
very complex and made up of several drilling tools.
bottomhole pressure n: the pressure at the bottom of a borehole. It is caused by the
hydrostatic pressure of the wellbore fluid and, sometimes, by any back-pressure
held at the surface, as when the well is shut in with blowout preventers. When
mud is being circulated, bottomhole pressure is the hydrostatic pressure plus
the remaining circulating pressure required to move the mud up the annulus.
bradding n: a condition in which the weight on a bit tooth has been so great that
the tooth has dulled until its softer inner portion caves over the harder case area.
button bit n: a drilling bit with tungsten carbide inserts on the cones that re-
semble plugs or buttons.
casing n: steel pipe placed in an oil or gas well to prevent the wall of the hole
from caving in, to prevent movement of fluids from one formation to another,
C
and to improve the efficiency of extracting petroleum if the well is productive.
A joint of casing may be 16 to 48 feet (4.8 to 14.6 metres) long and from 4.5 to 20
inches (11.4 to 50.8 centimetres) in diameter. Casing is made of many types of
steel alloy, which vary in strength, corrosion resistance, and so on.
caustic soda n: sodium hydroxide, NaOH. It is used to maintain an alkaline pH
in drilling mud and in petroleum fractions.
caving n: collapsing of the walls of the wellbore. Also called sloughing.
113
MAKING HOLE
cement n: a powder consisting of alumina, silica, lime, and other substances that
hardens when mixed with water. Extensively used in the oil industry to bond
casing to the walls of the wellbore.
chip hold-down effect n: the holding of formation rock chips in place as a result of
high differential pressure in the wellbore (i.e., pressure in the wellbore is greater
than pressure in the formation). This effect limits the cutting action of the bit by
retarding circulation of bit cuttings out of the hole.
circulating pressure n: the pressure generated by the mud pumps and exerted
on the drill stem.
circulation n: the movement of drilling fluid out of the mud pits, down the drill
stem, up the annulus, and back to the mud pits. See normal circulation, reverse
circulation.
clay n: 1. a term used for particles smaller than ¹⁄ millimetre (4 microns) in
size, regardless of mineral composition. 2. a group of hydrous aluminum silicate
minerals (clay minerals). 3. a sediment of fine clastics.
clear water drilling n: drilling operations in which plain water (usually salt
water) is used as the circulating fluid.
closed system n: in circulation, a system in which no drilling fluid is discarded
to a reserve pit. Drilling companies may use closed systems when environmen-
tal regulations do not permit any contaminants to be released. Companies are
also discovering that closed systems can be economical when using expensive
drilling muds.
compression n: the act or process of squeezing a given volume of gas into a
smaller space.
compressive strength n: the degree of resistance of a material to a force acting along
one of its axes in a manner tending to collapse it; expressed in pounds of force per
square inch (psi) of surface affected or in kilopascals of force of surface affected.
compressor n: a device that raises the pressure of a compressible fluid such as air
or gas. Compressors create a pressure differential to move or compress a vapor
or a gas, consuming power in the process. They may be positive-displacement
compressors or nonpositive-displacement compressors.
cone offset n: the amount by which lines drawn through the center of each cone of
a bit fail to meet in the center of the bit. For example, in a roller cone bit with three
cones, three lines can be drawn through the center of each cone and extended to
the center of the bit. If these cone centerlines do not meet in the bit’s center, the
cones are said to be offset. In general, bits designed for drilling soft formations
have more offset than cones for hard formations, because offset affects the angle
at which the bit teeth contact the formation. Since soft formations require a goug-
ing and scraping action by bit teeth, high offset achieves the necessary action.
cone shell n: that part of the cone of a roller cone bit out of which the teeth are
milled or into which tungsten carbide inserts are placed and inside of which the
bearings are housed.
cone skidding n: locking of a cone on a roller cone bit so that it will not turn
when the bit is rotating. Cone skidding results in the flattening of the surface of
the cone in contact with the bottom of the hole.
114
GLOSSARY
control well n: a well previously drilled in an area of drilling interest, the data
from which may be a reliable source of information in the planning of a new well.
corrosion n: any of a variety of complex chemical or electrochemical processes,
e.g., rust, by which metal is destroyed through reaction with its environment.
corrosion-control agent n: a chemical added to drilling fluid to minimize cor-
rosion to the drill stem.
crown block n: an assembly of sheaves mounted on beams at the top of the der-
rick or mast and over which the drilling line is reeved.
cutters n pl: 1. on a bit used on a rotary rig, the elements on the end (and sometimes
the sides) of the bit that scrapes, gouges, or otherwise removes the formation to
make hole. 2. the parts of a reamer that actually contact the wall of the hole and
open it to full gauge. A three-point reamer has three cutters; a six-point reamer
has six cutters. Cutters are available for different formations.
cuttings n pl: the fragments of rock dislodged by the bit and brought to the sur-
face in the drilling mud. Washed and dried cuttings samples are analyzed by
geologists to obtain information about the formations drilled.
daily drilling report n: a record made each day of the operations on a working
drilling rig and, traditionally, phoned or radioed in to the office of the drilling
D
company every morning. Also called morning report.
day rate n: an hourly or daily contract price the operator agrees to pay for use
of rig, crew, and specified equipment. A day rate contract allows the operator
to directly supervise the daily drilling operations.
degasser n: the device used to remove unwanted gas from a liquid, especially
from drilling fluid.
demulsifier n: a chemical with properties that cause the water droplets in a
water-in-oil emulsion to merge and settle out of the oil, or oil droplets in an
oil-in-water emulsion to coalesce, when the chemical is added to the emulsion.
Also called emulsion breaker.
density n: the mass or weight of a substance per unit volume. For instance, the
density of a drilling mud may be 10 pounds per gallon, 74.8 pounds per cubic
foot, or 1,198.2 kilograms per cubic metre. Specific gravity, relative density, and
API gravity are other units of density.
derrickhand n: the crew member who handles the upper end of the drill string
as it is being hoisted out of or lowered into the hole. He or she is also responsible
for the circulating machinery and the conditioning of the drilling fluid.
desander n: a centrifugal device for removing sand from drilling fluid to prevent
abrasion of the pumps. It may be operated mechanically or by a fast-moving
stream of fluid inside a special cone-shaped vessel, in which case it is sometimes
called a hydrocyclone. Compare desilter.
desilter n: a centrifugal device for removing very fine particles, or silt, from drill-
ing fluid to keep the amount of solids in the fluid at the lowest possible point.
Usually, the lower the solids content of mud, the faster is the rate of penetration.
The desilter works on the same principle as a desander. Compare desander.
115
MAKING HOLE
diameter n: the distance across a circle, measured through its center. In the
measurement of pipe diameters, the inside diameter is that of the interior circle
and the outside diameter that of the exterior circle.
diamond bit n: a drill bit that has small industrial diamonds embedded in its
cutting surface. Cutting is performed by the rotation of the very hard diamonds
over the rock surface.
differential pressure n: the difference between two fluid pressures; for example,
the difference between the pressure in a reservoir and in a wellbore drilled in the
reservoir, or between atmospheric pressure at sea level and at 10,000 feet (3,048
metres). Also called pressure differential.
differential sticking n: a condition in which the drill stem becomes stuck against
the wall of the wellbore because part of the drill stem (usually the drill collars)
has become embedded in the filter cake. Necessary conditions for differential-
pressure sticking, or wall sticking, are a permeable formation and a pressure
differential across a nearly impermeable filter cake and drill stem. Also called
wall sticking. See differential pressure, filter cake.
directional drilling n: intentional deviation of a wellbore from the vertical.
Although wellbores are normally drilled vertically, it is sometimes necessary
or advantageous to drill at an angle from the vertical. Controlled directional
drilling makes it possible to reach subsurface areas laterally remote from the
point where the bit enters the earth. It often involves the use of deflection tools.
discharge line n: a line through which drilling mud travels from the mud pump
to the standpipe on its way to the wellbore.
dogleg n: an abrupt change in direction in the wellbore, frequently resulting in
the formation of a keyseat.
downhole adj, adv: pertaining to the wellbore.
downhole motor n: a drilling tool made up in the drill string directly above the
bit. It causes the bit to turn while the drill string remains fixed. It is used most
often as a deflection tool in directional drilling, where it is made up between the
bit and a bent sub (or, sometimes, the housing of the motor itself is bent). Two
principal types of downhole motor are the positive-displacement motor and the
downhole turbine motor. Also called mud motor.
downtime n: 1. time during which rig operations are temporarily suspended
because of repairs or maintenance. 2. time during which a well is off production.
drag bit n: any of a variety of drilling bits that have no moving parts. As they
are rotated on bottom, elements of the bit make hole by being pressed into the
formation and being dragged across it.
drill collar n: a heavy, thick-walled tube, usually steel, used between the drill
pipe and the bit in the drill stem to provide weight on the bit.
driller n: the employee directly in charge of a drilling or workover rig and crew.
The driller’s main duty is operation of the drilling and hoisting equipment, but
this crew member is also responsible for downhole condition of the well, opera-
tion of downhole tools, and pipe measurements.
drill-in fluid n: a drilling fluid specially formulated to minimize formation
damage as the borehole penetrates the producing zone. See formation damage.
116
GLOSSARY
drilling contractor n: an individual or group of individuals who own a drilling

