Solar Installation Notes 1-1
Solar Installation Notes 1-1
Solar Installation Notes 1-1
SOLAR INSTALLATION
The solar system module unit is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and
altitudes necessary to understand and install solar installation system
Trainees will appreciate prior knowledge and skills acquired in Electrical Installation I.
OBJECTIVES BY THE END OF THE MODULE
i. Understand the basic principles of solar system
ii. Create awareness in the application of solar systems
iii. Define relevant skills for installation of solar system
iv. Observe safety rules and standards when installing solar system
v. Interpret solar system data and to determine solar sizes
vi. Institute quality control measures while installing solar systems
COURSE OUTLINE
1 SOLAR INSTALLATION -Solar energy and its conversion
SYSTEM -Terms used with solar system
-Methods of solar energy harvesting
-Applications
2 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC -Parts of photovoltaic
SYSTEM -Functions of each part of a voltaic system
-Layout of photovoltaic system
3 SOLAR SYSTEM -Types of accessories
ACCESSORIES -Types of cable joints
-Wiring systems
-Choice of wiring system
-Tests performed on complete installations
-Regulations governing solar installations
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SOLAR SYSTEM
SOLAR ENERGY
This is energy from the sun
Solar energy can be directly transformed into three useful forms. chemical, heat and
electrical energy.
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSIONS
a. Solar energy to chemical energy
Green plants transform solar energy into chemical by the process of photosynthesis in
order to make their food.
b. Solar energy to heat energy (solar thermal)
Solar heating devices (parabolic) dish, flat plate collector, mirrors etc, converts solar
energy which can be used for cooking, water heating, drying etc.
c. Solar energy to electrical energy
Solar electric devices (solar cells) converts energy from the sun into electrical energy
which is used in lighting, phone charging and running machines.
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FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE AMOUNT OF RADIATION IN AN AREA ARE
Solar elevation. Where the sun sits in the sky determines the level of UV radiation
reaching us.
Ozone.
Cloud cover.
Ground surface reflectivity.
Aerosols and pollutants.
Direct and diffuse UV.
SOLAR IRRADIANCE
Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received from the Sun in the form of
electromagnetic radiation as measured in the wavelength range of the measuring
instrument.
The solar irradiance is measured in watt per square metre (W/m2) in SI units. i.e /.Is the
power received per unit area from the sun. It is measured in watts per square meter.
If a solar module / panel is facing the sun directly/perpendicularly the irradiant will be
higher than if the module is at an angle with the sun.
The angle at which the sun beam strikes the surface of the panel is called solar incident
angle. More energy is received when the solar incident angle is 900.
Tracking – Is the process of turning a solar panel to face the sun throughout the day.
NB. Irradiance starts to increase from dawn and reaches to its maximum at noon. Then it
reduces until dusk.
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Insolation /irradiation
It is the total amount of solar energy received on a specified area over a specified period
of time. It is measured in kWh/m2/day
It is the energy of solar radiation or quantity of solar radiation within an area of 1m2.
The fig below shows the relationship between irradiance and insolation. The line
indicates irradiance and the curve represents insolation, which means the total energy
received from the sun in a day.
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METHODS OF HARVESTING ENERGY
Solar energy can be harvested in two forms
i. Heat /thermal solar
ii. Electricity
HEAT / THERMAL SOLAR
a. Parabolic dish
A parabolic reflector is a reflective surface used to collect radiant energy. Its shape is part
of a circular paraboloid, that is, the surface generated by a parabola revolving around its
axis.
b. Parabolic trough
Parabolic trough is a set of concave mirrors that concentrate solar rays on the receiver
tube that is located in the focus. These troughs can track the Sun around one axis,
typically oriented north–south to ensure the highest possible efficiency. The fluid flows
through this tube and absorbs heat from the concentrated solar energy.
c. S
ingle reflectors
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These are flat surfaces e.g mirrors, cigarette foils or aluminum foil which are arranged
around a device to increase the radiation up on it.
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GENERAL GROUPS OF SOLAR COOKERS
i. BOX-TYPE COOKERS
Box-type solar cookers consist of an insulated box, metallic cooking
pots inside the box, double glass lid on the cooking tray, and a reflecting
mirror fitted on the underside of the lid of the box. The cooking tray is
insulated on the sides and bottom.
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iii. HEAT ACCUMULATING TYPE COOKER
Use collectors to transfer heat to a medium coil where it can be stored to
future use.
DISADVANTAGES
i. Can only be used on a sunny day
ii. Food takes long to cook
iii. Solar cookers need trained cooks to use them.
iv. Not all foods can be cooked by solar
v. With concentrating type, the cook may need protecting sunlight glass.
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SOLAR EQUIPMENT AND APPROXIMATE EFFICIENCY
Solar electricity is electric power generated from sunlight using devices called solar cell
modules.
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7. Electric fencing. Used in electric fence to scare away wild animals in game parks.
8. Street lighting
9. Security systems
ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ELETRIC POWER
1. Produce electricity quietly, without giving smoke or pollutants
2. Require very little maintenance as compared to others e.g. generators since solar panel do
not have moving parts
3. Properly installed solar electric system are safe. Risk of electric shock is small because of
the low system voltage. Fire risks are also lower as compared to the households which use
kerosene.
