Tired of simply conceding to mythological accounts

Lesson 1: PHILOSOPHY propounded by poet-theologians like Homer and Hesiod

Human beings attach names that are meaningful
-these men endeavored to finally locate an
to berthed progenies because names are supposed to
explanation about the nature of change, the seeming
designate us in the world. Thus, some people get
permanence despite change, and the unity of the world
baptize with names such as precious “beauty or “love”
amidst is diversity.
likewise, when our parents call our names, we were
After a series of thinkers from all across the
taught to respond to them because our names represent
ancient Greek world who were disturbed by the same
who we are. As a student, we are told to always write
issue, a man came out to question something else. This
our names on our papers, projects, or any output for that
man was Socrates.
matter. Our names signify us Death cannot even stop
Unlike the Pre-Socratics, Socrates
this bond between the person and her name. Names are
-was more concerned with another subject, the
inscribed even into ones gravestone.
problem of the self.
A name is not the person itself no matter how
-He was the first philosopher who ever engaged
intimately bound it is with the bearer. It is only a signifier.
in a systematic questioning about the self. To Socrates,
A person who was named after a saint most probably
and this has become his life-long mission, the true task
will not become an actual saint. He may not even turn
of the philosopher is to know oneself.
out to be saintly! The self is thought to be something
else than the name. The self is something that a person Plato claimed in his dialogs that Socrates
perennially molds, shapes, and develops. The self is not affirmed that the unexamined life is not worth living.
a static thing that one is simply born with like a mole on During his trial for allegedly corrupting the minds of the
one’s face or is just assigned by one’s parents just like a youth and for impiety, Socrates declared without regret
name. Everyone is tasked to discover one’s self. Have that his being indicted was brought about by his going
you truly discovered yours? around Athens engaging men, young and old, to
question their presuppositions about themselves and
Socrates and Plato
about the world, particularly about who they are (Plato
Prior the Socrates, the Greek 2012).
thinkers, sometimes collectively Socrates took it upon himself to serve as a
called the Pre-Socrates to denote “gadfly’’ that disturbed Athenian men from their slumber
that some of them preceded and shook them off in order to reach the truth and
Socrates while others existed around wisdom.
Socrates’s time as well, preoccupied themselves with Most men, in his reckoning, were really not fully aware
the question of the primary substratum; of who they were and the virtues that they were
arche that explains the multiplicity of things in supposed to attain in order to preserve their souls for the
the word. afterlife. Socrates thought that this is the worst that can
These men like Thales, Pythagoras, happen to anyone; to live but die inside.
Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Empedocles, to name a
few, were concerned with explaining what the world is For Socrates, every
really made up of, why the world is so, and what man is composed of
explains the changes that they observe around them. 1. Body and
2. soul.
-These means that every human person is dualistic, that
is, he is composed of two important aspects of his - body is bound to die on earth

personhood. -soul is to anticipate living eternally in a realm of spiritual

-this means all individuals have an imperfect, bliss in communion with God.

impermanent aspect to him, and the body, while -This is because the body can only thrive in the

maintaining that there is also a soul that is a perfect and imperfect, physical reality that is the world, whereas the

permanent. soul can also stay after death in an eternal realm with
the all-transcendent God.
Plato
-Socrates’s student, basically took off from his master The goal of every human person is to attain this
and supported the idea that man is dual nature of body communion and bliss with the divine by living his life on
and soul. earth in virtue.
In addition to what Socrates earlier espoused, Plato
added that there are three components of the soul; Thomas Aquinas

1.) the rational soul - the most eminent thirteenth century

2.) the spirited soul, scholar and stalwart of the medieval

3.) the appetitive soul. philosophy appended something to this

Christian view.

In his magnum opus “The Republic” (Plato 2000), Plato

emphasizes that justice in the human person can only Adapting some ideas from Aristotle, Aquinas said that

attained if the three parts of the soul are working indeed, man is composed of two parts:

harmoniously with one another. 1.) matter

2.) form.

