Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075

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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-agriculture-and-food-research/

Effect of process and variety on physico-chemical and rheological properties

of two corn flour varieties (Atp and Kassaï)
Hygride Dongmo, Stephano Tene Tambo, Gires Boungo Teboukeu, Alix Ntongme Mboukap,
Bruno Saah Fotso, Michelle Claude Tekam Djuidje, Julie Mathilde Klang *
Research Unit of Biochemistry, Medicinal Plants, Food Sciences and Nutrition, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Dschang, P.O. Box 67,
Dschang, Cameroon

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Corn is the world's most widely used cereal in the production of supplementary foods. This use involves several
Varieties processing steps such as fermentation, roasting and dehulling. These processes are either applied alone or in
Process combination combination, and are accompanied by the modification of the nutritional, functional and rheological character-
Rheological properties
istics of the flour obtained. This led us to investigate about the influence of the process and the variety on the
Chemical composition
physico-chemical and rheological properties of the flours. White and yellow corn flours used were process using
Physical properties
three processes. Unroasted flours were obtained after dehulling and fermentation, roasted flours after fermen-
tation and roasting and unfermented flours after soaking and grinding. The proximate chemical composition,
physical, rheological properties and PCA (Principal Component Analysis) were evaluated. The results showed that
treatment and variety significantly affected these properties with roasted flours who had the best contents of
digestible carbohydrates, minerals and ash while unroasted flours had the highest of protein and lipid contents.
The white variety had the highest levels of carbohydrates and proteins, while the yellow variety had the highest of
lipid and minerals contents. The evaluation of the rheological properties shows that the pasting temperature is
between 74.50 and 77.77
C, between 490 and 1053.55 cP for the Holding viscosity and between 431.50 and
2348 cP for the peak viscosity. The rheological properties always showed that the roasted flours had the lowest
pasting temperatures, retrogradation, final viscosity and peak temperatures while unfermented flours had the
highest values. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that unroasted flours are characterized by the car-
bohydrates, starch, amylose, amylopectin and lipids content, roasted by minerals, anti-nutrient and protein
contents and the unfermented flours by rheological properties. All this shows that the combination of the process
and use of these corn flours varieties could be used to prepare the infant meal and thus fight against protein
energy malnutrition in children.

1. Introduction the food supply [5]. Such populations may be dependent on corn for their
micronutrients as well as macronutrients content [6]. Types of corn
With a cumulative annual production of around 2.5 billion tons, corn, include sweet, popcorn, dent and flint, which is also used as animal or
rice and wheat are the main crops produced in the world and the pillars human feed [7]. Although white or yellow corn are the most commonly
of world food security [1]. Together corn, rice and wheat constitute the consumed varieties compared to red, blue, purple and orange [8]. Variety
most important element of the diet since they would provide 42.5% of of whole and processed products are the main factor that influenced the
the world food energy intake [2]. Cereals have a low antinutrients con- corn consuming [9]. Thus, whole-grain corn is consumed boiled, soaked,
tent and their transformation requires fewer unit operations [3]. Among dehulled, fermented and roasted [10–12].
these cereals, corn stands out for its availability, accessibility, and ease of These processes include physical and biochemical operations through
use. Corn contributes almost one-third of the calories in the food supply which this corn passes, thereby modifying its biochemical quality, its
of Southern Africa [4], and even higher in some individual countries, texture and its nutritional values [13]. The work of Tshit
e et al. [14] has
such as Cameroon in which corn contributes over half of the calories in shown that roasting leads to the development of new organoleptic

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: klangjulie@gmail.com (J.M. Klang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2020.100075
Received 23 July 2020; Received in revised form 25 September 2020; Accepted 26 September 2020
2666-1543/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
H. Dongmo et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075

characteristics, leads to a decrease in protein content, increases the lipid content is determined by weighing after evaporation of the hexane
content of reducing sugars, lipids and pre-gelatinises starch. Tambo et al. from the cartridges in an oven [20]. Protein determination was done by
[11,12] have shown that dehulling increases the digestibility of flour, the Kjeldahl method [21], which is based on the transformation of
decreases the anti-nutrient content and facilitates swelling during cook- organic nitrogen into ammoniacal nitrogen by mineralization with
ing. The work done by Lestienne et al. [15], has revealed that soaking concentrated sulphuric acid. The protein content was deduced using the
allows a reduction in the phytate level and increases the availability of following formula % protein ¼ %N  conversion factor; Where the con-
divalent cations. Kayod
e et al. [16] have reported that soaking leads to a version factor is 6.25. Fibers content was assessed using the standard
significant reduction in the content of total phenols and anthocyanins. method described by AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists)
The work done by Tou et al. [17] has shown that fermentation reduces [21]. The colorimetric method described by Fisher and Stein [2] using 3,
the phytate content by 75%. Fiagan [18] has shown that fermentation 5-Dinitrosalycylic as color agent, was used to evaluate the reducing sugar
improves the internal stability of starch granules, with reduced swelling content. The ash content was determined using the method described by
and solubility of amylose during heat treatment, and promotes the AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) [21], which consists
removal of cyanogenic compounds. It would therefore be interesting to of incinerating the sample at 560
C and in an oxidizing atmosphere until
assess the combined (dehulling-fermentation, dehulling-fermentation- a residue of constant mass was obtained. The standard method described
roasting and coarse grind-soaking) effect of these operation units and by AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) [21] also made it
the variety of corn on the physicochemical and rheological properties of possible to assess the carbohydrate content using the formula:
the flours.
Carbohydrates content ð%Þ ¼ 100
2. Materials and methods  ðmoisture ð%Þ þ ashð%Þ þ proteins ð%Þ þ lipids ð%ÞÞ

2.1. Plant material The energy value (Ec) was determined by applying the Atwater co-
efficients [23]: 1 g of carbohydrate or protein provides 4 kcal, 1 g of fat
Corn seeds, Kassaï (white color) and Atp-Y (yellow color) varieties provides 9 kilocalories. The expression of the energy value is given by the
was collected in the local market of the town of Mbouda (zone of high following equation: Ec ¼ (4  (% carbohydrates)) þ (9  (% fat)) þ (4 
agricultural production of corn), then transported to the laboratory (% protein)). The starch content was evaluated by the method described
where they was used for various analysis. by Jarvis and Walker [24]. Amylose content of the flours samples was
determined colorimetrically according to the method of Chrastyl [25]
2.2. Production of different flours based on amylose–iodine complex formation. Amylose content was
calculated from a standard curve prepared using a mixture of pure cas-
The corn kernels (white and yellow) obtained as above were divided sava starch. The amylopectin content was deducted from the amylose
into four lots each. The first batch (control) was sorted, crushed using a content, with the difference in relation to the starch content of the
conventional crusher (Hamilton Germany®), sieved (300 μm) and stored samples being determined by the following formula:
in polyethylene bags before being used for analysis. The second batch
Amylopectin content ð%Þ ¼ 100  % of amylose content
(Process 1) was sorted, pulped, soaked for three days (1:2 W/V), dried in
a Venticell electric oven at 50
C for 36 h, crushed using a conventional The total phenol content was evaluated using the method described
crusher (Hamilton Germany®), sieved (300 μm) and stored in poly- by Gao et al. [26]. Total polyphenols content was determined following
ethylene bags before being used for analysis. The third batch (Process 2) the Folin–Ciocalteau colorimetric method with slight modifications.
was sorted, soaked for three days (1:2 W/V) and dried in a Venticell About 10 μL of sample, 1390 μL of distilled water and 200 μL of Folin
electric oven at 50
C for 36 h. These grains were then roasted at 100
C –Ciocalteau reagent were mixed and let stand for 3 min. After that,
for 10 min, ground using a conventional grinder (Hamilton Germany®), 400 μL of sodium carbonate solution (20%) were added, mixed and
sieved (300 μm) and stored in polyethylene bags before being used for incubated in the water bath for 20 min. The absorbance was measured at
analysis. Finally, the fourth batch (process 3) was sorted, crushed using a 760 nm using UV-light spectrophotometer (Thermo scientific, GENESYS
hammer mill and quenched for 24 h (1:2 W/V). After soaking, the grains 20). The total polyphenols content was expressed as mg gallic acid
were crushed using an ordinary grinder (Hamilton Germany®), the equivalent per 100 g dry matter (DM) of sample (mg GAE/100 g of DM).
mixture was filtered with a muslin (50 μm) and the filtrate was left to The Fecl3 titration method was used to determine the phytate content
stand for 15 h. The pellet obtained was dried in a “Venticell” brand [27]. The percentage contribution to the recommended nutrient intake
ventilated oven previously calibrated at 50
C for 40 h. The flour ob- was expressed as a% of the RDA (Recommanded Daily Allowances) using
tained was kept in polyethylene bags before being used for analysis. formula:

X
2.3. Physicochemical, functional and rheological analyses of different RDA ð%Þ ¼ x100
flours Y

where X is the amount of nutrient analyzed and Y is the RDA for a given
2.3.1. Chemical characterisation of flours nutrient/variable.
The samples produced as described before were subjected to different The mineral contents: calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium,
analyses. The moisture content was assessed using the method described potassium, iron, copper, zinc were determined according to the AOAC
by IUPAC (International Union of Pure Applied Chemistry) [19]. In fact, (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) [28] standard method using
in a crucible of known weight (P0) a quantity of the flours was introduced the atomic absorption spectrophotometer (PerkinElmer Analyst 700
to obtain a final weight (P1). The whole is placed in an oven spectrophotometer Norwalk, CT, USA).
dried « Venticell (MM-group) » at 105
C for 24 h. After drying, the
sample is removed and weighed progressively in order to obtain the 2.3.2. Physical properties of the different flours
constant weight (P2). The moisture content is deduced from that of dry Bulk density was determined according to Okaka et al. [29]. A 50 g
matter (DM) using formula Moisture content (%) ¼ 100-% of DM flour sample was taken into a 100 ml measuring cylinder. The sample was
P2  P0 packed gently by tapping the cylinder on the benchtop. The volume of the
DM ð%Þ ¼ sample was recorded to calculate bulk density (g/mL) as weight of flour
P1  P0
(g) divided by flour volume (mL). pH was determined in 10% aqueous
Total lipids were extracted in Soxhlet with hexane as solvent. The

2
H. Dongmo et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075

solution at room temperature using a pH-meter (GlowGeek Advanced contents of between 0.97% (roasted white flour) and 5.22% (untreated
Portable pH meter) according to the standard method described by AOAC yellow flour). The lipid richness of yellow flours and particularly of un-
(Association of Official Analytical Chemists) [21]. Standard method treated yellow flour could be explained by the fact that compared to
described by AFNOR [30], was used to evaluated titratable acidity. white corn, yellow corn is genetically richer in lipid because the factors
responsible for the synthesis of this parameter are more expressed within
2.3.3. Rheological properties of the different flours this variety. Regardless of the variety, this parameter is significantly
Samples ground to a flour (particle size Ø ¼ 300 μm) were used to affected by the treatment with a strong reduction in samples that have
determine pasting properties according to the method reported by San- undergone Process 2. This would be due to the elimination of lipids by
chez et al. [31] using a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA-4 model Thermocline oxidation following volatilization on the one hand, a metabolization of
Windows Control and analysis software, Newport Scientific, this macronutrient by the fermenting microorganisms and leaching into
Switzerland). Indeed, (3 g) of dry matter from each flour and starch were the fermentation water on the other hand. The results for roasted flours
dispersed in distilled water (25 ml) to obtain a 12% suspension. The are different from those found by Oboh et al. [34] who showed that
viscosity was recorded according to the following temperature profile: roasting increased the lipid content. This is advantageous for food pro-
holding at 50
C for 1 min, heating from 50
C to 95
C at a rate of cess because fat can affect food stability notably shelf life or stability
6
C.min1, holding at 95
C for 5 min, cooling at a rate of 12
C.min1 to through oxidative rancidity [35]. This lipid content of untreated yellow
50
C, and finally holding at 50
C for 2 min. The first agitation at corn is similar to that found by Bond et al. [36] which was 4.97%. The
960 rpm was applied for the first 10 s, then at 160 rpm for the remaining lipid contents obtained are lower than those recommended by the Codex
time of the experiment. The average over 2 replicas was calculated. Six Standards [37] which is 9% for flours. Therefore, a combination of fat
parameters were measured on the visco-amylogram: Emptying temper- sources such as peanuts or soybeans is necessary to meet the daily intake
ature (PT), peak viscosity (PV: first peak viscosity following the pasting), of a complementary food with regard to this nutrient.
holding strength (HS) and finally final viscosity (FV). Two additional Proteins are macromolecules that perform many functions in the body
parameters were then calculated: The breakdown (BD) estimated by such as metabolic regulation. The protein content is significantly lowered
(PV-HS), the set-back (SB) estimated by (FV  HS). by the three methods and variety with greatest value found on white
variety (p˂0.05). The high protein content in the white variety could be
2.3.4. Statistical analyses explained by the overexpression of the genes responsible for protein
The results of the analyses carried out in triplicates were expressed as synthesis in this variety compared to the other. The decrease in content
mean  standard deviations. The means were analyzed by the ANOVA and bioavailability following the treatments would be due to proteolysis
(Analysis of variance) test at the 5% probability threshold and the during the fermentation process by the microorganisms, leaching of
Duncan test was used to compare the means using IBM SPSS™ software soluble proteins in the steeping water, complexation following the mist
version 22.0 (IBM, USA). The graphs were drawn using Sigmaplot soft- reaction during roasting and destruction of the germ during dehulling
ware version 12.0. A correlation matrix and the principal component process. Similarly, Van Hal [38], observed that the heat processing
analysis (PCA) between the physico-chemical, functional and rheological treatments have a negative influence on protein quantity and quality
properties of the flours were also performed using XLSTAT® (Leading depending on the intensity of heat exposure. The richness of the white
Data Analysis and Statistical Solution for Microsoft Excel) 2014 software. variety in protein (11.37%) is similar to that found by Oboh et al. [34]
which was 12.97%. It also report the same value (7.85%) on yellow
3. Results and discussion roasted flour [34]. The protein contents obtained are in the range rec-
ommended by the standard codices CAC/GC 08-1991, rev. 2013 [37]
3.1. Effect of processes and variety on the proximate chemical composition which is 6%–15% for flours.
of the different flours Digestible carbohydrates represent the metabolisable fraction of
humans. It varies from 73.83% (for white untreated flour) to 83.07% (for
Table 1 below shows the approximate chemical composition of the white roasted flour). This shows that the process and the variety influ-
various flours. From this table it can be seen that the water content, enced them. Processing processes lead to an increase in the digestible
which is a very important parameter in predicting the stability and sugar content. This could be explained by the fact that during fermen-
conservation of a food, varies from 6.3% (white roasted flour) to 8.9% tation there is hydrolysis by microorganisms of certain indigestible
(white Unfermented flour). It appears that the variety as well as the sugars to release monosaccharides and disaccharides. In addition, during
process significantly (p˂0.05) affected the content of these parameters. roasting, certain acidic bonds are broken, thus releasing the mono-
Indeed, the process increase this parameter in the yellow variety as saccharides, hence the high digestible sugar content of yellow roasted
opposed to the white variety where the second treatment (fermentation- flour. In addition, dehulling leads to a reduction in the content of non-
roasting) significantly lowers it. This would be explained by the evapo- digestible carbohydrates as opposed to digestible carbohydrates. The
ration of the water contained in these flours after roasting (þ100
C). In digestible sugar contents of untreated white and untreated yellow flours
addition, it was found that flours that had undergone the soaking- are higher than those found by Ok
ek
e and Eze [39], which were 63.09%
grinding-settling-drying process had the highest water contents in both for the yellow variety and 68.5% for the white variety. This difference
varieties as a result of high water retention during the process (soaking). could be explained by the difference in the proximate chemical compo-
These water contents are similar to those found by Ponka et al. [32] sition within the varieties. Indeed, it appears from Table 8 that carbo-
which were between 7.19% and 8.21%. These low water content values hydrates are negatively correlated with lipids (r ¼ 0.514) and proteins
(less than 14%) are recommended for flours because a large amount of (r ¼ 0.833). Indeed, an overexpression of the genes responsible for
water in these flours would compromise their preservation by promoting carbohydrate synthesis would inhibit those of lipids and proteins and
the proliferation of microorganisms which, using their amylases, will therefore reduce their content. These carbohydrate contents are higher
hydrolyse the starch contained in flour and facilitate the acidification of than those recommended by the codex alimantarius standard [37] for
the latter [11]. The variation of moisture content between the two corn infant flours which is from 70 to 75%.
varieties might also be attributed to the inherent nutritional differences The ash contents that vary between 0.85% (white roasted flour) and
between the varieties such as proteins and lipids [33]. Table 8 shows that 2.15% (untreated yellow flour) show that the process significantly
the moisture content is negatively (r ¼ 0.547) correlated to the lipid (p˂0.05) influence them. It also appears that the treatments have signif-
content. icantly (p˂0.05) influenced this parameter in the yellow variety with a
Lipids are macromolecules that are essential in the formation of tissue strong decrease for proceed 3. This would be explained by an elimination
membranes and are responsible for the flavour of certain foods. The lipid of ions during mechanical crushing and in the retentate. Kays and Kays