4. Solar electric system consumes no fuel/funds since it uses freely available sun hence
economical / cheap.
5. Solar electric systems can be tailored to meet the power demand of each individual
application i.e. they can be expanded easily by adding more panels and batteries.
6. It has stable voltage supply, no power interruptions, surges or spikes.
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5.
BASICS OF ELECTRICITY: Definitions terms
-DC- Direct current is one-directional flow of electric charge.
-AC - Alternating current is an electric current which periodically reverses direction and changes
its magnitude continuously with time in contrast to direct current which flows only in one
direction.
Voltage - Also called electromotive force, is a quantitative expression of the potential difference
in charge between two points in an electrical field.
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Current - An electric current is a stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving
through an electrical conductor or space.
Resistance - electrical resistance–is a force that counteracts the flow of current
Power - Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical energy is transferred by an
electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second.
Energy - Electrical energy is energy derived as a result of movement of electrically charged
particles.
Ohms law - Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points.
Current law - Gustav Kirchhoff's Current Law is one of the fundamental laws used for circuit
analysis. His current law states that for a parallel path the total current entering a circuit’s
junction is exactly equal to the total current leaving the same junction.
Voltage law - ΣV =0
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VOLTAGE DROP
What is voltage drop?
•Voltage drop is the loss of voltage (and hence power) due to resistance in long cable runs. If the
wires cross section area is too small for a given current, an unacceptable voltage drop will occur
over its length.
•Resistance in the cable converts electrical energy to heat and causes a consequent voltage drop.
When a voltage drop is too large in, for example, the cables from PV module or array, the battery
or battery bank will not be charged properly, in distribution circuit it will affect performance of
lamps and appliances, and may damage them. The voltage drop also wastes expensive energy
from the PV array and battery.
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Site Selection
No other potential renewable energy
No hydro potential, geothermic potential, Wind potential
Far away from grid or no access, at least for the coming 10 years
Due to incompatible population size
Due to difficult geographical nature
Due to limited power
Need open space
No tall trees
No shadows between 8am till 4pm
Eg. 1kWp PV array will occupy at least 8m² of roof / ground
If roof installation is selected, consider structural survey if the roof is in need of repair
Needs ventilated room for battery based systems
Check affordability of the system to the customer
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Type of PV Systems
NB. Now a days LED lamps are replacing CFL lamps for DC SHS
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Grid-tied with Battery Back-up
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Exercise
1. What are the basic PV system components?
2. What Kind of electric current do we get from solar modules?
3. Why is AC SHS (solar home system) is less efficient than DC SHS?
4. What is the importance of calculating the voltage drop in a solar power system?
5. Explain the type of Hazards that could occur while working with batteries.
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BASICS OF SOLAR CELLS
SOLAR CELLS/PV CELL
It’s a semiconductor device that converts the energy from sunlight into electrical energy
Solar cells are usually made from silicon, the same material for transistor and integrated
circuits.
Introducing phosphorous
The process of "doping" introduces an atom of another element into the silicon crystal to alter
its electrical properties. Phosphorus atoms, which have five valence electrons, are used for
doping n-type silicon (because phosphorous provides its fifth, free, electron).
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Introducing Boron
Of course, n-type silicon cannot form the electric field by itself; it's also necessary to have some
silicon altered to have the opposite electrical properties. So, boron, which has three valence
electrons, is used for doping p-type silicon.
To induce the electric field within a PV cell, two separate semiconductors are sandwiched
together. The "p" and "n" types of semiconductors correspond to "positive" and "negative ".
Although both materials are electrically neutral, n-type silicon has excess electrons and p-type
silicon has excess holes. Sandwiching these together creates a p/n junction at their interface,
thereby creating an electric field.
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When sunlight hits the PV cell, some of the electrons in the N-type silicon layer would be
stimulated to move across the PN junction to the P type side of silicon layer, leaving the P type
layer to have a higher voltage potential than the N-type.
This creates an electric current flow when the PV cell is connected to the load. The voltage
potential of a single PV cell is about 0.5V to 0.6 V at ( Voc)
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COMPONENTS USED TO PROVIDE SOLAR POWER
The four primary components for producing electricity using solar power which provides
240V AC power are.
i. Solar panel (Photovoltaic module)
- Converts solar energy into electrical energy.
- Long life of 20Years
ii. Solar Battery
- Stores energy electricity
iii. Charge controller
- Protects battery from overcharge and over discharge
iv. Inverters
- It converts DC to AC.
- Not necessary for DC system
v. Loads
- DC lights
vi. Cables
It is used to convert sunlight into electricity and then charges the battery. The PV module
consists of solar cells which converts the solar radiation energy to DC electricity. The
solar cell is made from a silicon semiconductor.
One cell produces approximately 0.5V regardless of size and strength of sunlight. On the
other hand, output current depends on the size of the cell and the strength of sunlight. A
10cm by 10 cm mono-crystalline cell produce approximately 3A. Therefore it’s necessary
to connect many cells to obtain enough voltage and current. This is called a solar PV
module. Since SHS system use 12V batteries, a PV module for SHS uses 36 cells in
series connection to obtain appropriate voltage.
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TYPES OF PV MODULES
a. Crystalline silicon PV modules
Is a widely used for solar PV modules. Three types of crystalline cells/solar cells are
i. Mono-crystalline.