The rational soul forged by reason and intellect has to Matter, or hyle in Greek

govern the affairs of the human person, the spirited part -refers to the “common stuff that makes up everything in

which is in charge of emotions should be kept at bay, the universe.” Man’s body is part of this matter.

and the appetitive soul in charge of base desires like

eating, drinking, sleeping, and having sex are controlled Form or morphe in Greek

as well. When this ideal state is attained, then the -refers to the “essence of a substance or thing.” It is

human person’s soul becomes just and virtuous. what makes it what it is.

Augustine and Thomas Aquinas In the case of the human person, the body of the human
Augustine’s view of the human person is something that he shares even with animals.
person reflects the entire spirit of the The cells in man’s body are more or less akin to the cells
medieval world when it comes to of any other living, organic being in the world. However,
man. what makes a human person a human person and not a
Following the ancient view of Plato dog, or a tiger is his soul, his essence.
and infusing it with the newfound doctrine of Christianity,
Augustine agreed that man is of a bifurcated nature. To Aquinas, just as in Aristotle, the soul is what
-that an aspect of man dwells in the world and is animates the body; it is what makes us humans.
imperfect and continuously yearns to be with the Divine
and the other is capable of reaching immortality.
RENE DESCARTES Descartes says, “But what then, am i? A thinking
Rene Descartes, thing. It has been said. But what is a thinking thing?
-Father of Modern Philosophy It is a thing that doubts, understand (conceives),
conceived of the human person has affirms, denies, wills, refuses; that imagines also,
having a body and a mind. and perceives” (Descartes 2008).

the Meditations of First Philosophy DAVID HUME

-his famous treatise David Hume

-he claims that there is so much that we should doubt. In -a Scottish philosopher, has a very

fact, he says that since much of what we thinks and unique way of looking at man. As an

believe are not infallible, they may turn out to be false. empiricist who believes that can one

One should only believe that since which can pass the can know only what comes from the

test of Doubt (Descartes 2008). senses and experiences.

If something is so clear and lucid as not to be even -Hume argues that the self is nothing like what his

doubted, then that is the only time when one should predecessors thought of it. The self is not entity over and

actually by a proposition. beyond the physical body.

One can rightly see here the empiricism that runs

In the end, Descartes thought that the only thing that one through his veins.

cannot doubt is the existence of the self, for even if one Empiricism

doubts oneself that only proves that there is a doubting -is the school of thought that espouses the idea

self, a thing that thinks and therefore, that cannot be that knowledge can only be possible if it is sensed and

doubted. experienced. Men can only attain knowledge by

experiencing. For example, Jack knows that Jill is

Thus, his famous, cogito ergo sum, “I think therefore, I another human person not because he has seen her

am.” soul. He knows she is just like him because he sees her,

-fact that one thinks should lead one to conclude without hears her, and touches her.

a trace of doubt that he exist.

To David Hume
-the self is nothing else but a handle of
impressions.
The self then for Descartes is also a combination of two
distinct entities
What are impressions?
1.) the cogito, the thing that thinks, which is the
- For David Hume, if one tries to examine his
mind.
experiences, he finds that they can all be categorized
2.) the extenza or extension of the mind
into two;
is the body.
1.) impressions
2.) ideas.
In Descartes’s view, the body is nothing else but a
Impressions are the basic objects or our experience
machine that is attached to the mind. The Human
sensation. They therefore form the core of our thoughts.
person has it but it is not what makes man a man. If
When one touches an ice cube, the cold sensation is an
at all, that is the mind.
impression.
 - are vivid because they are products of our direct Along with the different apparatuses of the mind
experience with the world. go ages the “self.”
Without the self, one cannot organize the different
impressions that one gets in relation to his own
Ideas -are copies of impressions. Because of this, they existence.
are not as lively and vivid as our impressions. When one Kant therefore suggest that is an actively engaged
imagines the feelings of being in love for the first time, intelligence in man that synthesizes all knowledge and
that still is an idea. experience. Thus, the self is not just what gives one his
personality. In addition, it is also the seat of knowledge
What is the self then? acquisition for all human persons.
Self, according to Hume, is simply
“a bundle or collection of different perceptions, which
succeed each other with an inconceivable rapidity, and GILBERT RYLE
are in a perpetual flux and movement.” (Human and Gilbert Ryle