rig and contract their services for drilling wells to a certain depth.
drilling crew n: a driller, a derrickhand, and two or more helpers who operate
a drilling or workover rig for one tour each day.
drilling fluid n: a liquid, air, or natural gas that is circulated through the wellbore
during rotary drilling operations.
drilling mud n: specially compounded liquid circulated through the wellbore
during rotary drilling operations. See drilling fluid, mud.
drilling rate n: the speed with which the bit drills the formation; usually called
the rate of penetration (ROP).
drill-off test n: a method of determining optimum weight on bit and overall bit
performance. A given amount of weight is put on the bit and the drawworks
brake is tied off so that no more weight is applied to the bit as it drills. The time
it takes for the bit to stop drilling ahead with the given amount of weight is mea-
sured. Different weights are applied and the times are compared to determine
which amount is best.
drill pipe n: seamless steel or aluminum pipe made up in the drill stem between
the kelly or top drive on the surface and the drill collars on the bottom. During
drilling, it is usually rotated while drilling fluid is circulated through it. Joints
of pipe about 30 feet long are coupled together by means of tool joints.
drill stem n: all members in the assembly used for rotary drilling from the swivel
to the bit, including the kelly, the drill pipe and tool joints, the drill collars, the
stabilizers, and various specialty items. Compare drill string.
drill string n: the column, or string, of drill pipe with attached tool joints that
transmits fluid and rotational power from the kelly to the drill collars and the
bit. Often, especially in the oil patch, the term is loosely applied to include both
drill pipe and drill collars. Compare drill stem.
effective permeability n: a measure of the ability of a single fluid to flow through

a rock when another fluid is also present in the pore spaces. Compare absolute
E
permeability, relative permeability.
effective porosity n: the percentage of the bulk volume of a rock sample that is
composed of interconnected pore spaces that allow the passage of fluids through
the sample. See porosity.
efficiency n: the ratio of useful energy produced by an engine to the energy put
into it.
electric well log n: a record of certain electrical characteristics (such as resistivity
and conductivity) of formations traversed by the borehole. It is made to identify
the formations, determine the nature and amount of fluids they contain, and
estimate their depth. Also called an electric log or electric survey.
emulsifier n: a material that causes water and oil to form an emulsion. Water
normally occurs separately from oil; if, however, an emulsifying agent is pres-
ent, the water becomes dispersed in the oil as tiny droplets. Or, rarely, the oil
may be dispersed in the water. In either case, the emulsion must be treated to
separate the water and the oil.
117
MAKING HOLE
emulsion n: a mixture in which one liquid, termed the dispersed phase, is uniformly
distributed (usually as minute globules) in another liquid, called the continuous phase
or dispersion medium. In an oil-in-water emulsion, the oil is the dispersed phase
and the water the dispersion medium; in a water-in-oil emulsion, the reverse holds.
explosion-proof motor n: a motor with an enclosure designed to contain an
internal explosion and to prevent ignition of surrounding gases or vapors by
sparks that may occur in the motor.
F fatigue n: the tendency of material such as a metal to break under repeated cyclic
loading at a stress considerably less than the tensile strength shown in a static test.
filter n: a porous medium through which a fluid is passed to separate particles
of suspended solids from it.
filter cake n: 1. compacted solid or semisolid material remaining on a filter after
pressure filtration of mud with a standard filter press. Thickness of the cake is
reported in thirty-seconds of an inch or in millimetres. 2. the layer of concentrated
solids from the drilling mud or cement slurry that forms on the walls of the borehole
opposite permeable formations; also called wall cake or mud cake.
filtration loss n: the escape of the liquid part of a drilling mud into permeable
formations.
fishtail bit n: a drilling bit with cutting edges of hard alloys. Developed about
1900, and first used with the rotary system of drilling, it is still useful in drilling
very soft formations. Also called a drag bit.
flare v: to dispose of surplus combustible vapors by burning them in the atmo-
sphere.
flocculation n: the coagulation of solids in a drilling fluid, produced by special
additives or by contaminants.
fluid loss n: the unwanted migration of the liquid part of the drilling mud or
cement slurry into a formation, often minimized or prevented by the blending
of additives with the mud or cement.
foam n: a two-phase system, similar to an emulsion, in which the dispersed
phase is a gas or air.
foaming agent n: a chemical used to lighten the water column in gas wells, in
oilwells producing gas, and in drilling wells in which air or gas is used as the
drilling fluid so that the water can be forced out with the air or gas to prevent
its impeding the production or drilling rate. See mist drilling.
footage rate n: a footage rate contract specifies a price per foot the operator will
pay the contractor for drilling a hole to an agreed depth. The size, deviation lim-
its, and other specifications are set out in the contract. The contractor normally
supervises drilling operations except when the operator temporarily takes over
operations on a day rate basis.
formation n: a bed or deposit composed throughout of substantially the same
kind of rock; often a lithologic unit. Each formation is given a name, frequently
as a result of the study of the formation outcrop at the surface and sometimes
based on fossils found in the formation.
118
GLOSSARY
formation damage n: the reduction of permeability in a reservoir rock caused