They are cut from a single large crystal of silicon. They are chemically
treated to enhance their electrical properties. Antireflective coating is
applied to the cell surface to help it absorb radiation more effectively.
CHARACTERISTICS/DESCRIPTIONS
a. They are most expensive
b. It has a higher efficiency than polycrystalline cell (11% - 16%). That is
they are more efficient in terms of energy generation
c. they have a single color tone
d. they have a long life, up to 20years meaning that they are chemically
stable
-It has a smaller dimension compared to polycrystalline
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ii. Polycrystalline
Refers to cells made from many crystals. They are made in the same way
as in monocrystalline cells.
CHARACTERISTICS/DESCRIPTIONS
a. Cheaper to buy than monocrystalline
b. It’s slightly less efficient (9-13%) than monocrystalline.
c. Have a longer life
d. Have multiple colour patterns
iii. Amorphous
Are made by depositing a thin film of silicon on to a sheet of another material such as a
steel.
They are often seen in small solar cells such as calculator, watches, toys etc.
They are relatively cheap and their power ranges about 10W and 20W.
The efficiency is much lower of the crystalline mentioned above.
Major disadvantages are degradation of efficiency and weakness against lighting surge.
CHARACTERISTICS/DESCRIPTION OF ARMORPHOUS
a. They are cheaper than mono-crystalline and polycrystalline.
b. Have the lowest efficiency (3-6%) than poly and mono-crystalline.
c. They are the most suitable for applications of 40W and below.
The output of the solar panel is measured in Watts, and the value is determined by
multiplying the rated current and the voltage.
POWER in Watts = volts x Amperes
Example
1. A solar panel is rated 12V 60W, Determine the current it can supply
Sln.
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Watts = volts ×Amperes
60 = 12 × A
A= 5A
Arrangements of many solar cells wired in series sealed between glass or plastic, and supported
inside a metal plate are called solar cell modules.
Groups of modules mounted together are called are called arrays.
The process by which mono or polycrystalline solar cells are sealed between glasses and plastic
is called Encapsulation.
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MODULE RATING
All solar modules are rated according to their maximum output or peak power.
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FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE OUTPUT OF A SOLAR PANEL
i. Amount of solar radiation
A lot of power is obtained when there is a lot of sunlight.
ii. The angle of the module with respect to the solar(sun)
Much energy is collected when the solar pane faces the sun at an angle of 90 0.
iii. Temperature
The temperature of the panel affects the output voltage inversely. For this reason,
installers are encouraged to mount solar panels on poles, on structures above the
roof, or in places where they are cooled by the wind in order to keep the output as
high as possible.
iv. Degradation of dust on the module
Dust on the surface of a PV module reduces the intensity of solar radiation
reaching the solar cell surface. Degradation is high for amorphous type modules.
NB. Standard measurements of output power are done at specific conditions of 1kW/m 2,
250C, AM1.5 (Air Mass).
The major solar PV module that is affected by temperature is voltage. When the module
temperature increases, the voltage decreases and the current slightly decreases.
Diagram pp. 42
v. Shading
A shadow or a shade across a module can almost stop electricity production by as
much as 80%.
vi. Surface area of the panel
The larger the surface area the higher the output.
Where K is the total loss factor. This book uses 0.8 for crystalline and 0.6 for
amorphous PV modules.
NB. Catalogue is the indicated value.
MODULE WIRING / CONNECTION
SERIES CONNECTION
Solar panels are said to be connected in series when the positive terminal of one
panel is connected to the negative terminal of the other and so on.
The result is that the voltage of the panels added together but the currents stays
the same as that of one panel.
For example, if three-12V/3.5A panels are wired in series
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Total voltage = 12×3 = 36V
Currents remains 3.5A
If one pane in series fails, it provides so much resistance that the other modules
may not be able to operate.
The By-pass diode allows the currents from the other panels to flow through the
right direction.
Diagram denotes
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A, B and C are By-pass diodes. – They ensures continuous flow of currents even
if the panel is faulty.
D is the blocking diode – It prevents reverse flow of electric current especially at
night or when the panel is not charging the battery.
PARALLEL
It refers to connecting positive terminal of one panel to the positive terminal of
the other panel, also negative terminals are connected the negative terminal of the
other panel.
The result is that the voltage remains the same but the current is the sum number
of panels rating.
Like in the above example, if they are connected in parallel then
The voltage = 12V
Current = 32
Diagram denotes
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I-V CURVE
PV modules have the specific characteristic of its output power profile. The output power varies
depending on voltage you use. This profile is shown as the I-V curve.
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Current at short-circuit (Isc) – It is the maximum current obtained when voltage is zero (0V).
Its also a short circuit current when the ammeter is connected across positive and negative
terminal on full sunlight.
Voltage at open circuit (Voc)- It is the maximum voltage obtained when current is zero(0A).It’s
an open circuit voltage measured under full sunlight.
Power maximum (Pmax) – The point on I-V curve where maximum power is obtained. It
indicates the rated output power of a solar PV module also called Watt peak (Wp).
The output power voltage of the solar PV module ranges from 0v – Voc.
Voc is about 20.5V to 22V, depending on the make of modules.
The output current is almost constant between 0V to 15V range and then current drops quickly at
higher voltage.