Steinberg 1992). -solves the mind-body dichotomy

Men simply want to believe that there is a unified, that has been running for a long

coherent self, a soul or mind just like what the previous time in the history of thought by

philosopher thought. In reality, what one thinks is a blatantly denying the concept of an

unified self simply a combination of all experience with a internal, non-physical self.

particular person.
For Ryle, what truly matters is the behavior that a
IMMANUEL KANT person manifests in his day-to-day life.
Thinking of the “self”
as a mere combination of impressions For Ryle, looking for and trying to understand a
was problematic for Immanuel Kant. self as it really exists is like visiting your friend’s
Kant recognizes the veracity of Hume’s university and looking for the “university.” One can roam
account that everything starts with around the campus, visit the library and football field,
perception and sensation of impressions. and meet the administrators and faculty and still end up
not finding the “university.” This is because the campus,
the people, the systems, and the territory all form the
However, Kant thinks that the things that men perceive university.
around them are not just randomly infused into the
human person without an organizing principle that Ryle suggests that the “self” is not an entity one can
regulates the relationship of all these impressions. locate and analyze but simply the convenient name that
To Kant, there is necessarily a mind that organizes the people use to refer to all the behaviors that people
impressions that men get from the external world. Time make.
and space
example, are ideas that one cannot find in the world, but MERLEAU-PONTY
Merleau-Ponty
is built in our minds.
-is a phenomenologist who asserts
Kant calls these the apparatuses of the mind.
that the mind-body bifurcation that
has been going on for a long time
is a futile endeavor and an invalid
problem. Unlike Ryle who simply denies the “self,” personal that it talks about interpersonal properties. In
Merleau-Ponty instead says that the mind and body are oxfordbibliographies.com (2-13), it is mentioned that
so intertwined that they cannot be separated from whatever stance one adopts regarding the self’s
one another. One cannot find any experience that is not ontological status, there is little doubt that the many
an embodied experience. All experience is embodied. phenomena of which the self is a predicate-self-
knowledge, self-awareness, self-esteem, self-
One’s body is his opening toward his existence to the enhancement, self-regulations, self-deception, self-
world. Because of these bodies, men are in the world. presentation to name just a few, are indispensable
research areas.
Merleau-Ponty dismisses the Cartesian Dualism that has
spelled so much devastation in the history of man. For THE SELF AS A COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
him, the Cartesian problem is nothing else but plain Cognitive construction is a cognitive approach

misunderstanding. The living body, his thoughts, that focuses on the mental processes rather than the