by the invasion of drilling fluid and treating fluids to the section adjacent to the
wellbore. It is often called skin damage.
formation fluid n: fluid (such as gas, oil, or water) that exists in a subsurface
rock formation.
formation pressure n: the force exerted by fluids in a formation, recorded in
the hole at the level of the formation with the well shut in. Also called reservoir
pressure or shut-in bottomhole pressure.
friction n: resistance to movement created when two surfaces are in contact.
When friction is present, movement between the surfaces produces heat.
friction loss n: a reduction in the pressure of a fluid caused by its motion against
an enclosed surface (such as a pipe). As the fluid moves through the pipe, friction
between the fluid and the pipe wall and within the fluid itself creates a pressure
loss. The faster the fluid moves, the greater are the losses.
galling adj: the result of the sticking or adhesion of two mating surfaces of metal,
not protected by a film of lubricant, and tearing due to lateral displacement.
G
gas n: a compressible fluid that completely fills any container in which it is
confined. Technically, a gas will not condense when it is compressed and cooled,
because a gas can exist only above the critical temperature for its particular com-
position. Below the critical temperature, this form of matter is known as a vapor,
because liquid can exist and condensation can occur. Sometimes the terms “gas”
and “vapor” are used interchangeably. The latter, however, should be used for
those streams in which condensation can occur and that originate from, or are
in equilibrium with, a liquid phase.
gauge n: 1. the diameter of a bit or the hole drilled by the bit. 2. a device (such as
a pressure gauge) used to measure some physical property. v: to measure size,
volume, depth, or other measurable property.
gauge cutters n pl: the teeth or tungsten carbide inserts in the outermost row
on the cones of a bit, so called because they cut the outside edge of the hole and
determine the hole’s gauge or size. Also called heel teeth.
gel n: a semisolid, jellylike state assumed by some colloidal dispersions at rest.
When agitated, the gel converts to a fluid state. Also a nickname for bentonite.
v: to take the form of a gel; to set.
gel strength n: a measure of the ability of a colloidal dispersion to develop and
retain a gel form, based on its resistance to shear. The gel, or shear, strength of a
drilling mud determines its ability to hold solids in suspension. Sometimes benton-
ite and other colloidal clays are added to drilling fluid to increase its gel strength.
geological correlation n: the relating of subsurface information obtained from
one well to that of others.
Geolograph™ n: trade name for a patented device that automatically records
the rate of penetration and depth during drilling.
gpm abbr: 1. gallons per minute when referring to rate of flow. 2. gallons per
thousand cubic feet when referring to natural gas in terms of chromatograph
analysis or theoretical gallons.
119
MAKING HOLE
gravity n: 1. the attraction exerted by the earth’s mass on objects at its surface. 2.
the weight of a body. See API gravity, relative density, specific gravity.
H hammer drill n: a drilling tool that, when placed in the drill stem just above
a roller cone bit, delivers high-frequency percussion blows to the rotating bit.
Hammer drilling combines the basic features of rotary and cable-tool drilling
(i.e., bit rotation and percussion).
hardfacing n: an extremely hard material, usually crushed tungsten carbide, that is
applied to the outside surfaces of tool joints, drill collars, stabilizers, and other rotary
drilling tools to minimize wear when they are in contact with the wall of the hole.
hazardous materials (HAZMAT) n pl: (DOT) substances or materials in quanti-
ties or forms that may pose an unreasonable risk to health, safety, or property
when stored, transported, or used in commerce.
hhp abbr: hydraulic horsepower.
hold-down pressure n: hydrostatic pressure developed by the weight of the
drilling fluid exerted on the bottom of the hole that tends to prevent cuttings
from moving up the annulus.
horizontal drilling n: deviation of the borehole at least 80° from vertical so that
the borehole penetrates a productive formation in a manner parallel to the for-
mation. A single horizontal hole can effectively drain a reservoir and eliminate
the need for several vertical boreholes.
horsepower n: a unit of measure of work done by a machine. One horsepower
equals 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. (Kilowatts are used to measure power in
the international, or SI, system of measurement.)
hydraulic adj: 1. of or relating to water or other liquid in motion. 2. operated,
moved, or effected by water or liquid.
hydraulic horsepower n: a measure of the power of a fluid under pressure.
hydrostatic pressure n: the force exerted by a body of fluid at rest. It increases
directly with the density and the depth of the fluid and is expressed in pounds
per square inch or kilopascals. The hydrostatic pressure of fresh water is 0.433
pounds per square inch per foot (9.792 kilopascals per metre) of depth. In drilling,
the term refers to the pressure exerted by the drilling fluid in the wellbore. In a
water drive field, the term refers to the pressure that may furnish the primary
energy for production.
I impermeable adj: preventing the passage of fluid. A formation may be porous

yet impermeable if there is an absence of connecting passages between the voids
within it. See permeability.
in. abbr: inch.
insert n: a cylindrical object, rounded, blunt, or chisel-shaped on one end and
usually made of tungsten carbide, that is inserted in the cones of a bit, the cutters
of a reamer, or the blades of a stabilizer to form the cutting element of the bit or
the reamer or the wear surface of the stabilizer. Also called a compact.
120
GLOSSARY
insert bit n: see tungsten carbide bit.

invert-emulsion mud n: an oil mud in which fresh or salt water is the dispersed
phase and diesel, crude, or some other oil is the continuous phase. See oil mud.
jet bit n: a drilling bit having replaceable nozzles through which the drilling
fluid is directed in a high-velocity stream to the bottom of the hole to improve
J
the efficiency of the bit.
junk n: metal debris lost in the hole. Junk may be a lost bit, pieces of a bit, milled
pieces of pipe, wrenches, or any relatively small object that impedes drilling and
must be fished out of the hole.
kelly n: the heavy steel tubular device, four- or six-sided, suspended from the
swivel through the rotary table and connected to the top joint of drill pipe to turn
K
the drill stem as the rotary table turns. It has a bored passageway that permits
fluid to be circulated into the drill stem and up the annulus, or vice versa. Kellys
manufactured to API specifications are available only in four- or six-sided ver-
sions, are either 40 or 54 feet (12 to 16 metres) long, and have diameters as small
as 2½ inches (6 centimetres) and as large as 6 inches (15 centimetres).
keyseat n: an undergauge channel or groove cut in the side of the borehole and
parallel to the axis of the hole. A keyseat results from the rotation of pipe on a
sharp bend in the hole.
kick n: an entry of water, gas, oil, or other formation fluid into the wellbore
during drilling. It occurs because the pressure exerted by the column of drilling
fluid is not great enough to overcome the pressure exerted by the fluids in the
formation drilled. If prompt action is not taken to control the kick, or kill the
well, a blowout may occur.
lb abbr: pound. L
lb/ft3 abbr: pounds per cubic foot.
lignins n pl: naturally occurring special lignites, e.g., leonardite, that are pro-
duced by strip mining from special lignite deposits. Used primarily as thinners
and emulsifiers.
lignosulfonate n: an organic drilling fluid additive derived from by-products of
a papermaking process using sulfite. It minimizes fluid loss and reduces mud
viscosity.
lime n: a caustic solid that consists primarily of calcium oxide (CaO). Many forms
of CaO are called lime, including the various chemical and physical forms of
quicklime, hydrated lime, and even calcium carbonate. Limestone is sometimes
called lime.
lime mud n: 1. a calcite-rich sediment that may give rise to shaly limestone. 2. a drill-
ing mud that is treated with lime to provide a source of soluble calcium in the filtrate
to obtain desirable mud properties for drilling in shale or clay formations.
121
MAKING HOLE
limestone n: a sedimentary rock rich in calcium carbonate that sometimes serves