Since the power is obtained by multiplying current by voltage, then output power of the solar
module varies depending on the voltage.
Therefore the output power is rated at the maximum output power called Pm (Pmax). This value
is used to indicateoutput power of a PVmodule called Watt peak(Wp).
Note: For every module, there is only one point which shows the maximum output power. This
point is called maximum power point(Mpp) or (Pmax).
At Mpp the value of V =Vmp and I=Imp.
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PV module is able to make short circuit safely i.e short circuit does not damage a solar PV
module.
When module is shorted, the highest current from the PV is called short circuit current (Isc).
The Current at the battery voltage is slightly higher than Imp. The voltage is much lower than
Vmp. Thus the output power at the battery voltage range is always lower than the rated power at
Pmax.
NB. The output power at the battery voltage is about 80% of the rated power (Pm).
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
EFFECT OF IRRADIANCE
EFFECT OF SHADING
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NOTE. Bypass diodes are inbuilt in the module and should not be fixed by installers. If the PV
module is connected to the battery in reverse polarity the bypass diode gets burnt. They should
not be confused with blocking diodes.
Blocking diode
- Stops the backflow of current especially at night.
- They are not supplied with PV modules
- There is a loss of 0.5v -0.6v as threshold of diode.
- If current is 10A, a loss of 5W – 6W
- Reverse current flow back through a panel at night time. This occurs because in a battery
charging system, the module potential drops to zero at night and the battery could
discharge all night backwards through the module. This would not be harmful to the
module, but would result in loss ofprecious energy from the battery bank.
- Blocking diode is not necessary if a charge controller is being used in the system.
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TILT ANGLE
To obtain maximum sunlight module has to face the sun. Minimum tilt angle is 150 degrees in
Kenya where latitude is 100 i.e Latitude plus 50 or 10degrees. It also helps to avoid dust
accumulation. Orientation should be towards the equator, i.e North for southern hemisphere and
South for Northern hemisphere.
e.g At Harare which is 180 S
=18+5 = 230 OR 18+10=280
Orientation is north and tilt angle is approximately 250 or 300.
ESTIMATING Vmp
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The difference between Voc and Vmp is almost the same as catalogue value and measured value.
Therefore Vmp measured is estimatedfrom Voc measured.
ESTIMATING Imp
The ratio between Isc and Imp is almost same as catalogue value and measured value. Therefore
Imp measured is obtained from Isc measured.
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FACTORS AFFECTING BATTERY CAPACITY
1. Temperature – Batteries are made to operate at a temperature of 150C – 400C. The lower
the temperature the lower the capacity.
2. Aging – Reduces the battery capacity. The older the battery gets the lower the energy it
can hold.
3. Area of plates – Battery capacity increase with plate area.
4. Hour rate – This is batteries rate of charge or discharge. It sets the maximum rate at
which the battery can be charged or discharged. Low hour rate is health to a battery but
higher rate is dangerous.
5. Specific gravity (density of sulphuric acid) – Battery capacity increase with specific
gravity.
TYPES OF BATTERIES
Batteries are classified either as:-
i. Flooded batteries
ii. Sealed batteries
Flooded batteries have topping facilities while sealed batteries are sealed at the factory
and have no topping facilities.
FLOODED BATTERIES
They are generally lead acid batteries. The various types in this case are
a) Car or automotive Batteries
Automotive batteries are also SLI batteries where the initials standards are for the
function of battery i.e. Start, Lighting and Ignition.
PROPERTIES OF IGNITION batteries
1. They are shallow cycled i.e. Large amount of charge can be drawn on a short
period of time. Because of thin plates they are easily damaged when used for a
short time only when starting a car engine and idle.
2. Used for a short time only when starting a car engine and are under float charged
i.e. permanently connected to a controlled charging system keep it in a charged
state ready for use always.
3. Low cycle life, less than 1000cycles i.e. 2 – 3 years.
4. Low self-discharged i.e. Means charge lost from batteries left standing uncharged.
This occurs because of chemical reaction within the cells.
5. It is not suitable for solar electric system.
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b) Traction batteries
These are batteries used in battery electric vehicles and tracks e.g. Folk lifts used for
lifting luggage in warehouses and stores.
d) Solar batteries
Are specially made to store energy from module arrays. Locally the ABM solar system
(associated battery manufacture is a modified battery manufacturer.
e) SEALED BATTERIES
They have no provision of topping up. Examples are:
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i. Nickel cadmium batteries
Are commonly used in electric showers, electronic photoflash equipment’s
telephone systems, mobile phones
ii. Captive Electrolyte (gel) Batteries
Are used in a non-liquid electrolyte to eliminate the problems of water through
gassing. They are also used in solar lanterns.
iii. Nickeled cells
Are nickeled cadmium cells.
They are made in small sizes AA or size D and look exactly as normal cells.
They have a voltage of 1.5V but are chargeable.
They can be used to power small radios, calculators and wall clocks.
Acid
Discharging
SO4 - 2e = SO4
SO4 Pb = PbSO4 (negative
ANODE
H+ + e = H2 (gas)
PbO2 + H2 =PbO + H2O
PbO + H2SO4 =PbSO4 + H2O
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Recharging
SO42- - 2e = SO4
SO4 + H2O =H2SO4 + O2
Cathode
H+ + e = H2 (gas)
The plates of lead acid are of lead array grid. This is because pure lead is weak and can break
during transportation. The lead array is a lead with 2 – 3% antimony.