3
H. Dongmo et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075

[40] reported that soaking method lower nutrient and ash content

NTB: white untreated flour; NTJ: untreated yellow flour; PIB: White unroasted flour (Process1); PIJ: Yellow unroasted; PIIB: white roasted flour (Process2); PIIJ: yellow roasted flour; PIIIB: White Unfermented flour
361.85  0.24d
78.40  0.38cd

39.50  4.31b

92.50  0.92a
through leached out during soaking. This suggests that the soaking

29.67  2.48f
0.95  0.20cd
7.09  1.24d

1.53  0.21d

3.90  0.39b
8.90  0.14a

1.00  0.04e
2.21  0.08c

7.50  1.17f

0.08  0.01f
method may not be appropriate where the interest is to retain water
soluble components such as ashes. The ash contents of untreated white
PIIIJ

and untreated yellow flours are similar to those found by Toulsoumd
e

et al. [3] which were 1.98% for yellow corn and 1.93% for white corn.
Fiber represents the indigestible carbohydrate fraction very impor-
357.19  0.16e
tant in digestion. The fibers regulate intestinal transit and capture part of

89.31  0.91ab
78.32  0.57cd

48.85  4.31b

19.50  1.88g
10.69  1.11e

0.12  0.01ef
the lipids and carbohydrates, which partially regulates the blood sugar
7.67  0.03d
1.47  0.15d
7.99  0.01b

5.17  0.24a
1.20  0.14c

1.91  0.14c

1.62  0.16c level and prevents excess cholesterol. Thanks to their high degree of
saturation, these fibers have a positive effect against overweight and
PIIJ

metabolic diseases. It varies from 2.48% (untreated yellow flour) to

1.05% (unfermented white corn flour), this shows that the variety as well
as the process significantly affects (p˂0.05) them. These low fiber con-
tents are due to the operation units necessary for the production of flour,
373.76  4.31b
77.70  0.45d

53.29  0.84d
48.82  5.44b

16.13  1.14c
83.87  1.64c
3.04  0.29ab
7.48  0.14bc

8.90  0.19bc

0.64  0.08ef

in this case shelling which results in the elimination of bran rich in fibers.
0.18  0.02d
1.55  0.07b

2.08  0.07b

3.11  0.11f

Cereals are hulled in order to reduce the fiber content of the product to
acceptable levels and to reduce, if possible, the elimination of phytates,
PIJ

tannin and other phenolic compounds which can reduce the digestibility
of nutrients and the absorption of minerals. It would also be due to a
destruction of the fibers under the effect of heat and a leaching of the
soluble fibers in the soaking water. Mala et al. [41], also reported that
380.24  0.14a
76.28  4.31a

27.45  0.29a
73.81  1.49e

72.55  1.81e
9.37  0.70bc
6.88  0.70d

2.29  0.34b
78.92  0.8b

0.38  0.03b
2.15  0.07a

5.28  0.70a

2.48  0.07a

1.68  0.11f

treatment reduced fiber content on pumpkin flour. These values are

The means (n ¼ 3)  standard deviations followed by the same letter in the same line indicate that the differences are not significant (P˃0.05).

lower than those found by Zannou-tchoko et al. [42] which were 6.89%
NTJ

and comply with the codex alimentarus standard [37] on complementary

foods intended for flour (<5 g/100 g).
The content of reducing sugars does not vary significantly between
white and yellow untreated flour. However, there is a significant differ-
361.44  0.57d

ence between white unroasted flour, white roasted flour, white treated
15.99  0.52cd
79.04  0.28bc

52.45  1.79d
45.76  4.31b

84.01  0.67c
1.00  0.00cd
7.99  0.16cd

0.61  0.04ef
1.48  0.11d

0.19  0.01d
2.34  0.33e
7.90  0.14c

1.05  0.00f

flour, yellow unroasted flour, yellow roasted flour and yellow treated
flour. It is noted that the yellow roasted flour has the highest value
PIIIB

(5.17%) and the white untreated flour has the lowest value (1.64%). This
increase following the treatments would be due to the hydrolysis of
macromolecules (starch, amylopectin and amylose) during fermentation
Effect of the different processes and variety on the proximate chemical composition of the different flours.

(by bacterial amylases) and roasting (by breaking the oxidic bonds) thus
373.57  0.15b

86.54  1.31bc
13.46  1.70d
51.87  4.31b
83.07  0.19a

41.17  1.59e

releasing the reducing sugars. The levels obtained are similar to those
0.16  0.02de
1.55  0.23cd
3.40  0.25bc
6.30  0.14d

0.97  0.10d
0.85  0.07b
8.17  0.55c

1.12  0.07f

obtained by Waramboi et al. [43] who showed that roasting and

fermentation increase the content of reducing sugars.
PIIB

The phytate-ion bond is responsible for the decrease in bioavailability

of ions. It vary from 39.50 mg/100 g (unfermented yellow corn flour) to
76.28 mg/100 g (untreated yellow corn flour). The phytate content is
lowered by all three processes. This reduction in phyates could be
368.17  0.03c

23.16  1.17bc
76.84  1.27d
80.49  0.85b

45.76  4.31b

62.64  2.51c
2.80  0.19de
1.05  0.07cd
9.10  0.55bc
1.09  0.11d

explained by the fact that during soaking, there is diffusion of phytates

1.39  0.07e
7.30  0.14c

0.30  0.02c
0.21  0.01f

towards the quenching water, destruction during heat treatment and

hydrolysis by microorganism during fermentation. The low phytate
PIB

content of the yellow treated flour could be explained by the coarse

grinding carried out which will increasingly facilitate the diffusion.
Compare to untreated flour, roasting significantly (p˂0.05) decrease the
phytate content, which isn't similar to that found by Tambo et al. [11,12]
367.91  0.14c
11.37  1.46a

73.23  8.63a

83.58  1.73a
30.90  0.23a
75.23  0.50e

69.10  4.09f
2.39  0.25bc
1.95  0.07a

2.87  0.10a

0.45  0.09a
7.08  0.14c

1.95  0.07c

1.64  0.64f

who showed inverse effect. That would be due to corn variety, heat
temperature and time of treatment. The phytate contents obtained are
NTB

within the standard recommended by the RDA which must be less than
250 mg.
(Process3); PIIIJ: yellow Unfermented flour.

The total phenol contents between 0.21% and 2.87% show that the
variety and the process influence them. This decrease in the total phenol
Phenol (mg of gallic acid/% of DM)

content could be explained by the fact that during the dehulling and
Energy Value (kcal/100g of DM)

sieving, the bran is eliminated, further reducing the total phenol levels.
Starch (% of carbohydrates)

During fermentation, the production of polyphenoloxidases would have

Phytates (mg/100g of DM)
Reducing sugar (% of DM)

Amylopectin (% of starch)
Carbohydrates (% of DM)

led to the degradation of complex phenolic compounds such as tannins

Amylose (% of starch)

Amylose:amylopectin

[15]. The soaking of the corn kernels makes it possible to rid them of the
Proteins (% of DM)

husks like the glumes which are rich in phenolic compounds [44].
Fibers (% of DM)
Lipids (% of DM)
Ashes (% of DM)

Starch, amylose and amylopectin are the main carbohydrate compo-

Moisture (%)

nents that influence the applicability, functional and rheological prop-

erties of a flour. Starch contents between 83.50% (white untreated flour)
Table 1

Flour

and 19.5% (yellow roasted flour), amylopectin contents between 69.10%

(white untreated flour) and 92.50% (yellow unfermented flour) and the

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H. Dongmo et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075

Table 2
Contribution (%) of energy, proteins and fats content of flour from 100 g of corn single flour toward RDA for children aged 6–59 months.
Variables Age group (years) Recommanded Daily Allowances (RDA) Contribution (%) of sample flours to RDA

NTB PIB PIIB PIIIB NTJ PIJ PIIJ PIIIJ

Energy (Kcal/day) 0–0.5 650a 56.60 56.64 57.47 55.61 58.50 57.50 54.95 55.67
0.5–1.0 850a 43.28 43.31 43.95 42.52 44.73 43.97 42.02 42.57
1–3 1300a 28.30 28.32 28.74 27.80 29.25 28.75 27.48 27.83
4–6 1800a 20.44 20.45 20.75 20.08 21.12 20.76 19.84 20.10
Proteins (g/day) 0–0.5 13a 87.46 70.00 62.85 61.46 72.07 68.46 59.00 54.53
0.5–1.0 14a 79.50 65.00 58.36 57.07 66.92 63.57 54.76 50.64
1–3 16a 69.56 56.87 51.06 49.93 58.56 55.62 47.94 44.31
4–6 24a 46.37 37.91 34.04 33.29 39.04 37.08 31.96 29.54
Fats (g/day) 0–0.5 – – – – – – – – –
0.5–1.0 – – – – – – – – –
1–3 16.70b 14.31 6.52 5.80 8.86 31.62 18.20 8.80 13.23
4–6 23.30b 11.59 4.68 4.16 6.35 22.66 13.05 6.31 9.48

NTB: white untreated flour; NTJ: untreated yellow flour; PIB: White unroasted flour (Process1); PIJ: Yellow unroasted; PIIB: white roasted flour (Process2); PIIJ: yellow
roasted flour; PIIIB: White Unfermented flour (Process3); PIIIJ: yellow Unfermented flour.
a
Food and Nutrition Board (1989) [5].
b
Alasfoor et al. (2009) [52].