as a reservoir rock for petroleum.
liquid n: a state of matter in which the shape of the given mass depends on the
containing vessel, but the volume of the mass is independent of the vessel. A
liquid is a fluid that is almost incompressible.
liquid phase n: in drilling fluids, that part of the fluid that is liquid. Normally,
the liquid phase of a drilling fluid is water, oil, or a combination of water and oil.
litre (L) n: a unit of metric measure of capacity equal to the volume occupied by 1
kilogram of water at 4˚C and at the standard atmospheric pressure of 760 millimetres.
logging while drilling (LWD) n: logging measurements obtained by measurement-
while-drilling techniques as the well is being drilled.
lost circulation n: the quantities of whole mud lost to a formation, usually in
cavernous, fissured, or coarsely permeable beds. Evidenced by the complete
or partial failure of the mud to return to the surface as it is being circulated in
the hole. Lost circulation can lead to a blowout and, in general, can reduce the
efficiency of the drilling operation. Also called lost returns.
lost circulation additives n pl: materials added to the mud in varying amounts
to control or prevent lost circulation. Classified as fiber, flake, or granular.
lost circulation material (LCM) n: a substance added to cement slurries or
drilling mud to prevent the loss of cement or mud to the formation. See lost
circulation additives.
low clay-solids mud n: a drilling mud that contains a minimum amount of solid
materials that is used in rotary drilling when possible because it can provide
fast drilling rates.
low-solids mud n: a drilling mud that contains a minimum amount of solid
material and that is used in rotary drilling when possible because it can provide
fast drilling rates.
LWD abbr: logging while drilling. Downhole electronic instruments transmit
data to the surface. Rock type, density, and other information is displayed at the
surface while drilling is in progress.
M m sym: metre.
m2 abbr: square metre.
m3 abbr: cubic metre.
make a trip v: to hoist the drill stem out of the wellbore to perform one of a
number of operations, such as changing bits or taking a core, and so forth, and
then to return the drill stem to the wellbore.
make hole v: to deepen the hole made by the bit, i.e., to drill ahead.
marl n: a semisolid or unconsolidated clay, silt, or sand.
matrix n: 1. in rock, the fine-grained material between larger grains in which the
larger grains are embedded. A rock matrix may be composed of fine sediments,
crystals, clay, or other substances. 2. the material in which the diamonds on a
diamond bit are set.
122
GLOSSARY
measurement while drilling (MWD) n: 1. directional and other surveying dur-

ing routine drilling operations to determine the angle and direction by which
the wellbore deviates from the vertical. 2. any system of measuring downhole
conditions during routine drilling operations.
megapascal n: one million pascals.
metre (m) n: the fundamental unit of length in the international system of
measurement (SI). It is equal to about 3.28 feet, 39.37 inches, or 100 centimetres.
mist drilling n: a drilling technique that uses air or gas to which a foaming agent
has been added. Also called foam drilling.
mix mud v: to prepare drilling fluids from a mixture of water or other liquids
and any one or more of the various dry mud-making materials (such as clay,
weighting materials, and chemicals).
mud n: the liquid circulated through the wellbore during rotary drilling and
workover operations. Although it was originally a suspension of earth solids
(especially clays) in water, the mud used in modern drilling operations is a more
complex, three-phase mixture of liquids, reactive solids, and nonreactive solids.
The liquid phase may be fresh water, diesel oil, or crude oil and may contain one
or more conditioners. See drilling fluid, drilling mud.
mud additive n: any material added to drilling fluid to change some of its char-
acteristics or properties.
mud column n: the borehole when it is filled or partially filled with drilling mud.
mud conditioning n: the treatment and control of drilling mud to ensure that
it has the correct properties. Conditioning may include the use of additives, the
removal of sand or other solids, the removal of gas, the addition of water, and
other measures to prepare the mud for conditions encountered in a specific well.
mud engineer n: an employee of a drilling fluid supply company whose duty it is
to test and maintain the drilling mud properties that are specified by the operator.
mud logging n: the recording of information derived from examination and analy-
sis of formation cuttings made by the bit and of mud circulated out of the hole. A
portion of the mud is diverted through a gas-detecting device. Cuttings brought
up by the mud are examined under ultraviolet light to detect the presence of oil
or gas. Mud logging is often carried out in a portable laboratory set up at the well.
mud program n: a plan or procedure, with respect to depth, for the type and
properties of drilling fluid to be used in drilling a well. Some factors that influence
the mud program are the casing program and such formation characteristics as
type, competence, solubility, temperature, and pressure.
mud report n: a special form that is filled out by the mud engineer to record the
properties of the drilling mud used while a well is being drilled.
mud solids n pl: the solid components of drilling mud. They may be added
intentionally (e.g., barite), or they may be introduced into the mud from the
formation as the bit drills ahead. The term is usually used to refer to the latter.
mud weight n: a measure of the density of a drilling fluid expressed as pounds
per gallon, pounds per cubic foot, or kilograms per cubic metre. Mud weight is
directly related to the amount of pressure the column of drilling mud exerts at
the bottom of the hole.
123
MAKING HOLE
MWD abbr: measurement while drilling. Sensors transmit data through an in-
tegrated rig-site computer system that allows monitoring and control of many
drilling variables while drilling is in progress. Among the variables observed
are pit volume, pump strokes, depth, hook load, torque, pressures, direction,
and other critical data.
N natural clays n pl: clays that are encountered when drilling various formations;
they may or may not be incorporated purposely into the mud system.
natural mud n: a drilling fluid containing essentially clay and water; no special
or expensive chemicals or conditioners are added. Also called conventional mud.
nonreactive phase n: that part of a liquid drilling mud that consists of solids or
other chemicals that do not react with the liquid (or other chemicals in the liquid)
part of the mud. Barite, for example, is nonreactive.
normal circulation n: the smooth, uninterrupted circulation of drilling fluid
down the drill stem, out the bit, up the annular space between the pipe and the
hole, and back to the surface. Compare reverse circulation.
nozzle n: a passageway through jet bits that causes the drilling fluid to be ejected
from the bit at high velocity. The jets of mud clear the bottom of the hole. Nozzles
come in different sizes that can be interchanged on the bit to adjust the velocity
with which the mud exits the bit.
O offset n: see cone offset.

oil-base mud n: a drilling or workover fluid in which oil is the continuous phase
and which contains from less than 2 percent and up to 5 percent water. This
water is spread out, or dispersed, in the oil as small droplets. See invert emulsion
mud, oil mud.
oil-emulsion mud n: a water-base mud in which water is the continuous phase
and oil is the dispersed phase. The oil is spread out, or dispersed, in the water in
small droplets, which are tightly emulsified so that they do not settle out. Because
of its lubricating abilities, an oil-emulsion mud increases the drilling rate and
ensures better hole conditions than other muds. Compare oil mud.
oil mud n: a drilling mud, e.g., oil-base mud and invert-emulsion mud, in which
oil is the continuous phase. It is useful in drilling certain formations that may
be difficult or costly to drill with water-base mud. Compare oil-emulsion mud.
operator n: the person or company, either proprietor or lessee, actually operating
an oilwell or lease, generally the oil company that engages the drilling contractor.
optimization n: the manner of planning and drilling a well so that the most us-
able hole will be drilled for the least money.
overbalanced drilling n: drilling in which the hydrostatic pressure of the mud
column exceeds formation pressure.
overburden n: the strata of rock that overlie the stratum of interest in drilling.
124
GLOSSARY
pcf abbr: pounds per cubic foot.