To avoid self-discharge
i. Store the battery off the floor to avoid self-discharge
ii. Keep the top surface of the battery clean
iii. Keep the terminals greased. If the battery in a discharged state for a long period of time it
will be damaged because of sulphation.
MAINTENANCE OF BATTERIES
1. Cleaning the top of the battery – This avoids high rate of self-discharge caused by
electrical conduction through acid accumulating on top of the battery.
-Cleaning terminals and contacts ensures good electrical contact with solar module and
acid
-Application of grease /petroleum jelly to the terminals prevent them from becoming
corroded.
2. Regular checking of state of charge to ensure the battery is performing well. It may also
help to detect a bad cell or when the battery is old
3. Checking the electrolyte level in each cell. If the level has dropped, top with distilled water.
Do not top water since it contains impurities. Rain water or de-ionized water can be used. NB.
Never add acid
4. Giving the battery occasional equalizing charges to mix up the electrolyte. Equalizing charges
are charges well above the normal charges which cause the electrolyte in the battery to bubble
and got mixed up. This charges can be done preferably in a cloud season or when the solar
radiation is low.
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5. The cells of lead acid battery ventilated to allow hydrogen and oxygen gases to escape during
charging and provide opening for topping up.
Voltage per cell when battery is fully charged = 1.212V
For battery = 12.7V
When fully discharged Voltage per cell = 11.70V
BAD CELLS
To check for a bad cell measure the state of charge of each cell using the hydrometer. If its not
available you can still check a battery in slow state of charge by removing the caps of all the
terminals and short them. *Short the terminal with an insulated wire.
If a cell is bad, it bubbles furiously and produce a discharging sound.
REPLACING BATTERIES
Bad batteries should be replaced, replace the set of battery at same time. If a system has more
than one battery in parallel, they should be of same age state condition. If a new battery is in
parallel with an old battery, this prevents a new battery from being fully charged.
Repairing a battery is futile. It is better to buy a new battery than repairing an old one.
Diagram
ii. Discharging
-Current flows out through the positive terminal and enter in through negative
terminal
-The battery supplies current to the load.
Diagram
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CHARGING BATTERIES. You can charge the battery using the following:
i. Use of mains electricity
ii. Engine charging e.g. motor vehicle
iii. Solar charging – solar modules converts solar energy to electric current
iv. Charging with battery charger
v. Charging with a bicycle alternator/dynamo
CHARGING METHODS
a. Cycle charging
Is used for main application. Used where a battery is discharged and recharged
repeatedly e.g in electric vehicles, electric folk lifts, solar PV system etc.
The battery need to charged at slightly higher voltage (14.1V fo 12V) since it has
to be fully charged in relatively shortperiod for the next use.
Its disadvantage is that the battery must be charged at slightly higher voltage
b. Float charging
Commonly used for standby use.
NB. Standby use is applied in UPS where battery is always maintained at full
charge state and is discharged only when main gid power is lost.
Here the battery is charged continuously to maintain the battery at full charge at
all times.
Batteries are connected to chargers and a small current continuously charges at a
slightly lower voltage called float voltage(13.8V for 12V).
Its disadvantage is that continuous charging is not good for the battery life.
c. Trickle charging
In this method the charging stops when the battery reaches float voltage.When the
state decreases to about 95%, charging starts again to make the battery full again.
Its disadvantage is that if used as a back-up the batterylevel may be 95% when
battery power is needed.
Advantage – The method prolongs the battery life.
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There are two ways of measuring battery’s state of charge;
i. A voltmeter
ii. Hydrometer
i. VOLTMETER
It measures the voltage of the cells.
A battery is charged each day by the solar module and then discharged by load each
night.
Each charge period together with the following discharge period is called a cycle.
The rated life cycle of a battery is the number of cycles a battery is expected to last before
its capacity drops to 80% of its original / rated capacity.
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Depth of Discharge (DOD) –It indicates the level of discharge of a battery in percentage
(%). It tells how much batteries are discharged in a cycle before they are charged again. It
specifies the percentage of the capacity drawn out.
Based on DOD, batteries are classified as shallow cycle batteries and deep cycle batteries
CHARGE CONTROLLER
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Since charge controller do not convert the form of energy, there is no loss
when energy is flowing through the charge controller.
The switch on the PV module is used for overcharge protection, while the
switch on the load side is used for over discharge protection.
Charge controller are rated based on the amount amperage, they can process
from a solar array.
They are rated according to the input current of the module.
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1. Shunt type controllers
2. Series type controllers
The shunt controller regulates the charging of a battery from the PV array by short-circuiting the
array internal to the controller.
• All shunt controllers must have a blocking diode in series between the battery and the shunt
element to prevent the battery from short-circuiting when the array is regulating.
• Generally limited to use in PV systems with array currents less than 20 amps
The shunt controller regulates the charging of a battery from the PV array by short-circuiting the
array internal to the controller.
• All shunt controllers must have a blocking diode in series between the battery and the shunt
element to prevent the battery from short-circuiting when the array is regulating.