Table 3
Effect of the different processes and the variety on the mineral composition of the different flours.
Flour NTB PIB PIIB PIIIB NTJ PIJ PIIJ PIIIJ
d c b d d bc a
Ca (mg/100 g of DM) 29.00  1.41 33.35  0.91 35.60  0.56 30.85  0.31 30.75  1.06 33.78  1.01 37.92  0.24 35.42  0.65b
Fe (mg/100 g of DM) 2.05  0.70d 2.23  0.90c 3.10  0.50ab 2.91  0.50b 2.45  0.21c 2.55  0.06c 3.25  0.12a 2.90  0.08b
Zn (mg/100 g of DM) 1.15  0.21d 1.51  0.12c 2.11  0.08b 1.95  0.06b 1.87  0.10b 2.21  0.70b 2.87  0.03a 2.77  0.16a
Mg (mg/100 g of DM) 2.44  0.88e 2.87  1.27e 4.19  0.08ab 3.27  0.18cd 3.04  0.06d 4.05  0.86abc 4.68  0.02a 3.88  0.49bc
Na (mg/100 g of DM) 99.54  0.77bc 86.56  1.26d 78.95  0.16e 59.28  2.09f 121.53  0.17a 103.95  2.91b 96.48  1.23c 81.60  1.54e
K (mg/100 g of DM) 323.54  2.17c 285.00  1.41d 247.50  2.11e 193.00  2.65g 427.50  0.77a 350.43  2.02b 290.02  2.79d 237.25  1.76f
P (mg/100 g of DM) 132.75  3.88c 124.00  2.82d 114.00  2.82e 98.74  1.25f 152.69  1.14a 139.01  2.10b 125.10  2.26d 97.96  0.57f
Phytates:Ca (Molar ratio) 1.59  0.45a 1.50  0.40a 2.16  0.18a 1.65  0.18a 1.86  0.17a 1.24  0.67a 1.46  0.45a 1.81  0.67a
Phytates:Fe (Molar ratio) 11.72  1.38a 1.20  0.11d 4.95  0.41c 4.86  0.46c 9.15  0.52b 6.38  1.13c 5.56  0.99c 5.03  0.55c
Phytates:Mg (Molar ratio) 13.48  2.11bc 10.85  1.91c 19.32  1.44a 17.32  0.68ab 18.05  2.52a 9.31  2.37c 10.47  1.38c 11.90  2.04c
K:Na 12.24  0.00a 5.70  0.00d 4.07  0.00e 6.69  0.03c 10.67  0.00b 8.52  0.00c 6.71  0.00c 5.68  0.00d
Ca:Mg 8.77  1.73a 7.66  0.32a 9.00  1.41a 10.52  0.73a 9.67  0.47a 8.20  2.55a 7.67  3.30a 7.28  3.84a
Ca:P 0.15  0.04ab 0.06  0.02b 0.08  0.00ab 0.08  0.02ab 0.17  0.006a 0.14  0.05ab 0.11  0.05ab 0.11  0.05ab

The means (n ¼ 3)  standard deviations followed by the same letter in the same line indicate that the differences are not significant (P˃0.05).
NTB: white untreated flour; NTJ: untreated yellow flour; PIB: White unroasted flour (Process1); PIJ: Yellow unroasted; PIIB: white roasted flour (Process2); PIIJ: yellow
roasted flour; PIIIB: White Unfermented flour (Process3); PIIIJ: yellow Unfermented flour.

amylose contents between 30.90% (white untreated flour) and 7.50% less susceptible to the formulation of supplemental feeds, however, the
(yellow unfermented flour) show that they are influenced by the variety use of amylase sources could solve this problem [46].
and the process. The processes, whatever the variety, significantly lower The highest energy content (380.24 kcal) was observed in yellow
the starch and amylose contents as opposed to the amylopectin content. untreated corn flour and the less (357.19 kcal) in the yellow unfermented
These decreases in the content of these macromolecules could be flour. This value was significantly (p < 0.05) affected by variety and
explained by the fact that during operations such as fermentation there is process with less value in white corn flour probably due to smaller
hydrolysis of molecules by microbial amylases to release mono- content in fats as both constitute major sources of energy. The reduction
saccharides, disaccharides and oligosaccharides. In addition, roasting following these processes would probably be related to the reduction in
favors the breaking of the starch bonds principally amylose. In the same lipid, carbohydrate and protein levels following the various treatments as
vein, the lower values of amylose and starch obtained for flour from the mentioned above. The values obtained in this work are similar to those of
different process method is already due to leaching of these into the Eucharia et al. [47] which ranged from 359.07 to 361.44 kcal. The values
soaking water. In addition, this reduction in amylopectin could also be obtained are nevertheless lower than the value recommended (720 kcal)
explained by the presence of easily hydrolysable α-1,4 linkages compared by the FAO/WHO [48] to cover the needs of a child of weaning age
to α-1,6 linkages of amylopectin. It also appears that the white variety, requiring supplementation with protein and lipid sources such as soy-
due to its low composition in certain chemical components (lipids, bean and Moringa Olifera [49].
phenols, vitamins, etc.), would store much more starchy foods than the
yellow variety. Fetuga et al. [45] reported that only cultivar affected 3.2. Recommended nutritional intake (%) of fat, protein and calorific
amylose component of starch. This discrepancy would be due to the energy of different process corn flours in relation to the daily nutritional
conditions of treatment and the types of treatment applied. Like these requirements of children aged 6–59 months
parameters, the amylose:amylopectin ratio gives an idea of the rheo-
logical behaviour of these different flours and also their applicability. It Table 2 shows the energy, proteins and fats composition from
appears that this ratio is significantly (p˂0.05) lowered by the treatment different processes corn flours as a percentage of the recommended di-
with the highest values for the white variety. This is due in particular to etary allowances for children aged 6–59 months.
the high amylose content in this variety, which predisposes it to strong It emerges from this table that the consumption of 100 g of these
retrogradation and high final viscosity as shown by the positive corre- different flours contributes in terms of metabolisable energy between
lation amylose-final viscosity (r ¼ 0.471). This makes the white variety 54.95 and 58.50% for children in the 0–0.5 year old age group,

5
H. Dongmo et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075

Table 4 Table 6
Effect of different processes on physical properties. Contribution of observations for the formation of the different axes.
Sample MD (g/ml) pH TA (meq de NaOH/100 g of DM) F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Class
ab b c
NTB 0.42  0.03 6.43  0.07 19.50  0.70 NTB 31.906 7.945 0.888 40.123 6.093 1
PIB 0.44  0.00a 4.52  0.28e 25.00  1.41b PIB 0.006 2.986 21.246 24.089 22.754 2
PIIB 0.40  0.00b 4.87  0.14d 20.50  0.70c PIIB 7.849 0.432 33.556 2.959 27.018 2
PIIIB 0.35  0.15c 3.80  0.07g 27.00  2.82b PIIIB 4.928 37.580 3.454 1.170 10.835 3
NTJ 0.39  0.02b 6.53  0.35a 25.00  1.41b NTJ 31.080 9.207 7.541 9.439 21.379 1
PIJ 0.43  0.01ab 5.01  0.14c 32.00  1.41a PIJ 0.388 7.913 0.149 9.216 5.862 2
PIIJ 0.41  0.00ab 4.85  0.20d 27.50  0.70b PIIJ 11.894 31.789 0.397 12.785 2.276 2
PIIIJ 0.33  0.02c 4.25  0.07f 34.00  1.41a PIIIJ 11.949 2.149 32.768 0.219 3.783 3