P
PDC abbr: polycrystalline diamond compact.
PDC bit n: a special type of diamond drilling bit that does not use roller cones.
Instead, polycrystalline diamond inserts are embedded into a matrix on the bit.
PDC bits are often used to drill very hard, abrasive formations, but also find use
in drilling medium and soft formations.
permeability n: 1. a measure of the ease with which a fluid flows through the
connecting pore spaces of rock or cement. The unit of measurement is the milli-
darcy. 2. fluid conductivity of a porous medium. 3. ability of a fluid to flow within
the interconnected pore network of a porous medium. See absolute permeability,
effective permeability, relative permeability.
pH abbr: an indicator of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance or solution, rep-
resented on a scale of 0–14, 0–6.9 being acidic, 7 being neither acidic nor basic
(i.e., neutral), and 7.1–14 being basic. These values are based on hydrogen ion
content and activity.
phase n: a portion of a physical system that is liquid, gas, or solid, that is ho-
mogeneous throughout, that has definite boundaries, and that can be separated
from other phases. The three phases of drilling mud are the liquid or continuous
phase, the reactive or colloidal phase, and the nonreactive phase.
pH control agent n: a chemical added to the drilling fluid to control or increase
the pH of the mud. Normally, the mud should have a pH higher than seven so
that it is alkaline.
pit level n: height of drilling mud in the mud tanks, or pits.
pit-level indicator n: one of a series of devices that continuously monitor the
level of the drilling mud in the mud tanks. The indicator usually consists of
float devices in the mud tanks that sense the mud level and transmit data to a
recording and alarm device (a pit-volume recorder) mounted near the driller’s
position on the rig floor. If the mud level drops too low or rises too high, the
alarm sounds to warn the driller of lost circulation or a kick.
polymer n: a substance that consists of large molecules formed from smaller
molecules in repeating structural units (monomers). In oilfield operations, vari-
ous types of polymers are used to thicken drilling mud, fracturing fluid, acid,
water, and other liquids. See polymer mud.
polymer mud n: a drilling mud to which a polymer has been added to increase
the viscosity of the mud.
pore n: an opening or space within a rock or mass of rocks, usually small and
often filled with some fluid (water, oil, gas, or all three). Compare vug.
porosity n: 1. the condition of being porous (such as a rock formation). 2. the ratio
of the volume of empty space to the volume of solid rock in a formation, indicat-
ing how much fluid a rock can hold. See absolute porosity, effective porosity, pore.
porous adj: having pores, or tiny openings, as in rock.
pounds per cubic foot n: a measure of the density of a substance (such as drill-
ing fluid).
pounds per gallon (ppg) n: a measure of the density of a fluid (such as drilling
mud).
125
MAKING HOLE
ppg abbr: pounds per gallon.

pressure n: the force that a fluid (liquid or gas) exerts uniformly in all directions
within a vessel, pipe, hole in the ground, and so forth, such as that exerted against
the inner wall of a tank or that exerted on the bottom of the wellbore by a fluid.
Pressure is expressed in terms of force exerted per unit of area, as pounds per
square inch, or in kilopascals.
pressure gradient n: 1. a scale of pressure differences in which there is a uniform
variation of pressure from point to point. For example, the pressure gradient of a
column of water is about 0.433 pounds per square inch per foot (9.794 kilopascals
per metre) of vertical elevation. The normal pressure gradient in a formation is
equivalent to the pressure exerted at any given depth by a column of 10 percent
salt water extending from that depth to the surface (0.465 pounds per square
inch per foot, or 10.518 kilopascals per metre). 2. the change (along a horizontal
distance) in atmospheric pressure. Isobars drawn on weather maps display the
pressure gradient.
pressure loss n: the drilling fluid’s loss of hydraulic pressure after it leaves the
pump. Some pressure is lost due to friction, but the main loss occurs when the
fluid leaves the bit nozzles. See friction loss.
pressure surge n: a sudden and usually short-duration increase in pressure.
When pipe or casing is run into a hole too rapidly, an increase in the hydrostatic
pressure results, which may be great enough to create lost circulation.
psi abbr: pounds per square inch.
pump n: a device that increases the pressure on a fluid. Types of pumps used in
the circulating system include the mud pump (a reciprocating pump), centrifugal
pumps, and the downhole pump.
pump liner n: a cylindrical, accurately machined, metallic section that forms the
working barrel of some reciprocating pumps. Liners are an inexpensive means
of replacing worn cylinder surfaces, and in some pumps they provide a method
of conveniently changing the displacement and capacity of the pumps.
pump stroke indicator n: an instrument that measures pump speed by counting
the number of strokes per minute. Also called pump stroke counter.
R rate of penetration (ROP) n: the speed with which the bit drills the formation.
relative density n: 1. the ratio of the weight of a given volume of a substance at
a given temperature to the weight of an equal volume of a standard substance at
the same temperature. For example, if 1 cubic inch of water at 39˚F (3.9˚C) weighs
1 unit and 1 cubic inch of another solid or liquid at 39˚F weighs 0.95 unit, then
the relative density of the substance is 0.95. In determining the relative density
of gases, the comparison is made with the standard of air or hydrogen. 2. the
ratio of the mass of a given volume of a substance to the mass of a like volume
of a standard substance, such as water or air.
relative permeability n: the ratio of effective permeability to absolute perme-
ability. The relative permeability of rock to a single fluid is 1.0 when only that
fluid is present, and 0.0 when the presence of another fluid prevents all flow of
the given fluid. Compare absolute permeability, effective permeability.
126
GLOSSARY
reverse circulation n: the course of drilling fluid downward through the an-
nulus and upward through the drill stem, in contrast to normal circulation in
which the course is downward through the drill stem and upward through the
annulus. Seldom used in open hole, but frequently used in workover operations.
Also referred to as “circulating the short way,” since returns from bottom can be
obtained more quickly than in normal circulation. Compare normal circulation.
rock bit n: see roller cone bit.
roller cone bit n: a drilling bit made of two, three, or four cones, or cutters, that
are mounted on extremely rugged bearings. The surface of each cone is made
of rows of steel teeth or rows of tungsten carbide inserts. Also called rock bit.
ROP abbr: rate of penetration.
rotary n: the machine used to impart rotational power to the drill stem while per-
mitting vertical movement of the pipe for rotary drilling. Modern rotary machines
have a special component, the rotary or master bushing, to turn the kelly bushing,
which permits vertical movement of the kelly while the stem is turning.
rotary hose n: a steel-reinforced, flexible hose that is installed between the stand-
pipe and the swivel or top drive. It conducts drilling mud from the standpipe to
the swivel or top drive. Also called the kelly hose or the mud hose.
rotary speed n: the speed, measured in revolutions per minute, at which the
rotary table is operated.
rotary table n: the principal piece of equipment in the rotary table assembly; a
turning device used to impart rotational power to the drill stem while permit-
ting vertical movement of the pipe for rotary drilling. The master bushing fits
inside the opening of the rotary table; it turns the kelly bushing, which permits
vertical movement of the kelly while the stem is turning.
rotating head n: a sealing device used to close off the annular space around
the kelly in drilling with pressure at the surface, usually installed above the
main blowout preventers. A rotating head makes it possible to drill ahead even
when there is pressure in the annulus that the weight of the drilling fluid is not
overcoming; the head prevents the well from blowing out. It is used mainly in
the drilling of formations that have low permeability. The rate of penetration
through such formations is usually rapid.
rotor n: 1. a device with vanelike blades attached to a shaft. The device turns
or rotates when the vanes are struck by a fluid directed there by a stator. 2. the
rotating part of an induction-type alternating current electric motor.
rpm abbr: revolutions per minute.
sandstone n: a sedimentary rock composed of individual mineral grains of rock