• Generally limited to use in PV systems with array currents less than 20 amps
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SERIES TYPE
As the name implies, this type of controller works in series between the array and battery, rather
than in parallel as for the shunt controller
• While this type of controller is commonly used in small PV systems, it is also the practical
choice for larger systems due to the current limitations of shunt controllers.
• Because the series controller open-circuits rather than short-circuits the array as in shunt-
controllers, no blocking diode is needed to prevent the battery from short-circuiting when the
controller regulates.
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OVERCHARGE PROTECTION
Charge controller has an overcharge protection feature that prevent the module from
overcharging a battery.
*The controller may reduce the current from the module to trickle charging. (Trickle charging
means – a low current charges so that the battery is not charged after it is full)
-The controller may charge OFF and ON over a period of time.
-Controllers may include other features to enhance the system performance e.g. ammeters,
Voltmeters, and Amps hour meter (measures power output)
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CHOOSING CHARGE CONTROLLERS
Charge controllers are rated according to the input current from the module. E.g. 5Amp unit will
accept charge of 5A from the module. The smallest available units are rated at 2A which can
Handle 20W of power. It can power black and white TV’s, fire lamps and cassette players.
INVERTER
Is a device that converts DC power stored in a battery to a standard of 240V/
120V AC. Most solar power system generate DC current. Nearly all lighting
appliances,motors, electronics are designed to use AC power, so it takes an
inverter to convert the DC to AC.
In the inverter, DC is switched back and forth to produce AC. Then its
transformed, filtered stopped etc to get it to accepted wave form.
Inverters come in two basic outputs designs;
1. Sine wave
2. Modified sine wave
Most 120v AC devices can use the modified sine wave with some exceptions
such as laser printers which use tracks or silicon controlled rectifiers which can be
damaged when used on the modified sine wave power.
Motors and power supplies run warmer and lose efficiency in a modified
sine wave power.
Some appliances like fans, amplifiers and cheap fluorescent light gives out
an audible buzz sound under modified sine wave.
Modified sine wave inverters make the conversion to AC very efficient.
They are inexpensive and are used in most of electrical devices.
Sine wave inverters can virtually operate anything.
Compound internal features in inverters are;
1. Internal battery charges – which can rapidly charge when an AC source such
as generator or utility power is connected to the inverters input terminals.
2. Auto-transfer switching feature; - it’s a feature which enables switching from
either one AC source to another
3. Battery temperature compensation
4. Internal relays – control load, automatic remote generator starting stopping
and many other programmable features.
APPLIANCES & LAMPS
All solar cell lamps and appliances must be connected with right polarity (+ve to +ve & -ve to –
ve)
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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SOLAR SYSTEM (PV PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
EXERCISE
Draw schematic diagram of a solar system with
a. Two solar modules connected in parallel to charge one battery
b. Two soalr modules connected in series to charge two batteries connected in serie
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iii. Bell hangers joint
WIRING SYSTEM
Wiring system is an assembly of parts used in the formation of one or more electric circuits. It
consists of the conductor together with its insulation, its protection against mechanical damage
(sheathing, armoring) and certain accessories for fixing a system.
A cable is a length of a single conductor having one or more several wires stranded together. The
wires are also called cores of a cable. A cable consists of a three essential parts.
1. Conductor - carrying currents
2. Insulation - to provide the means to prevent leakage of currents.
3. External overall protection (sheath) – protects against mechanical damage, chemical
effect, fire or other external factors.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A WIRING SYSTEM
Factors that are considered when choosing a wiring system
1. Type of building/nature of building– whether the installation work is for a permanent
building or for extension to an existing building or temporary building.
2. Flexibility – whether the wiring system must be one which will allow it to be easily
extended sometimes in future e.g offices.
3. Installations condition – whether the installation is likely to be subjected to mechanical
damage, moisture, fumes, weather, abnormal temperatures, explosive gas or vapour.
4. Appearance/aesthetic – Whether the building is such that the electrical installation must
be hidden or its appearance must be allowed for beauty.
5. Durability – whether the installation is to last for time of building----------
6. Cost – whether the amount of money is available for the wiring system.
7. Safety – safety should be considered so as to minimize danger e.g a school where
children play.
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1. SHEATHED WIRING SYSTEM
The wiring consists of an insulated conductor provided with a sheath that protects against
mechanical damage. The insulating materials are impregnated paper,rubber,plastics and
mineral insulation. The sheathing materials include; lead, tough rubber, plastics,
aluminium and textiles.
DIAGRAM
Advantages of TRS
1. Cheap
2. Flexible
3. Easy to install
4. Easy to withstand heat
Disadvantages of TRS
1. Rubber is affected by oil
2. Weakness of rubber to withstand severe mechanical damage
3. They can be fixed with brass tuckle cups with steel pins
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PVC is much less affected by oil as compared to rubber.The insulation resistance for pvc is much
lower. The pvc system is available as single core(circular), flat twin, three core and twin with
earth continuity conductor.
Advantages
1. Less affected by oil
2. The insulation resistance is much lower tann that of rubber
Disadvantages of PVC sheath
1. It softens when warm unlike rubber which hardens and this factor precludes it from a
number of installations applications
2. Their accessories and methods of fixing PVC are much the same to those of TRS
c. PCP(polychloroprene)
The cable consists of conductor insulated with vulcanized rubber and sheathed with PCP which
is tough rubber like substance. This form of wiring is suitable for farm wiring where
steam,ammonium fumes, lactic acid, milk fats, direct sunlight and heat can be experienced. It is
installed in the same way as TRS or PVC.