emotions, and experiences are all one. observable behavior. This approach will assist
individuals in assimilating new information to their
Lesson 4. PSYCHOLOGY existing knowledge and will enable to make the
Most people would say that they do not want to talk appropriate modification to their existing intellectual
about themselves. But in actuality, most people like framework to accommodate their new information.
hearing life stories of another person as a chance to talk William James and the Me-Self, I-Self
about themselves or to relate self to others. The famous With the initiative of Wilhelm Wundt, the father of
line of “Me, Myself and I” is often used in movies, Scientific, Psychology, Scientific methods in studying
animations and even in social media- as caption to what Aguirre et al. (2011) mentioned as “phenomenon of
picture or as shout-outs. the consciousness”, urged interest in further studies of
The Psychology of self focuses on the representation the self and its role in human behavior. It is in this time
of an individual based on his/her experiences. These that “William James” classic distinction between the self
experiences are either from the home, school and other as knower (or pure ego) and the self as known (or the
groups, organization or affiliations he/she engaged in. empirical self) provides a useful scheme within which to
seemingly, the “self” is one of the most heavily view the multitudinous aspects of self-functioning
researched areas in social and personality psychology, (oxfordbibliographies.com,2013).
where concepts are introduce that beyond our physical W. James suggested that “the self of “Me”, being as it
attributes, lies our psychological identity. Questions of were duplex” is composed of “partly object and partly
“Who am I?” or “what am I beyond my looks?” are subject.” As a consequence, he differentiated between
thoughts of many that continuously search for a deeper the self as knower, or the “I” and the self as known, or
sense of self which can be traced back from some time “Me”. He referred to the “I” as pure ego and suggested
of human history. “Drawing on caves suggests that that this component of self is consciousness itself. The
sometime during the dawn of history, human beings “Me”, on the other hand, is one of the many things that
began to give serious thought to their nonphysical the I may be conscious of , and it consists of three
selves. With the advent of written history, writers would components, one physical or material, one social, and
describe this awareness of self in terms of spirit, psyche, one spiritual (Pajares & Schunck, 2002).
or soul.” (Pajares & Schunck, 2002) Material Self- consists of things that belong to us or
From ancient to current times, the concept of the that we belong to. Things like family, clothes, our
self is always an interesting subject for many as it is very
 body, and money are some of what make up our or differentiation on how good or bad people are in
material selves. specific physical attributes, abilities and personal
Social Self – our social selves are who we are in characteristics.
given social situation. For James, people change Real and Ideal Self Concepts
how they act depending on the social situation that The self as the regulating center of an individual’s
they are in. James believed that people had as many personality and self=processes under the guess of id,
social selves as they had social situations they and superego functioning (Pajares & Schunck, 2002),
participated in. rocked psychology as the biggest breakthrough
Spiritual Self – is who we are out core. The spiritual understanding the psychological self. From this
self is more concrete or permanent than the other milestone, prominent psychologists followed with their
two selves. The spiritual self is our subjective and own perspective of the self to contest the roles and
most intimate self. Aspects of an individual’s spiritual function of ego as the self. These were the landmarks of
self, include things like his/her personality, core Contemporary Psychology and the understanding of the
values, and conscience that do not typically change internal process of man. A group of psychologists called
throughout a lifetime. for renewed attention to inner experience, internal
Global versus Differentiated Models processes, and self-constructs. This perspective asserts
There had been postulation that one’s self may be the overall dignity and worth of human beings and their
fragmented into different parts and different selves which capacity for self-realization (Hall, Lindzey, & Manosevitz,
may be in conflict needs regulation from each other. 1997)
Although W. James gave a very interesting perspective
on the self, and was even among the first writers to coin Karen Horney with her feminine psychology,
the ‘Self-Esteem’, other theories emerged to study on established that a person has an ‘ideal self’ ‘actual self’
the selfhood as an integrated part of one’s psyche. In the and the ‘real self’. She believed that everyone
past 30 years, self-esteem has become deeply experiences basic anxiety through which we experience
embedded in popular culture (Brown & Marchall, 2006). conflict and strive to cope and employ tension reduction
It is a person overall self evaluation or sense of self- approaches. Hall, et al. (1997) mentioned that Horney
worth. believed people develop a number of strategies to cope
Global self-esteem (a.k.a. Feelings of Self-esteem), with basic anxiety. Because people feel inferior, an
is a personality variable that represents the way people idealized self-image – an imaginary picture of the self
generally feel about themselves. It is relatively enduring as the possessor of unlimited powers and superlative
across time and situations. According to researchers qualities, is developed. On the other hand, the actual
(e.g. Crocker & Park, 2004; Crocker &Wolfe, 2001), self, the person one is in everyday life, is often despised
Global self-esteem is a decision people make about their because it fails to fulfill the requirements of the idealized
worth as a person. image. Underlying both the idealized self and actual self
State Self-esteem (a.k.a. Feelings of Self-worth), is the real self, which is revealed only as a person
refers to temporary feelings or momentary emotional begins to shed the various techniques develop to deal
reaction to positive and negative events where we feel with basic anxiety and to find ways of resolving conflicts.
good or bad about ourselves during these situation or The real self is not an entity but a ‘force’ that impels
experiences. growth and self-realization.
Domain Specific-self esteem (a.k.a. Self-
evaluations), is focused on how people evaluate their Carl Rogers with his Person-Centered Theory,
values abilities and attributes. This is making distinctions establish a concept of self, involving the Real Self (a.k.a.
Self-concept) and Ideal Self includes all those aspects connected with selfhood and identity. In a healthy person
of one’s being and one’s experience that are perceived the ego remains at the helm of the mind, coherent and
in awareness (through not always accurately) by the organized, staying at the center
individual (Feist, Feist& Roberts, 2013). It is the part of (ctlsites.uga.edu,2016,danielcw).
ourselves where we feel, think, look and act involving True versus False Selves
our self-image. On the other hand, the Ideal Self Donald W. Winnicott distinguish what he called the

revolves around goals and ambitions in life, is dynamic, ‘true self’ from the “false self” in the human personality,

the idealized image that we have developed over time. considering the true self as based on a sense of being in