fragments between 0.06 and 2 millimetres (0.002 and 0.078 inches) in diameter
S
and cemented together by silica, calcite, iron oxide, and so forth. Sandstone is
commonly porous and permeable and therefore a likely type of rock in which
to find a petroleum reservoir.
shale n: a fine-grained sedimentary rock composed mostly of consolidated clay
or mud. Shale is the most frequently occurring sedimentary rock.
127
MAKING HOLE
shear n: action or stress that results from applied forces and that causes or tends
to cause two adjoining portions of a substance or body to slide relative to each
other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact.
silicon tetrafluoride n: a gas that can be readily absorbed by water and that is
used to seal off water-bearing formations in air drilling.
slack off v: to lower a load or ease up on a line. A driller will slack off on the
brake to put additional weight on the bit.
sloughing (pronounced “sluffing”) n: see caving.
sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) n: a thinner used in combination with barite,
caustic soda, and fresh water to form a plug and seal off a zone of lost circulation.
sodium carbonate n: Na2CO3, used extensively for treating various types of
calcium contamination. Also called soda ash.
sodium hydroxide n: see caustic soda.
specific gravity n: the ratio of the density, or weight, of a substance to the density
of a reference substance. For liquids and solids, the reference substance is water.
spot v: to pump a designated quantity of a substance (such as acid or cement)
into a specific interval in the well. For example, 10 barrels (1,590 litres) of diesel
oil may be spotted around an area in the hole in which drill collars are stuck
against the wall of the hole in an effort to free the collars.
spurt loss n: the initial loss of drilling mud solids by filtration, making forma-
tions easier to drill. See filtration loss, surge loss.
sq abbr: square.
standpipe n: a vertical pipe rising along the side of the derrick or mast, which
joins the discharge line leading from the mud pump to the rotary hose and
through which mud is pumped into the hole.
stator n: the long helical shaft in a downhole motor that rotates as mud is forced
down through the power section of the motor. Also referred to as a rotor.
steel-tooth bit n: a roller cone bit in which the surface of each cone is made up
of rows of steel teeth. Also called a milled-tooth bit or milled bit.
strata n pl: distinct, usually parallel, and originally horizontal beds of rock. An
individual bed is a stratum.
stringer n: 1. an extra support placed under the middle of racked pipe to keep
the pipe from sagging. 2. a relatively narrow splinter of a rock formation that is
stratigraphically disjointed, interrupts the consistency of another formation, and
makes drilling that formation less predictable. A shale formation, for example,
may be broken by a stringer of sandstone.
surfactant n: a soluble compound that concentrates on the surface boundary
between two substances such as oil and water and reduces the surface tension
between the substances. The use of surfactants permits the thorough surface
contact or mixing of substances that ordinarily remain separate. Surfactants are
used in the petroleum industry as additives to drilling mud and to water during
chemical flooding.
surge loss n: the flux of fluids and solids that occurs in the initial stages of any
filtration before pore openings are bridged and a filter cake is formed. Also
called spurt loss.
128
GLOSSARY
suspension n: a mixture of small nonsettling particles of solid material within

a gaseous or liquid medium.
swivel n: a rotary tool that is hung from the hook and the traveling block to sus-
pend and permit free rotation of the drill stem. It also provides a connection for
the rotary hose and a passageway for the flow of drilling fluid into the drill stem.
thinning agent n: a special chemical or combination of chemicals that, when

added to a drilling mud, reduces its viscosity.
T
top drive n: a device similar to a power swivel that is used in place of the rotary
table to turn the drill stem. It also includes power tongs. Modern top drives
combine the elevator, the tongs, the swivel, and the hook. Even though the
rotary table assembly is not used to rotate the drill stem and bit, the top-drive
system retains it to provide a place to set the slips to suspend the drill stem
when drilling stops.
torque n: the turning force that is applied to a shaft or other rotary mechanism
to cause it to rotate or tend to do so. Torque is measured in foot-pounds, joules,
newton-metres, and so forth.
toxicity n: the ability of a substance to be poisonous if inhaled, swallowed, ab-
sorbed, or introduced into the body through cuts or breaks in the skin.
traveling block n: an arrangement of pulleys, or sheaves, through which drilling
line is reeved and which moves up and down in the derrick or mast. See block.
tricone bit n: a type of bit in which three cone-shaped cutting devices are mounted
in such a way that they intermesh and rotate together as the bit drills. The bit body
may be fitted with nozzles, or jets, through which the drilling fluid is discharged.
tripping n: the operation of hoisting the drill stem out of and returning it to the
wellbore. See make a trip.
trip tank indicator n: a device installed on a trip tank that shows the amount of
mud being removed from or added to the trip tank.
tungsten carbide bit n: a type of roller cone bit with inserts made of tungsten
carbide. Also called tungsten carbide insert bit.
twistoff n: a complete break in pipe caused by metal fatigue.
twist off v: to break something in two or to break apart, such as the head of a
bolt or the drill stem.
unconsolidated formation n: a loosely arranged, apparently unstratified section

of rock.
U
underbalanced drilling v: to carry on drilling operations with a mud whose
density is such that it exerts less pressure on bottom than the pressure in the
formation while maintaining a seal (usually with a rotating head) to prevent the
well fluids from blowing out under the rig. Drilling under pressure is advanta-
geous in that the rate of penetration is relatively fast; however, the technique
requires extreme caution.
undergauge hole n: that portion of a borehole drilled with an undergauge bit.
129
MAKING HOLE
V viscosity n: a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow. Resistance is brought