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e. PILC (paper insulated, lead-covered)
PILC are mainly used for external underground distribution system. It has a wide
application for internal distribution in factories and other industrial premises. The
paper is impregnated and must be protected against the ingress of moisture. Further
protection against mechanical damage is provided ny armouring.
Fixing is by clips or saddles
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expensive than seam welded, its use is generally restricted to gas tight and explosion proof
installation work.
COPPER CONDIUT
ADVANTAGE
i. High resistance to corrosion
ii. Excellent ECC
iii. The system can be soldered
DISDVANTAGE
I. The system is expensive
ALUMINIUM CONDUIT
ADVANTAGES
i. Its light in weight
ii. Excellent ECC because its resistivity is a little higher than that of copper
iii. Easy to work with
iv. Can be suited to tropical conditions
DISADVANTAGE
i. Can corrode where dissimilar metal is in vicinity
FLEXIBLE CONDIUT
Generally used for the final connections to machinery ( e.g. electric motors) where vibration and
the possible need to adjust the position to an equipment makes a rigid conduit connection
unsatisfactory. Also they can be used where there is a need for complicated bends and sets. Its
used for short runs where mechanical damage is likely to occur
The flexible conduit consists of a spirally-wound, partially-interlocked light gauge galvanized
steel strip, and may be water tight or non-water tight. It can be obtained with a PVC oversheath.
DISADVANTAGE
Since its not accepted as an ECC, a separate ECC must be run between the special brass adaptors
used to join the flexible to the ordinary srewed conduit.
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This joint is used for single copper wires which have inconsiderable tension when in use.
Each of the wires is thoroughly cleaned and lined for a distance of about 75mm. About
6mm of the end is bent over at right angles and forms a stop to prevent the joint from
pulling out. The two wires are then brought together over a distance of 50mm with stops
in the opposite.
Diagram
The binding is carried past each of the stos about 4 or 5 turns. The whole joint is
soldered. No insulation is required.
2. Scarf joint
Diagram
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QUALITIES OF A GOOD CABLE JOINTS
1. Should be able to withstand the circuit current under normal condition and fault currents
without failure.
2. Should maintain the conductivity and mechanical strength of the conductor on which the joint
was made.
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REPLACING AND TROUBLESHOOTING
Trouble shooting – It involves identifying faults and carrying out simple repair
1. What was the weather condition before the problem?. If the weather was cloudy, its more
likely that the load has taken more energy than the solar module produced.
2. Is the system new? Does the owner know how to use and maintain.
3. What is the type, condition and age of battery? If the battery is old this is the cause of the
problem. If new clean and well charged look for the problem elsewhere.
4. Are all fuses and circuit braekers okey? Locate all the fuses, check if they are blown out.
5. Ar all the wires connected accurately, corroded, broken etc?
6. What is the condition are modules in? are they dusty or shaded.
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
No. PROBLEM CAUSE HOW TO FIX IT
1 There is no solar charge Check and fix connections to the module
2 Battery acid is low Add distilled water to the cells
3 Bad connections to control Check for broken wires or loose connections
terminal
4 Defective battery / cell Check for state of charge of each cell. If there is a
significant difference between the cells, replace or
repair them
5 Loose/corroded battery terminal Clean and tighten battery terminals
6 Dusty module Clean the module
7 Blown fuse Replace
8 Over-use of a system Leave appliances of lamps ‘OFF’ for one week to
allow recharging or recharge battery by other
means
9 Battery will not accept charge Find out the age of the battery. If old replace.
10 Voltage drop between modules Check the voltage drop. Replace with a large
and battery too high diameter.
11 Defective controller Check operation of the controller. Repair or replace
it.
12 Short circuit along the wires Locate and repair the loose connections
leading to the modules
13 Thick coating o soot or dust on Clean the module with water of a soft cloth
module
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14 Blown module Check for broken cell, broken glass or poor
connection inside the module – Replace the solar
module cell.
15 Bad tube, globe ballast inverter Replace and buy a new one.
16 Bad connection in wire Locate the broken or loose wire and repair
17 Tubes or globes having short life Check voltage of the system. Too low or too high.
18 Bad connection in the wire Locate broken or loose wire and repair
19 Switch is off Turn switch on
20 Broken appliance Try appliance where there is a good power supply.
Repair or replace
21 Fuse was too small Use a fuse 20% larger than the contained power
22 Lighting or power surge Replace the fuse
23 Battery state of charge is low No solar charge
Battery acid is low
Bad connection to control panel
Defective battery
Loose battery terminals
Dusty modules
Blown fuse
Overuse of system
Voltage drop between the battery and module is
high
Defective controller
24 No solar charge Short circuit to module
No current from module to battery Loose connection wires to battery and panel
Blown fuse
Thick coating of dust on module
Broken module
25 Appliances & lamps not working Bad lamp/tube
Bad wire connection
Defective switch
Bad socket
Broken appliances
Broke switch
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SIZING
Is a process of getting the correct combination of module, battery size, charge controller,
inverter, cables and other accessories to give the necessary power or energy in an installation. It
involves a number of steps:
1. To calculate the total daily system
Its amount of energy required each day to power the load. It is measured in watts hours
and amperes hour (Ah). In calculating the total daily energy requirements we use the
worksheet below.