The means (n ¼ 3)  standard deviations followed by the same letter in the same The bold values in the table mean that these observations contribute significantly
column indicate that the differences are not significant (P˃0.05). to the formation of these axes.
NTB: white untreated flour; NTJ: untreated yellow flour; PIB: White unroasted NTB: white untreated flour; NTJ: untreated yellow flour; PIB: White unroasted
flour (Process1); PIJ: Yellow unroasted; PIIB: white roasted flour (Process2); PIIJ: flour; PIJ: Yellow unroasted flour; PIIB: white roasted flour; PIIJ: yellow roasted
yellow roasted flour; PIIIB: White Unfermented flour (Process3); PIIIJ: yellow flour; PIIIB: White Unfermented flour; PIIIJ: yellow unfermented flour.
Unfermented flour; BD: Bulk Density; TA: Titrable AcidIty.
which would be due to a varietal difference, different crop and climatic
42.02–44.73% for children aged between 0.5 and 1 years, 27.48–29.25% conditions. Lipids are also involved in the healthy physiological devel-
for children aged between 1 and 3 years and finally between 19.82 and opment of young children, notably by contributing to brain development
20.72% for children aged between 4 and 6 years. This contribution is and providing the energy necessary for cell nutrition [50]. It follows from
affected by treatment and variety. This would be explained as mentioned the table below that the lipids from breast milk are amply sufficient for
in Table 1 by the composition of each variety and the effect of treatment the proper development of children under one year and beyond an
on energy-providing macronutrients (lipids, proteins and carbohydrates). external intake is necessary. Untreated flours contribute respectively
It also appears that these contributions, regardless of variety and treat- 14.31 and 31.62% for the Kassaï and Atp varieties, demonstrating once
ment, decrease with increasing age as a result of changes in human again the richness of the Atp variety in lipids. It also appears that the
metabolism with age. The percentages of energy contribution of these elimination of lipids, as demonstrated further to the treatments, is the
flours for the 0.5–1 year age group (beginning of complementary feeding reason for the low intake of treated flours (between 5.80 and 18.20% for
in infants) are slightly lower than the 50% recommended by FAO/WHO the 1–3 year age group and 4.16–13.05% for the 4–6 year age group).
[48] for the intake of complementary foods. This would require supple- This low contribution of treated flours in lipids suggests a supplemen-
mentation of these flours with energy-supplying elements [49]. The tation of porridges formulated with lipid sources such as safflower.
percentage energy contribution to the recommended daily intake of this
flour across age groups, varieties and treatments is similar to that of
Klang et al. [49]. 3.3. Mineral composition and bioavailability of these on the various flours
Proteins play a major role in the development of the body's bones,
metabolism, the synthesis of certain vitamins, hormones and brain Table 3 below presents the mineral content of the flours. Hidden
development. A consistent intake of this nutrient in supplementary foods hunger is emerging as the major nutritional problem today due to the
is therefore essential for the proper development of young children. From lack of micronutrients important for physiological processes and the lack
this table it can be seen that untreated yellow and white flours contribute of control by households over processing processes to improve the
72.07 and 80.46% respectively to the daily nitrogen intake. This differ- micronutrient content of food. Micronutrients, especially ions, play very
ence would be linked to the genetic profile of the two varieties. It can also important roles in the body not only for young children but also for
be seen that their contributions decrease with treatment and the types of adults. The Potassium is necessary for regulating the water balance of
treatment resulting from protein loss. As with energy intake, the protein cells, the use of carbohydrates and the building of proteins. It acts against
contribution of the different flours decreases with age to less than 50% disturbances of the heart rhythm and intervenes in the regulation of the
for children in the 4–6 year age group. This shows once again that cereals osmotic pressure of the cell. Potassium participates in membrane trans-
and especially maize are not preferential sources of protein. Supple- port and the activation of enzymes. It also plays a role in muscle
mentation with soya or groundnuts, which are protein-rich legumes, contraction (increased neuromuscular excitability) [53]. Phosphorus
would make it possible to cover these needs beyond 50% for this age combines with calcium in the form of calcium phosphate, a hard sub-
group. The values obtained are higher than those of Klang et al. [49], stance which gives the body its rigidity. Phosphorus is necessary for the
production and use of energy, for the conservation of bones and teeth

Table 5
Effect of the various processes and of the variety on the rheological parameters of the various flours.
Parameter NTB PIB PIIB PIIIB NTJ PIJ PIIJ PIIIJ

PT (
C) 76.25  0.03b 76.17  0.50b 74.65  0.00d 74.50  0.03d 77.77  0.60a 76.20  0.56b 75.40  0.50c 75.00  0.00c
PV (cP) 1329.50  38.80c 1216.00  27.00d 895.50  45.00f 2348.00  18.40a 1076.00  25.40e 882.50  58.60f 431.50  0.70g 1850.00  14.14b
HV (cP) 1053.50  33.20d 1127.00  21.10c 882.00  19.10f 1577.00  27.00a 889.50  20.50e 850.00  28.50g 490.00  0.70h 1419.00  15.50b
FV (cP) 3251.50  92.60a 2198.00  19.00d 1412.00  34.00g 2339.00  0.70c 2528.00  50.10b 1751.50  44.00f 793.00  7.00h 1965.50  4.94e
BD (cP) 276.00  9.76c 89.50  6.36e 29.00  1.73f 770.00  45.60a 186.50  4.94d 32.50  3.53f 29.50  0.00g 431.00  1.41b
SB (cP) 2198.00  95.80a 1071.00  1.40c 545.50  14.00f 762.00  26.50e 1638.50  34.00b 901.00  38.80d 356.00  0.00g 546.50  20.50f
SBR (FV/HV) 3.09 1.95 1.60 1.48 2.84 2.06 1.62 1.38
STR (HV/PV) 0.79 0.93 0.98 0.67 0.83 0.96 1.13 0.77

The means (n ¼ 3)  standard deviations followed by the same letter in the same line indicate that the differences are not significant (P˃0.05).
NTB: white untreated flour; NTJ: untreated yellow flour; PIB: White unroasted flour (Process1); PIJ: Yellow unroasted; PIIB: white roasted flour (Process2); PIIJ: yellow
roasted flour; PIIIB: White Unfermented flour (Process3); PIIIJ: yellow Unfermented flour; PT: Peak temperature; PV: peak viscosity; HV: Holding viscosity; FV: final
viscosity; SB: Setback; BD: Breakdown; SBR: Setback ratio; STR: Stability ratio.