about by the internal friction resulting from the combined effects of cohesion
and adhesion. The viscosity of petroleum products is commonly expressed in
terms of the time required for a specific volume of the liquid to flow through a
capillary tube of a specific size at a given temperature.
viscous adj: having a high resistance to flow.
vug n: 1. a cavity in a rock. 2. a small cavern, larger than a pore but too small to
contain a person. Typically found in limestone subject to groundwater leaching.
W wall-building ability n: the ability of a drilling mud to plaster the wall of the
hole with solids from the drilling mud.
wall cake n: also called filter cake or mud cake. See filter cake.
water-base mud n: a drilling mud in which the continuous phase is water. In
water-base muds, any additives are dispersed in the water. Compare oil-base mud.
watercourse n: a hole inside a bit through which drilling fluid from the drill
stem is directed.
weighting material n: a material that has a high specific gravity and is used to
increase the density of drilling fluids or cement slurries.
wellbore n: a borehole; the hole drilled by the bit. A wellbore may have casing
in it or it may be open (uncased); or part of it may be cased, and part of it may
be open. Also called a borehole or hole.
wildcat n: 1. a well drilled in an area where no oil or gas production exists.
2. (nautical) the geared sheave of a windlass used to pull anchor chain. v: to
drill wildcat wells.
130
Review Questions
LESSONS IN ROTARY DRILLING
Unit II, Lesson 1: Making Hole
Multiple Choice
Pick the best answer from the choices and place the letter of that answer in the blank provided.
�� 1. You are drilling a deep well in West Texas. The wellbore will likely en
counter—
a. shallow tar sands.
b. overpressured gas zones.
c. petrified wood.
d. gumbo.
�� 2. On a particular well, the bit cost $5,200 and, while rotating on bottom for
74 hours, it drilled 615 ft. The crew then pulled the bit and ran a new one
back to bottom in 8.5 hours. The rig costs are $325 per hour. Therefore, the
cost per ft (m) to drill this portion of the hole is about—
a. $48 ($154).
b. $52 ($171).
c. $74 ($243).
d. $104 ($341).
�� 3. Optimized drilling is—
a. drilling a well safely, no matter what it costs.
b. drilling a well as cheaply as possible without regard to any factor
besides costs.
c. drilling a well as quickly as possible, because the faster the well is
drilled, the cheaper it is.
d. drilling a well as cheaply as possible while taking into account the
safety of people, property, and the environment.
�� 4. Good well planning can reduce costs; however—
a. the last wells drilled in an area usually cost less than the first wells.
b. the first wells drilled in an area usually cost less than the last wells.
c. the first and last wells drilled in an area usually cost about the same.
d. costs are not important when it comes to drilling a well.
�� 5. When selecting a rig to drill a particular well, factors include—
a. depth rating.
b. hoisting capacity.
c. pump size and how many.
d. all of the above
131
MAKING HOLE
True or False
Put a T for true or an F for false in the blank next to each statement.
�� 6. In general, the most important consideration affecting bit design is the type
of rock the bit will be drilling.
�� 7. The only two types of bit are rock bits and roller cone bits.
�� 8. Three materials used to manufacture bits are steel, tungsten carbide alloy,
and diamonds, either natural or synthetic.
�� 9. A bit designed to drill soft formations usually does not have much offset.
�� 10. In general, steel-tooth bits designed to drill hard formations have closely
spaced, short teeth.
�� 11. Generally, insert bits are less expensive than steel-tooth bits.
�� 12. Fixed-head bits have no moving parts.
�� 13. The synthetic diamonds used in PDC bits are more stable than natural
diamonds.
�� 14. Thermally stable polycrystalline (TSP) bits are less stable than PDCs.
�� 15. A hybrid bit combines a roller-cone bit with a tungsten carbide insert
bit.____________________________________________________________
Multiple Choice
�� 16. Common reasons for pulling a bit include—
a. increase in torque.
b. junk in the hole.
c. decrease in penetration rate.
d. all of the above
�� 17. Dull roller cone bits are graded on the basis of—
a. cutter wear.
b. bearing wear.
c. gauge wear.
d. all of the above
�� 18. Causes of broken inserts include—
a. inserts too long for hard formation drilling.
b. junk in the hole.
c. excessive weight on bit.
d. all of the above
132
REVIEW QUESTIONS
�� 19. Drilling performance records include—

a. bit records.
b. daily drilling reports.
c. both a and b
c. neither a nor b
�� 20. If the right bit has been selected and bit hydraulics are good, the driller
can usually increase the rate of penetration by—
a. decreasing weight on bit and increasing pump speed.
b. increasing weight on bit and rotary speed (rpm).
c. decreasing weight on bit and rotary speed (rpm).
d. increasing weight on bit and decreasing rotary speed (rpm).
Fill in the Blanks

Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word or phrase. Pick the correct term from those listed
below.
weight on bit failure

bent sub bit life
decreased pump capacity
compressive strength of rock breakage
friction number of reusable bits
In general, as weight on bit is increased, rotary speed (rpm) should be 21._______________.

Soft formation bits are usually run with lower 22. ______ ___ ______ than hard formation bits.
In hard formations, bit weights are usually heavier than in soft formations so that the action
of the bit can overcome 23. ___________________ ___________ __ ________. At high rotary
speeds, drill string 24. ____________________ is more common than at low rotary speeds.
Maintaining a steady weight on the bit enhances penetration rates and increases both 25.
______ _______________ and 26. _______ ___ __________ _____. Slanted holes and holes with
sharp doglegs cause increased rotary torque because of increased 27. ____________________
between the drill string and walls of the hole. High rpm, torque, and weight on the drill stem
can result in joint failure, twistoffs, and tooth 28. _____________________. Downhole motors
require more 29. _____________ _________________ than regular rotary drilling. The turn
in horizontal drilling is initiated by using a 30. ______ _____ above the motor.
133
MAKING HOLE
True or False
Put a T for true or an F for false in the blank next to each statement.
�� 31. As more of the drill string weight is suspended by the crown block less
weight is applied to the bit.
�� 32. Drilling mud is made up of three types of material, a liquid and two solids.
�� 33. One type of reactive solid is barite.
�� 34. Mud weight (density) has little effect on the penetration rate.
�� 35. Viscosity is a measure of a mud’s resistance to flow.
�� 36. Wall cake is a build up of the solids in the mud on the wall of the hole.
�� 37. fluid loss is unrelated to wall-cake thickness.
�� 38. Oil-base muds are seldom used because they do not perform as well as
water-base muds.
�� 39. In general, using air or gas as a drilling fluid results in lower rates of pen
etration.
�� 40. Surfactants (foaming agents) can sometimes be added to air or gas to over
come problems associated with formations producing water.
Multiple Choice
�� 41. Bit hydraulic horsepower—
a. is not important to rate of penetration.
b. is a measure drilling mud density.
c. is a measure of a drilling fluid’s ability to clean the bottom of the hole.
d. decreases the rate of penetration if air or gas is used.
�� 42. Hydraulic horsepower is determined by—
a. pump output and circulating pressure.
b. pump output only.
c. circulating pressure only.
d. weight on the bit.
�� 43. The largest amount of pump pressure lost because of circulation should
be—
a. in the surface equipment and standpipe.
b. in the drill string.
c. at the bit.
d. in the annulus.
134
REVIEW QUESTIONS
�� 44. One way in which bit hydraulic horsepower is controlled is by—
a. the size of the bit nozzles.
b. using a PDC instead of a roller-cone bit.
c. increasing the size of the rig’s prime movers (engines).
d. the bit manufacturer.
�� 45. A large influence on the drilling rate is the—
a. type of formation.
b. size of the drill string.
c. size of the bit.
d. none of the above
�� 46. A drilling break occurs when—
a. the bit cones disintegrate.
b. the driller increases weight on the bit.
c. the rate of penetration increases.
d. rotary speed decreases.
�� 47. Because rock strength usually increases with depth, the driller usually has
to—
a. increase the weight on the bit.
b. decrease the weight on the bit.
c. switch to a softer formation.
d. pick up off bottom and shut the well in.
�� 48. Some formations react to water-base muds by—
a. becoming harder.
b. turning into shale.
c. swelling and sloughing.
d. changing the water-base mud into an oil-base mud.
�� 49. Formation dip, a formation’s inclination from horizontal, can cause a hole
to—
a. deviate from vertical.
b. straighten out.
c. cave in.
d. none of the above
�� 50. Underbalanced drilling is—
a. drilling with hydrostatic pressure higher than formation pressure.
b. drilling with hydrostatic pressure lower than formation pressure.
c. drilling with the rig derrick leaning to one side.
d. drilling with high mud weight to overcome formation pressure.
135
Answers to Review Questions
LESSONS IN ROTARY DRILLING
Unit II, Lesson 1: Making Hole
Multiple Choice 25. bit life