BOX G BOX F
Column A - list of all the lamps and appliances to be powered by the system
Column B -list all appliances and lamps voltage
Column C -list all lamps and appliances power rating
Column D -It has got a list of hours per day that each lamp/appliance will be used
Column E -Multiple of the power of each load by the number of hours used per day.
BOX F -Add all the values in column E and write the total in column F to get the
Daily energy demand in Watts’s hour (Wh)
NB. For battery capacity you measure ampere hour (Ah) i.e. total charge. Therefore the
Wh can be converted to ampere hour (Ah) by dividing with Voltage (Total voltage in
BOX G)
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ii. Estimate system loss (15% - 20%)
iii. The total daily system energy demand is equal to demand + losses
iv. Divide the total daily system energy by the system voltage to get daily system charge
required in ampere hours. This is the charge that the module will provide each day.
Example
APPLIANE VOLTAGE POWER IN DAILY USE IN DAILY
WATTS HOURS ENERGY USE
IN Wh
Lamps in sitting 12V 13W 3 39Wh
room
Lamps in 12V 13W 2 26Wh
kitchen
Lamps in 12V 8W 2 16Wh
bedroom 1
Lamps in 12V 8W 1 8Wh
bedroom 2
Cassete player 12V 10W 3 30Wh
Colour Tv 12V 80W 2 160Wh
279Wh
Total losses
15% x 279 =66Wh
Total daily energy demand = 279 + 66 =345Wh
Daily system charge requirement in Ah = 345/12 =28.75Ah.
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This topic deals with choosing cable size, type and fittings and methods of earthing the
system for PV.
HOUSE WIRING
Low voltage DC systems normally use cables of at least 2.5mm 2 for sockets,
1.0mm2, 1.5 mm2 for lights without a separate earth wire which is also known as
thin plate.
In solar electric system multi-stranded wire should be used instead of single
stranded wire.
Those cable which can be exposed to the sun*
Also when wires pass underground or up outside walls they should be run in
conduits.
SWITCHES, SOCKETS AND FUSES
Switches are used to turn lamps ON and OFF. DC types of switches are preferred for low voltage
solar electric system. Because they are not available in some areas, installers commonly use
240V switches. Standard lights switches are sized as 3A and 5A and can safely be used for lamps
up to 36 to 60 Watts.
SOCKETS
Sockets are devices into which a plug is inserted, to access power to an appliance. A standard
240V AC sockets are commonly used in small solar electric. These sockets rated 13A and are
capable of providing loads up to 150 Amperes.
NB. Low voltage system requires high current to carry high voltage system.
FUSES
Fuses are devices that are used to protect equipment’s and loads whenever there is high current
due to short circuit. When a short occurs, the fuse blows and opens the circuit so that current will
not flow.
MCB’s (miniature circuit Breakers) – Are small fuses which automatically breaks when there is
a fault. They can be switched ON ounce the problem has been reconnected.
SIZING FUSES
Fuses are sized to blow OFF when the 20% greater than the maximum expected current flow in
the circuit.
To calculate the size of fuse required the following steps are followed
1. List the circuit to be protected .Determine the maximum power possible by adding the
power in Watts of all the loads.
2. Divide the power by system voltage.
3. Increase this figure by 20%. This is the size of fuse required e.g If a 12V system circuit
includes 15Watts TV and 3 8watt lamps. Calculate the fuse size required.
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SOLUTION
MAX
POWER = 15 + 3 × 8 = 39
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Column A Column B Column C collumn D Column E
Cable run Distance Max current (A) k in Ω/m Total R
R × length
Battery -kitchen 50m 12A 0.027 0.027×50=1.35
Battery –sitting 7m 2A 0.016 0.16×7=0.71
room
Exercise
Question one
a. Define the term accessories (2mks)
b. List six accessories
c. Name any five types of cable joints. (5mks)
i. Outline the procedure for making the following cable joints using diagrams
1. T-joint
2. Britannia joint
3. Scarf joint
Question two
a. State two advantages and two disadvantages of Tough rubber protected cables (T.r.s)
(2mks)
b. Explain any three types of wiring system
c. Explain five factors to be considered when choosing type of wiring
d. What is troubleshooting
e. List any three questions to ask before trouble shooting
f. Using the troubleshooting guide, list any three problems causes. State how to fix each
of them.
Question three
Define the terms
i. sizing
ii. Daily load energy demand
iii. A farmer has the following appliances
Appliance voltage Power (w) Daily use time Daily energy use
Wh
Sitting room lamp 12V 13W 3hrs
Kitchen lamp 12V 13W 2hrs
Bed room 1 12V 8W 2hrs
Bedroom 2 12V 8W 1hr
Cassette player 9V 10W 3hrs
14’’ colour TV 240 AC 80W 2hrs
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Efficiency of DC-AC inverter = 90%
Efficiency of battery = 80%
Out put Performance of Pv module =80%
Average insolation in kenya =5.6 kWhm2/day
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1. A. state two
i. Forms of energy conversion which are derived from the sun
ii. Applications for each type of energy in (i) above (4mks)
b. With aid of diagram, distinguish between diffuse and direct solar radiation
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