6
H. Dongmo et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075

Table 7 lower as compared to the ion content of many plant-based food com-
Contribution of the variables in the formation of the different axes. modities and implies that corn has high potential in supplying sufficient
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Class quantity of ion to tackle the prevalence of ion-related nutritional defi-
ciency problems using food-based approach in a sustainable manner.
Moisture 1.636 0.338 20.692 0.007 22.659 3
Ash 6.328 1.163 1.929 0.369 0.121 2 The ratio of potassium to sodium (K/Na), calcium to magnesium (Ca/
Lipid 5.852 0.361 3.399 2.997 3.780 1 Mg) and that of calcium to phosphorus (Ca/P) are thus presented in
Proteins 3.610 1.938 9.703 3.810 7.282 2 Table 3. The ratio of K/Na, Ca/Mg and Ca/P varied from 4.07 to 12.24,
Carbohydrates 4.268 0.418 13.250 0.529 0.469 1 7.28 to 10.52 and 0.06 to 0.17 respectively. The K/Na ratio is signifi-
Fiber 3.351 6.805 4.911 0.002 1.698 2
Phytate 5.981 0.401 0.030 3.898 10.164 2
cantly (P˂0.05) affected by the variety and treatments unlike the other
Phenol 2.736 0.825 0.198 28.810 8.823 2 two which are not. The K/Na ratio is very important in the regulation of
Reducing sugar 5.969 1.695 0.478 1.396 1.892 2 blood pressure. The ratios obtained are all higher than 1, which shows
Starch 6.326 1.633 0.844 1.258 0.305 1 that a reduction in the consumption of these different flours by elderly
Amylose 6.562 0.150 2.134 1.680 0.116 1
patients and those suffering from metabolic disorders should be observed
Amylopectin 5.759 2.685 0.550 1.923 0.427 1
Ca 4.606 5.548 0.254 0.051 2.061 2 [58,59]. The Ca/P and Ca/Mg ratio gives an indication of the bioavail-
Fe 5.086 1.426 0.749 1.814 19.455 2 ability of calcium in these flours as well as its impact on the proper
Zn 3.974 4.195 7.742 0.064 0.420 2 development of the human skeleton. The Ca/Mg ratios obtained are
Mg 3.996 6.457 0.073 0.562 2.000 2 greater than 1 indicating that both corn varieties and treatment can serve
Na 3.537 8.261 0.578 0.203 1.051 2
K 0.014 7.019 0.730 1.677 6.259 2
as a good source of minerals (calcium and magnesium) for bone forma-
P 4.398 5.995 0.548 1.421 0.060 2 tion. As for Ca/P, they are all less than 0.5, thus showing that phosphorus
PT 5.219 2.702 0.373 5.603 1.125 3 interferes with the absorption of Ca in the bones by facilitating its
PV 0.061 3.655 6.165 1.097 1.646 3 elimination in the urine [60].
HV 0.096 14.108 3.629 2.828 0.177 3
Phytic acid is a molecule resulting from the association of 6 phosphate
FV 3.832 0.000 11.534 6.547 1.366 3
BD 0.042 11.388 9.464 0.004 5.815 3 groups, hence its strong negative charge and its strong interactions with
SB 6.759 0.834 0.041 1.451 0.829 3 divalent cations (Ca, Mg, Iron and Zn). It forms insoluble salts with the
divalent ions thus reducing their bioavailability. A low proportion of
The bold values in the table mean that these variables contribute significantly to
the formation of these axes.
phytic acid in plants would increase the bioavailability and absorption of
PT: Pasting temperature; PV: Peak viscosity; HV: Holding viscosity; FV: final these cations. The molar ratios, namely, phytate:calcium (Phy:Ca), phy-
viscosity; BD: Breakdown; SB: Setback. tate:magnesium (Phy:Mg), phytate:iron (Phy:Fe), are presented in
Table 3. These ratios range from 1.24 to 2.16, 1.20–11.72 and
[54]. In humans, calcium, magnesium and zinc have a major role in 9.31–19.32 for Phy:Ca, Phy:Fe and Phy:Mg respectively with a significant
building the skeleton, but also in various metabolic functions such as effect of variety and treatment with respect to the Phy:Fe and Phy:Mg
muscle activity, nervous stimuli, enzymatic and hormonal activities and ratios. The values of the Phy:Ca ratio obtained are much higher than the
oxygen transport [54]. Magnesium is found mainly in bones, but also in 0.17 which is considered as the threshold value of this ratio. This shows
most of the body's tissues. Most diets contain enough magnesium, but in that this very present ion is not bioavailable to the organism [61]. The
case of diarrhea for example, wastage is significant and can induce same observations also emerge from the Phy:Mg and Phy:Fe ratios which
weakness, behavioral problems and sometimes convulsions [55]. Sodium are far above the critical value of 1. These observations suggest the
is involved in the acid-base balance and the body's water balance. It improvement of these treatment conditions in order to reduce the phy-
promotes nerve function and muscle contraction [53]. Iron is also tate content as much as possible and make the different divalent cations
involved in the formation of hemoglobin, myoglobin and enzymes bioavailable [33].
playing a crucial role in many metabolic reactions [56].
It emerges from this table that the three processes as well as the va- 3.4. Effect of different processes and variety on physical properties of
riety significantly affect (P˂0.05) the mineral content. The sodium con- different flours
tents vary between 59.28 and 121.53 mg/100 g, potassium between 193
and 427.50 mg/100 g, phosphorus between 98.64 and 152.69 mg/100 g, The functional and physical properties of flour are those that directly
calcium between 29.00 and 37.92 mg/100 g, zinc between 1.15 and determine their end uses. It has been established that the composition
2.87 mg/100 g, magnesium between 2.44 and 4.68 mg/100 g and iron and nature of macromolecules (proteins, fat, and carbohydrates) in food
between 2.05 and 3.25 mg/100 g show that they are influenced by the materials often affect their functionalities and utilisation [62]. Among
variety and the process. All the monovalent ion are reduced by process these physical properties, titratable acidity and pH are the two main
probably due leaching of ion during soaking, destruction by heat and factors influencing the dietary intake of these flours and the digestibility
utilisation by microorganism for metabolism. In contrast, processes of the constituent macronutrients by possible enzyme sources [62,63]. In
significantly (P˂0.05) improved the divalent cation content; this could be this regard, Eucharia et al. [47], reported that the proteins contained in
the effect of a release of these cations supplemented by antinutrients like flours at low pH values were more easily digestible in the gastrointestinal
phytates during treatment. Roasting as shown in the table below showed tract. The mass density is a parameter influencing not only food intake in
the best values in divalent ions probably related to the strong reduction of wet processing, material handlings of flours but also food packaging.
phytate-ion interactions under the effect of heat and hydrolysis by phy- Indeed, Klang et al. [49,62] and Tambo et al. [11,12] reported that flours
tases activated during the increase in temperature. with low mass density (<0.50 g/mL) were suitable for the formulation of
The content values of these different ions are lower than the RDA weaning feeds and that beyond that they would be suitable for
which is 1000, between 8 and 18, 127, 700, 1500 and between 8 and breadmaking.
12 mg/100 g of flour for Ca, Fe, Mg, P, Na and Zn ions respectively but Mass density is a parameter significantly influenced by protein con-
higher than the RDA (287 mg/100 g) for potassium. This shows that the tent and particle size [64]. Table 4 shows that this parameter is signifi-
different maize flours are not preferential sources of these different ions cantly lowered by treatment 3 (Unfermented flour) regardless of variety.
and should be nixtamalized or supplemented with mineral sources (e.g. This would be due to the small particle size of this flour from this process
leaves of Moringa Olifeira) to cover the daily requirements for these ions and its low protein content as shown in Table 1. In addition, all flours
[49]. However, the nixtamalization process actually increases ions con- showed low values (<0.50 g/mL) of mass density which would make
tent of corn about an 18-fold corn [57]. The concentration level of ion is them easily digestible and suitable for the formulation of supplemental
feeds. In the present study, bulk density observed was less than that

7
H. Dongmo et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075

Table 8
Matrix of correlations between nutritional and rheological properties.

RS
Lip

Carb

Fib

Phe
Ash

Pro

Amyp
Starch
Phy

Amy
M
Var

M 1
Ash 0.317 1
Lip ¡0.547a 0.743b 1
Pro 0.118 0.835b 0.320 1
car 0.104 ¡0.901b ¡0.514a ¡0.833b 1
Fib 0.084 0.873b 0.427 0.839b ¡0.839b 1
Phy ¡0.585a 0.893b 0.784b 0.670a ¡0.707a 0.653a 1
Phe 0.371 0.680a 0.571a 0.438 ¡0.578a 0.529a 0.847b 1
RS 0.535a ¡0.703a ¡0.818b ¡0.557a 0.514a 0.349 ¡0.756a 0.417 1
Starch ¡0.530a 0.738a 0.878b 0.516a ¡0.553a 0.372 0.770a 0.399 ¡0.974b 1
Amy ¡0.589a 0.791b 0.899b 0.527a ¡0.568a 0.498 0.801b 0.412 ¡0.903b 0.962b 1
Amyp 0.490 0.681a 0.840b 0.492 ¡0.509a 0.300 0.700a 0.327 ¡0.979b 0.989b 0.919b 1
Ca 0.291 ¡0.626a ¡0.749a 0.437 0.570a 0.199 ¡0.650a 0.353 0.880b ¡0.910b ¡0.791b ¡0.932b
Fe 0.284 ¡0.627a ¡0.855b 0.363 0.497 0.375 ¡0.542a 0.213 0.848b ¡0.882b ¡0.875b ¡0.875b
Zn 0.586a 0.449 ¡0.870b 0.102 0.222 0.028 ¡0.578a 0.265 0.853b ¡0.904b ¡0,863b ¡0.898b
Mg 0.220 0.484 ¡0.739a 0.268 0.444 0.102 ¡0.534a 0.247 0.852b ¡0.881b ¡0.791b ¡0.884b
Na 0.293 0.831b 0.475 0.781b ¡0.695a 0.956b 0.684a 0.532a 0.408 0.411 0.561a 0.329
K 0.070 0.106 0.379 0.489 0.070 0.397 0.052 0.294 0.120 0.145 0.021 0.173
P ¡0.529a 0.845b 0.623a 0.702a ¡0.610a 0.859b 0.741a 0.461 ¡0.526a 0.576a 0.738a 0.493
PT 0.326 0.868b 0.599a 0.817b ¡0.745a 0.860b 0.728a 0.399 ¡0.651a 0.678a 0.792b 0.607a
PV 0.417 0.232 0.127 0.091 0.012 0.489 0.228 0.277 0.190 0.154 0.083 0.253
HV 0.388 0.301 0.129 0.148 0.088 ¡0.543a 0.296 0.365 0.212 0.157 0.080 0.264
FV 0.105 0.812b 0.569a 0.708a ¡0.885b 0.703a 0.662a 0.668a ¡0.561a 0.532a 0.471 0.526a
BD 0.436 0.145 0.134 0.028 0.129 0.401 0.137 0.147 0.127 0.119 0.102 0.201
SB 0.405 0.827b 0.940b 0.521a ¡0.692a 0.503a 0.848b 0.623a ¡0.905b 0.933b 0.909b 0.903b

The values in bold carrying a and b meaningfully differ and respectively at P < 0.05 and P < 0.01.
The bold values in the table mean that these variables contribute significantly to the correlation.
M: Moisture; Lip: Lipids; Pro: Proteins; Car: Carbohydrates; RS: Reducing sugar; Fib: Fibers; Phy: Phytates; Phe: Phenols; Amy: Amylose; Amyp: Amylopectin; PT:
Pasting temperature; PV: Peak viscosity; HV: Holding viscosity; FV: final viscosity; BD: Breakdown; SB: Setback.