1. b 26. number of reusable bits
2. b 27. friction
3. d 28. breakage
4. a 29. pump capacity
5. d 30. bent sub
True or False
True or False
31. T
6. T
32. T
7. F
33. F
8. T
34. F
9. F
35. T
10. T
36. T
11. F
37. F
12. T
38. F
13. F
39. F
14. F
40. T
15. F
Multiple Choice
Multiple Choice
41. c
16. d
42. a
17. d
43. c
18. d
44. a
19. c
45. b
20. b
46. c
47. a
Fill in the Blanks 48. c
21. decreased 49. a
22. weight on bit 50. b
23. compressive strength of rock
24. failure

137
To obtain additional training materials, contact:
PETEX
PETROLEUM EXTENSION SERVIC E
1 University Station, R8100
Austin, TX 78712-1100
Telephone: 512-471-5940
or 800-687-4132
FAX: 512-471-9410
or 800-687-7839
E-mail: petex@www.utexas.edu
or visit our Web site: www.utexas.edu/ce/petex
rotary drilling series
Unit I: The Rig and Its Maintenance

Lesson 1: The Rotary Rig and Its Components
Lesson 2: The Bit
Lesson 3: Drill String and Drill Collars
Lesson 4: Rotary, Kelly, Swivel, Tongs, and Top Drive
Lesson 5: The Blocks and Drilling Line
Lesson 6: The Drawworks and the Compound
Lesson 7: Drilling Fluids, Mud Pumps, and Conditioning Equipment
Lesson 8: Diesel Engines and Electric Power
Lesson 9: The Auxiliaries
Lesson 10: Safety on the Rig
Unit II: Normal Drilling Operations

Lesson 1: Making Hole
Lesson 2: Drilling Fluids
Lesson 3: Drilling a Straight Hole
Lesson 4: Casing and Cementing
Lesson 5: Testing and Completing
Unit III: Nonroutine Operations

Lesson 1: Controlled Directional Drilling
Lesson 2: Open-Hole Fishing
Lesson 3: Blowout Prevention
Unit IV: Man Management and Rig Management
Unit V: Offshore Technology

Lesson 1: Wind, Waves, and Weather
Lesson 2: Spread Mooring Systems
Lesson 3: Buoyancy, Stability, and Trim
Lesson 4: Jacking Systems and Rig Moving Procedures
Lesson 5: Diving and Equipment
Lesson 6: Vessel Inspection and Maintenance
Lesson 7: Helicopter Safety
Lesson 8: Orientation for Offshore Crane Operations
Lesson 9: Life Offshore
Lesson 10: Marine Riser Systems and Subsea Blowout Preventers
To obtain additional training materials, contact:
PETEX
Petroleum Extension Service
1 University Station, R8100
Austin, TX 78712-1100
Telephone: 512-471-5940
or 800-687-4132
FAX: 512-471-9410
or 800-687-7839
E-mail: petex@www.utexas.edu
To obtain information about training courses, contact:
PETEX
Houston training center
The University of Texas
2700 W. W. Thorne Blvd.
Houston, TX 77073
Telephone: 281-443-7144
or 800-687-7052
FAX: 281-443-8722
E-mail: petexhtc@www.utexas.edu
2.20130
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ROTARY DRILLING

Jackson, William E., 1929—

©2000 by The University of Texas at Austin

No state tax funds were used to publish this book.

“The learning curve” for drilling offshore development wells 5

D rilling an oil or gas well, or “making hole,” as people in the

T he author expresses a sincere appreciation to the many people

T hroughout the world, two systems of measurement domi-

Figure 1. IADC footage drilling bid-contract (Courtesy of IADC)

Cost per foot (metre) drilled is the ultimate gauge of drilling

Ct = about $34/ft ($112/m).

A successful drilling operation requires the most efﬁcient com-

Factors that affect ROP

G ood well planning is the ﬁrst step towards successful, least-

200 Figure 3. “The learning

every drilling need. Given reasonable time, bit manufacturers can

Figure 4. A recommended bit or well program (Courtesy of

bit designed for drilling soft-to-medium hard formations would

PIT VOLUME MUD DATA

REMOTE REMOTE CHART

Figure 5. A rig site integrated drilling system for measurement-while-drilling (MWD)

TUNGSTEN CARBIDE DIAMOND BIT

PDC BI T TSP BIT

Figure 7. Drilling action of bits

Figure 8. Combination journal and ball bearings in a roller cone

Figure 9. The rows of cutters on one cone intermesh with the

Tooth Journal Offset

Soft Few Wide Tall 39-42 32-33 2-5 Partial to full

Medium Moderate Moderate Medium 43-45 32-36 2-3 None to full

Hard Many Close Short 45-50 33-36 0-2 None to

Figure 12. Tungsten carbide inserts

Figure 15. Hard-formation insert bit (Courtesy of Hughes

Soft Few Wide Tall 32-33 2-5

Medium Moderate Moderate Medium 32-36 0-3

Hard Many Close Short 36 0-2

Figure 16. Flat tungsten

Because there are no moving parts, the general term “ﬁxed-head

Figure 17. Four parts

the size, number, and placement of the diamonds. There are no

Figure 18. Natural diamond bit showing watercourses (Courtesy

Figure 19. A polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC)

Figure 23. Diamond-impregnated pad set in gauge surface of bit body

PDC CUTTER DIAMOND-IMPREGNATED

Figure 24. Diamond-impregnated stud backup to a PDC cutter

Figure 25. Ream-while-drilling bits (Courtesy of Hughes

Figure 26. Air hammer bits (Courtesy of Smith Bits)

For a detailed treatment of rotary drilling bits, refer to Unit

Figure 28. Steerable directional drilling bit (Courtesy of Reed-

Figure 27. Special

S T BEARING TYPE AND GAUGE SURFACE

Soft to Medium 1 M – Motor Application

1 >24 R522(M) B943(M) B17-4(M)

3 <14 R423(M) PD10(S) S98(S) B923(M)

1 >24 R525(M) DS30(S) B254(M) R516(M)

2 2 14-24 R526(M) TD19L(M) B925(M) S25(S) DS34(S)

3 2 14-24 TD19M(M) R535S(M) PD4(S)

4 2 14-24 TD19H(M) PD5(S) PD4HS(S)

Cutters Body Style