This is what our parents have taught us considering: the experiencing body and the false as necessary

what we admire in others, what our society promoters, defensive organization, a survival kit, a caretaker self,

what we think are in our best interest. the means by which a threatened person has managed

A wide gap between the ideal and the real self to survive (Klein,1994).

indicates incongruence and an unhealthy personality True Self has a sense of integrity, of connected

(Feist et al., 2013). If the way that I am (the real self) is wholeness that harks to the early stage. False Self is

aligned with the way that I want to be (the ideal self), used when the person has to comply with external rules,

then I will feel a sense of mental well-being or peace of such as being polite or otherwise following social codes.

mind. If the way that I am is not aligned with how I want The false self constantly seeks to anticipate demands of

to be, the incongruence, or lack of alignment, will result others in order to maintain the relationship. The Healthy

in mental distress or anxiety. The greater the level of False Self is functional, can be fits in but through a

incongruence between the ideal self and self, the greater feeling that it has betrayed its true self. The Unhealthy

is the level of resulting distress. False Self fits in but through a feeling of forced

Multiple versus Unified Selves compliance rather than loving adaptation

Postmodern psychology contends that man has an (chancgingminds.org 2016). False Selves, as in
identity that shifts and morphs in different social situation investigation by Heins Kohut (1971), can lead towards
and in response to different stimuli, as Kenneth Gergen narcissistic personality, which identify external factors
argues that having a flexible sense of self in different at the cost of one’s own autonomous creativity.
context is more socially adaptable than force oneself to
stick one self-concept (ctsites.uga.edu, 2016, danielcw). The Self as Proactive and Agentic
Theories believed that there is no one answer to the Social Cognitive Theory takes an agentic view of
question, “Who am I?” as one person can undergo personality, meaning that humans have the capacity to
several transition in his life and create multiple versions exercise control over their own lives. People are self-
of himself. However, there is still the contention of the regulating, proactive, self-reflective, and self-organizing
importance of mental well-being, maintaining a unified, and that they have the power to influence their own
centralized, coherent self. actions to produce desire consequences. People
Multiple Selves, according to K. Gergen, are the consciously act on their environment in a manner that
capacities we carry within us from multiple relationships. permits growth toward psychological health. An
These are not ‘discovered’ but ‘created’ in our adequate theory of personality, according to G. Allport
relationships with other people. must allow for proactive behavior (Feist et al., 2013).
Unified Selves, as strongly pointed out in Agent Self – the agent self is known as the
Traditional Psychology emphasizes that well-being when executive function that allows for actions. This is how
our personality dynamics are congruent, cohesive and we, as individuals, make choices and utilize our control
consistent. It is understood that a person is essentially in situations and actions. The agent self, resides over
everything that involves decision making, self-control, closer to each other may share commonalities, there are
taking charge in situations, and actively responding. A also a lot of factors that create differences. In the
person might desire to eat unhealthy foods, however, it Philippines alone, each region may have a similar or
his/her agent self that allows that person to choose to varying perception regarding the “self.”
avoid eating them and make a healthier food choice There are actually a lot of sources in which you
(Baumeister, & Bushman 2011). can analyze the perspective of each culture and country
Human agency is not thing but an active process of about the concept of “self.” You can see it in their
exploring, manipulating and influencing the environment literature like how one culture depicts a hero or a villain
in order to attain outcomes. According to Albert Bandura, in their boss or their stories. You can see it in their social
the core features of human agency are Intentionally organization like how they see their boss or their
(acts a person performs intentionally) forethought subordinate. Artworks, dances, even clothing may show
(setting goals, anticipation of outcomes of actions, you clues about the “self”