obtained by Khan and Dutta [65] who was 0.67 g/mL in raw form of interactions, and composition, especially protein and lipids that block
amaranth flour. This difference would be due to the high protein content contact between heat and starch [66]. Different pasting temperatures
of amaranth grains compared to corn and the size of the granules. were observed among these different corn flours with significant differ-
The titratable acidity and pH are two parameters that are influenced ence (p < 0.05). The table below shows that the pasting temperature
by the transformation processes involving steeping, fermentation and varies between 74.50 and 77.77
C. This parameter is affected by the
heat treatment. Acidification is very important in the acceptability of a treatment and the variety with a high value for the yellow variety. This
product. According to Klang et al. [62], acceptability and good food would be explained by the richness of the yellow variety in lipids which
intake of foods is possible at pH levels between 5 and 7. It appears from interact strongly with the amyloidosis limiting its swelling. In the same
Table 4 that these two parameters are significantly (p < 0.05) affected by way, the untreated flours presented the highest pasting temperatures as a
the variety and by the treatment regardless of the variety. This could be consequence of their high protein and lipid content and the strong in-
explained with regard to the treatment of an aqueous hydrolysis of teractions between these different constituents that act as a temperature
digestible carbohydrates (starch) following soaking and fermentation of barrier. The reduction following the various treatments is due to a
these leading to the production of organic acids like lactic acid leading to reduction in protein and lipid content and the beginning of hydrolysis of
a reduction of these two parameters. In addition to these effects, it also the low energy interactions maintaining the crystalline structure of the
emerges that the titratable acidity of flours from process 2 and untreated starch. Non-fermented flours have the lowest pasting temperature due to
flours do not differ statistically; this would be due to a reduction by their small particle size. These starch temperatures are indicative of the
evaporation under the effect of heat of the organic acids produced during minimum energy required to initiate rapid water absorption and swelling
the previous unit operations. The richness in protein and especially in of the starch granules resulting in increased viscosity [67].
acidic amino acids such as aspartic and glutamic acids of the white va- Peak viscosities reflect the maximum swelling of starch granules, as
riety makes it more acidic. The pH values of the treated flours are lower well as the binding capacity of the starch granules to water and ease with
than the range (5–7) necessary for a good intake by children. The values which starch granules are disintegrated [68]. So flours that have a high
obtained for titratable acidity are higher than those of Tsopbeng et al. starch and phosphorus contents will have a high swelling power with
[10] and Tambo et al. [11,12] which were 13 and 2.26 meq of certainly high peak viscosity and weaker cohesive forces within its
NaOH/100 g of DM respectively. This would be the effect of a difference crystalline structure than those with lower peak viscosities. This explains
in variety, the difference in treatment as well as the treatment time for the higher peak viscosity value observed in untreated and unfermented
similar operations. flours (see Table 1 for flours composition). The lower peak viscosity
values (895.50 cP and 431.50 Cp for Kassaï and Atp respectively)
3.5. Effect of different processes and variety on rheological parameters observed with roasted flours would be the consequence of a strong hy-
drolysis of the starch components during heat treatment, a loss of phos-
The pasting profiles of treated and untreated corn flours are presented phorus ion and a weakening of the interactions maintaining the
in Fig. 1 and the values of various pasting properties are given in Table 5. crystalline structure of the starch. Nevertheless, it appears that this flour
The pasting temperature is the temperature at which a starchy substance (roasted) would be the most suitable for the formulation of infant foods
reaches maximum swelling due to high water retention. It is therefore because of its low viscosity but germination before the application of
dependent on the amylose/amylose ratio, particle size, lipid-amylose other treatments or the use of amylase sources would solve this viscosity

8
H. Dongmo et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075
Ca

Zn
Fe

SB
Na

BD
Mg

PT

HV
PV

FV
K

P
1
0.746a 1
0.823b 0.841b 1
0.888b 0.866b 0.878b 1
0.137 0.418 0.112 0.106 1
0.340 0.211 0.401 0.379 0.451 1
0.288 ¡0.514a 0.343 0.213 0.928b 0.426 1
0.429 ¡0.664a 0.395 0.450 0.902b 0.432 0.909b 1
0.485 0.099 0.184 0.460 ¡0.632a 0.385 ¡0.630a 0.360 1
0.441 0.157 0.217 0.477 ¡0.644a 0.366 ¡0.646a 0.360 0.980b 1
¡0.581a ¡0.525a 0.256 0.454 0.578a 0.216 0.438 0.556a 0.101 0.036 1
0.496 0.007 0.114 0.391 ¡0.592a 0.389 ¡0.587b 0.356 0.962b 0.889b 0.165 1
¡0.858b ¡0.875b ¡0.827b ¡0.848b 0.510a 0.314 0.588b 0.684a 0.066 0.047 0.728b 0.066 1

problem [46,62]. phenomenon is both related to the amylose content and the length of its
The Holding viscosity translates the viscosity at 95
C until the for- amylose chains [73]. The retrogradation ability of white flours which is
mation of a stable lug and provides information on the rigidity of the in general greater than that of yellow flours could be explained by their
starch granules. It's influenced by the rate of amylose exudation, higher amylose content and difference in rigidity of swollen granules
amylose-lipid complex formation, granule swelling and competition be- [46]. The reduction of this parameter following processes 1 and 2 would
tween exudated amylose and remaining granules for free water. High be linked to a strong hydrolysis of the amylose following these treat-
Holding viscosity illustrates a low resistance of the sample to shear ments. On the other hand, for process 3, the increase would be the effect
stresses. This parameter varies between 490 cP for yellow roasted treated of a strong reduction in the content of macronutrients (lipids and pro-
flour and 1053.55 cP for white untreated flour with a lowering under the teins) which interact with the amyloid, limiting its swelling and reasso-
effect of the first two treatments. The yellow variety nevertheless pre- ciation capacity, hence the negative correlations between BD, lipids
sented the weakest which would be the effect of the strong lipid-amylose (r ¼ 0.134) and proteins (r ¼ 0.028).
interactions and its high phosphate content making it resistant to the The setback value, which refers to the ability to retrograde, is an in-
shear phenomenon and therefore more rigid and less hydrolysable [46]. dicator of the reassociation of amylose molecules released during gela-
Concerning non-fermented flours (process 3), a very fine granule size tinization [72]. It reveals the ability of starch to form a gel after heat
(50 μm), an increased loss of nutrients, especially lipids, proteins, phos- treatment. In this work, the setback varies from 356 to 3198 cP with a
phorus and sodium during this process would be the cause of the high reduction following the different treatments and low values observed
shear of its amylose due to its high exposure to heat. with the white variety. This would be justified by the high amylose/a-
The final viscosity, which is highly dependent on the composition of mylopectin ratio in the untreated flours and the high lipid content in the
the amylose, the degree of rigidity of the crystalline structure and the yellow sample [73]. This property shows that once the different treat-
tendency of the swollen amylose to return to its original shape after ments and the supplementation of the treated flours as a source of nu-
cooling [69,70], ranges from 793 cP to 3251.50 cP followed by a trients (lipids and proteins in particular) lost during these treatments
reduction after treatment that may be explained by hydrolysis of the would be very important for application in infant feeding.
amylose to a low molecular weight molecule after treatment. The final The stability and setback ratio provide information on the ability of
viscosity values of white flours are higher than those of yellow flours and the swollen starch to withstand the stresses of temperature, shear and
could be explained by the poverty of the white variety in amylopectin gelatinization during processing. In fact, the higher the stability ratio, the
[71]. The high viscosity of untreated flours thus reflects the tendency of less starch in this retrograde matrix is bound to its high phosphorus
the amylose contained in them to retrograde, which is still in its native content as well as its high amylopectin content and its strong branching,
state and therefore more prone to this phenomenon [69]. The use of these contrary to the setback ratio [74]. These two parameters vary from 1.38
untreated flours in the formulation of weaning foods would require prior to 3.09 and from 0.67 to 1.13 for the Setbak and Stability ratios
enzymatic treatment in order to reduce its high final viscosity, which respectively. Untreated white and yellow flours had the highest setback
would probably have an impact on the food intake of young infants. ratios, thus showing a strong downgrading compared to treated flours,
The Breakdown is an indicator of the rearrangement of amylose which is not the case for the Stability ratio, where the highest values were
molecules during cooling by the formation of hydrogen bonds between observed with processes 2 and 3. The values for untreated flours are
the hydroxyl groups enlarged during gelatinization [72]. This higher than those of Klang et al. [46], which was 1.31 for the Setback

9
H. Dongmo et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075

Fig. 1. Viscosity profile of different processing flours under heating and cooling.
NTB: white untreated flour; NTJ: untreated yellow flour; PIB: White unroasted flour (Process1); PIJ: Yellow unroasted; PIIB: white roasted flour (Process2); PIIJ:
yellow roasted flour; PIIIB: White Unfermented flour (Process3); PIIIJ: yellow Unfermented flour.

ratio in cassava flour probably related to its high amylose/amylopectin properties) gives 5 principal components. Table 6 shows the contribution
ratio compared to that of corn. of the observations for the formation of different axes. The principal
components analysis (PCA) allowed us to establish a map of the variables
of the flour samples according to the process. The ascending classification
3.6. Studies of the correlations between nutritional and rheological and the dendogram have to divide these observations into three classes.
properties The principal axe 1 emphasizes essentially the variation due to NTB and
NTJ. The formation of axis 2 is strongly influenced by PIIIB and PIIJ,
The principal component analysis evaluated on the 8 corn (observa- while PIIB and PIIIJ significantly influenced the formation of axis F3,
tions) flours from 25 variables (physico-chemical and rheological

Fig. 2. Correlation diagrams between factors (variables and observations).