selection of behavior to produce desired and avoiding
undesirable ones), self-reactiveness (monitoring In this lesson, we will look at religious beliefs
progress towards fulfilling choices), and self- and political philosophies that greatly influenced the
reflectiveness (examination of own functioning, mindset of each nation or culture. Since almost all the
evaluation of the effect of other people’s action on them). theories about the self, which were discussed in the
These lead to self-efficacy, the belief that they are previous lessons, also came from the Western scientific
capable of performing actions that will produce a desire research, we will highlight the Eastern thoughts in these
effect (Feist, et al., 2013). lessons.
Self-Efficacy lies in the center Bandura’s Social
Cognitive Theory. It is the measure of one’s ability to First is Confucianism. Confucianism can be
complete goals. People with high self-efficacy often are seen as a code of ethical conduct, of how one should
eager to accept challenges because they believe they properly act according to their relationship with other
can overcome them, while people with low self-efficacy people; thus, it is also focused on having a harmonious
may avoid challenges, or believe experiences are more social life (Ho 1995). Therefore, the identity and Self-
challenging than they actually are concept of the individual are interwoven (intertwine) with
(appsychtextbk.wikispaces.com,2014). the identity and status of his/her community or culture,
Let us move further as we continue examining other sharing its pride as well as its failures (Ho1995).
perspectives of the self.
Self-cultivations is seen as the ultimate purpose
Lesson 5: The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts of life but the characteristics of a chun-tzu, a man of
virtue or noble character, is still embedded in his social
Different cultures and varying environment tend
relationship (Ho 1995). The cultivated self in
to create different perceptions of the “self” and one of the
Confucianism is what some scholars call a “subdued
most common distinctions between cultures and people
self” wherein personal needs are repressed (subdued)
is the Eastern-vs-Western dichotomy wherein Eastern
for the good of many, making Confucian society also
represents Asia and Western represents Europe and
hierarchal for the purpose of maintaining order and
Northern America. It must be understood that this
balance in society (Ho 1995).
distinction and the countries included was politically
colored at the social science. Furthermore, it must be
Second philosophy is Taoism is living in the way
reiterated that while countries who are geographically
of the Tao or the universe. However, Taoism rejects
having one definition of what the Tao is, and one can connections and selfish ideas, is taken not just out of the
only state clues of what it is as they adopt a free-flowing, center of the picture, but from the whole picture entirely.
relative, unitary, as well as paradoxical view of almost
everything. Taoism rejects the hierarchy and strictness As previously discussed, Western perspective
brought by Confucianism and would prefer a simple does not discount the role of environment and society in
lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to describe how to the formation of the self but focus is always looking
attain that life (Ho 1995). toward the self. You compare yourself in order to be
better; you create associations and bask in the glory of
The self is not just an extension of the family or that for your self-esteem; you primary in developing
the community; it is part of the universe, one of the forms yourself.
and manifestations of the Tao (Ho 1995). The ideal self
is selflessness but this is not forgetting about the self, it One can also describe that the Western though
is living a balanced- life with society and nature, being looks at the world in dualities wherein you are distinct
open and accepting to change, forgetting about from the other person, the creator is separate from the
prejudices and egocentric ideas and thinking about object he created, in which the self is distinguished and
equality as well as complementary among humans as acknowledge (Wolter 2012). On the other hand, the
well as other beings (Ho 1995). In this way, you will be Eastern perspective sees the other person as part of
able to act spontaneously because you will not be yourself as well as the things you may create, a drama in
restricted by some legalistic standards but because you which everyone is interconnected with their specific roles
are in harmony with everything. Wolter 2012)