PV: peak viscosity; HV: Holding viscosity; FV: final viscosity; BD: Breakdown; SB: Setback; PT: Pasting temperature; M: Moisture; NTB: white untreated flour; NTJ:
untreated yellow flour; PIB: White unroasted flour (process 1); PIJ: Yellow unroasted flour; PIIB: white roasted flour (Process2); PIIJ: yellow roasted flour; PIIIB: White
Unfermented flour (process 3); PIIIJ: yellow Unfermented flour.

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H. Dongmo et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075

NTB the axis F4 and finally PIB, PIIB and NTJ the axis F5. The ascending acids (tyrosine, serine and threonine) present in the active site of these
hierarchical classification reveals that the chemical composition and enzymes.
rheological properties of NTJ/NTB, PIB/PIIB/PIJ/PIIJ and PIIIB/PIIIJ are Moisture content, PT, PV, HV, FV, BD and SB form the third class. PT
very close. Tambo et al. [11,12] also reported similar observations on is significantly and positively correlated with FV (r ¼ 0.556; P˂0.05) and
dehulled and non-depulled maize meal. SB (r ¼ 0.684; P˂0.05). As presented in Table 5 above, flours with high PT
The contribution of the variables for the formation of the main axes is also had high FV and SB due to their amylose/amylopectin ratio, phos-
presented in Table 7. It turns out that the ash content, starch, amylose phorus content and granule size. Similarly, flours with high PV were
and retrogradation ability contribute mainly to the formation of the F1 found to be those with high HV and BD.
axis up to 6.328; 6.326; 6.562 and 6.759% respectively. The F2 axis is
formed by the contributions of the fiber content, peak viscosity; viscosity 4. Conclusion
at the plateau; viscosity drop to 6.805; 13.655; 14.108 and 11.38%
respectively. The water content, the carbohydrate content and the final At the end of this work who aim was to study the influence of the
viscosity contribute 20.692 respectively; 13.250 and 11.234% in the process and the variety on the physico-chemical and rheological prop-
formation of the F3 axis. The F4 axis is formed by the contributions of the erties of corn flour. It appears from the analysis carried out that the white
phenol and potassium content; 28.810 and 31.677% respectively. The untreated flour has the highest carbohydrate (75.3%) and protein
water content; the phytate content and the iron content contribute (11.37%) contents while the ash content (2.05%), lipid (5.28%), pH,
mainly to the formation of the F5 axis to the tune of 22.659; 10.698 and mass density, minerals and phytates were more representative in un-
19.45% respectively. treated yellow flour. The flours from process 1 presented the protein
Unroasted flours (process 1) are characterized by the carbohydrates, (9.1% for the white variety and 8.9% for the yellow variety) and lipid
starch, amylose, amylopectin and lipids contents. This majority compo- contents (1.09% for the white variety and 3.04% for the variety yellow)
sition in these molecules could be explained by the fact that the treat- highest while the highest content of digestible carbohydrates was
ments did not lead to a thorough hydrolysis of the starch molecules. In observed with process 2 (83.07% for the white variety and 78.32% for
addition, the high lipid content could be explained by the binding of the the yellow variety). The flours from process 3 had the lowest protein
oil-starch complex [49]. Roasted flours (process 2) are characterized by contents (7.99% for the white variety and 7.09% for the yellow variety).
their mineral, anti-nutrient and protein content. The mineral content It follows that process 1 makes it possible to best preserve the nutritional
could be explained by the breakdown of the phytate - ion bond during properties of the flours. Analysis of the rheological properties has shown
roasting [34]. The anti-nutrients content could be explained by the that white untreated flour has the highest downgrade ability (2198 cP).
combination of soaking and fermentation treatments. In addition, Les- Flours from process 1 (unroasted flours) exhibited the highest downgrade
tienne et al. [15] showed that soaking leads to a reduction in the phytate capability (1071 cP for the white variety and 901 cP for the yellow va-
content. The Unfermented flours (process 3) are characterized by the riety) unlike flours from process 2 (roasted flours) which presented the
most important rheological properties. This is due to the fact that the lowest values for this parameter (545.5 cP for the white variety and
treatments were not caused by changes in starch. In addition, Phuka et al. 356 cP for the yellow variety). It follows that concerning the physico-
[75] have shown that soaking does not modify significantly the rheo- chemical and rheological properties, in particular the ability to retro-
logical properties (see Fig. 2). Fig. 2 shows the correlation diagrams gradation, yellow unroasted flour is the most adequate in the preparation
between the factors. They allow to visualize the proximity between the of gruels because of their low value of ability to retrogradation, high
different variables and the observations. nutritional value and adequate physical properties.
The classification from Table 7 shows that the variables are grouped
into 3 main classes whose correlations are presented in Table 8 below. Originality of work
The correlations marked in bold are significant and that carry a and b are
significant at level 5% and 1% respectively. The authors declare that this work is original and has not be sub-
The first class includes carbohydrates, lipids, starch, amylopectin and mitted anywhere.
amylopectin. Lipids are positively correlated with starch (r ¼ 0.878;
P˂0.01), amylose (r ¼ 0.899; P˂0.01) and amylopectin (r ¼ 0.840; P˂0.01) Additional informatio
and negatively correlated with carbohydrates (r ¼ 0.541; P˂0.05).
Lipids form complexes with amylose and thus influence the rheological No additional information is available for this paper.
properties related to this molecule [76]. An increase in the amylose
content therefore leads to an increase in the lipid content. The expression Funding
of the genes responsible for carbohydrate synthesis represses those of
lipids, which has the opposite effect on the variations in their No funding has received by authors.
proportions.
Proteins, ashes, phytates, fibers, phenols, reducing sugars, Ca, Fe, Zn, Ethical approval
Mg, Na, K and P form the second class. Phthalates are strongly correlated
with Ca (r ¼ 0.650; P˂0.05), Fe (r ¼ 0.542; P˂0.05), Zn (r ¼ 0.578; This article does not contain any studies with humans or animals
P˂0.05), Mg (r ¼ 0.534; P˂0.05), Na (r ¼ 0.684; P˂0.05) and P participants performed by any of the authors.
(r ¼ 0.741; P˂0.05). Phytates are molecules made up of a phosphate
group assembly that have the ability to retain divalent cations through Authors’ contribution
ionic interactions between the negative charges of phosphates and the
positive charges of cations resulting in a reduction in their bioavailability Conceptualization, sample collecting, preparation and designing of
[34]. Positive fiber-bound proteins (r ¼ 0.839; P˂0.01), Na (r ¼ 0.781; research work (HD, JMK, STT); execution of laboratory experiments and
P˂0.01) and P (r ¼ 0.702; P˂0.05). Digestible carbohydrates such as cel- data collection (HD, STT, GTB, ANM, BSF, MCTD); Analysis of data and
lulose are commonly synthesized in protein-bound form in plant cells Interpretation (HD, JMK, STT, GTB, ANM, BSF, MCTD); supervision of
called glycoproteins, whose evolution is dependent on protein and fiber the work (JMK); preparation of manuscript (all the authors).
content. Enzymes, particularly metalloenzymes, are proteins whose ac-
tivity is dependent on the presence of certain ions such as Na in amylases Declaration of competing interest
and polyphenoloxydases [63]. The catalytic mechanism of some enzymes
involves the transfer of phosphate groups via the hydroxylated amino The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. They also

11
H. Dongmo et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100075

declare that, the publication was approved by all authors and tacitly or [25] J. Chrastyl, Improved colorimetric determination of amylose in starch or flour,
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explicitly by the responsible authorities where the work was carried out,
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and that, if accepted, it will not be published elsewhere in the same form, effects and their relationship to phytonutrients in fruits of sea buckthorn (Hippophae
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