The third belief is Buddhism. There are various Several studies showed that Americans, for
groups who have adopted Buddhism; thus, you may find example, talk more about their personal attributes when
differences in their teachings with our discussion but describing themselves while Asians in general talk about
more likely, their core concepts remained the same. the their social roles or the social situations that invoked
self is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying certain traits that they deem positive for their selves
to hold and control things, or human-centered needs; (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011). Evaluation of the
thus, the self is also the source of all these sufferings self also differs as Americans would highlight their
(Ho 1995). It is, therefore, our quest to forget about the personal achievements while Asians would rather keep a
self, forget the cravings of the self, break the low profile as promoting the self can be seen as
attachments you have with the world, and to renounce boastfulness that disrupt social relationship (Gleitman,
the self which is the cause of all suffering and in doing Gross, and Reisberg 2011).
so, attain the state of Nirvana (Ho 1995).
The self or the individual is not the focus of the The western culture is what we would call an
abovementioned Asian or Eastern philosophies or individualistic culture since their focus is on the person.
beliefs. Even with extended discussions about how the Asian culture, on the other hand, is called a collectivistic
self should work, Confucianism and Taoism still situate culture as the group and social relations that is given
the self within a bigger context. In striving to become a more importance than individual needs and wants.
better person, one does not create a self above other
people or nature but a self that is beneficial to his By valuing the individual, western may seem to
community as well as in order and harmony with have loose associations or even loyalty to their groups.
everything else. As for Buddhism, the self, with all its Competition is the name of the game and they are more
likely straightforward and forceful in their communication regarding self and identity are to be explored in order to
as well as decision- making. Eastern or oriental person arrive at a better understanding of one’s self. This
look after the welfare of their groups and values chapter includes the mandatory topics on Family
cooperation. They would also be more compromising Planning and Population Education.
and they tend to go around the bush in explaining things, Lesson 1: The Physical Self
hoping that the other person would “feel” what they really Physical appearance is among the major
want to say (Qingxue 2003). concerns of people today, in our world which is heavily
Westerners also emphasize more on the value influenced by media. According to Erving Goffman
of equality even if they see that the individual can rise (1971), “people are concerned with the way others
above everything else. Because everyone is on their perceive them, and such concern serves as a motivation
own in the competition, one can say that they also to manage their behaviour in order to present favourable
promote ideals that create “fair” competition and protect and appropriate images to others. Such self-
the individual. Asian’s with their collectivistic culture, put presentation includes not only the individual’s social
more emphasis on hierarchy as the culture wants to behaviours but also his/her physical body”.
keep things in harmony and order (Qingxue 2003). For The Self as Impacted by the Body
example, Westerners would most likely call their bosses, The concept of physical self has gained a
parents, or other seniors by their first name. The boss considerable attention in the fields of Psychology,
can also be approached head-on when conflicts or prob Sociology, Anthropology, including religious and
lems about him arises. For Asians, we have respectful biological or health studies. These disciplines agree on
terms for our seniors and a lot of workers not dare go the premise that the physical self is an important
against the high-ranking officials (Qingxue 2003). component in the study of the person’s self and identity.
As what William James said, “ the self is the sum total of
It must be emphasized, however, that these are all that man can call his, which includes his body, family
general commonalities among Western cultures as and reputation, also his clothes and his house…” The
compared to Asian or Oriental cultures. In the case of concrete or tangible aspect or dimension of the person
the Philippines, we can also consider the colonization which is primarily observed and examined through the
experience for differences and similarities with our Asian body is known as the physical self.
neighbors. We might also find variation among provinces William James, a renowned psychologist and a
and regions due to geographical conditions. pioneer of American Sociology, states that the body is
the initial source of sensation and necessary for the
With the social media, migration, and origin and maintenance of personality. Erik Erickson also
intermarriages, variety between the Western and Asian claims that experience is anchored in the ground- plan of
perceptions may either be blurred or highlighted. the body. This supported by Sigmund Freud who states
Whereas conflict is inevitable in diversity, peace is also that the physical body is the core of human experience.
possible through the understanding of where each of us Furthermore, Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1945) placed the
is coming from. body at the center of human existence, as a way of
Chapter II experiencing the world.
UNPACKING THE SELF Such ideas make clear to us the fact that the
This chapter explores the various body is the way through which we make sense of the
aspects of self and identity such as the physical or world and our environment. We experience life through
biological, sexual, material or economic, spiritual, our bodies and senses (sight, smell, touch, etc.),
political, and digital self. Certain issues and concerns allowing us to interpret the world around us. However,
the body is not merely an object in the world but we are be seen as both internal (personal) and external (social).
also our bodies in that the body is the vehicle for our One’s perception of his or her body elicits either
expression in the world. The body is the sight for the pleasing/ satisfying or unpleasing/ unsatisfying feelings.
articulation of all our identifications of gender, class, Body image lies at the heart of adolescence and it is the
sexuality, race, ethnicity and religion. mental representation of one’s own body, which is very
The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self- important aspect of identity.
Esteem: The Importance of Beauty Along with the concept of body image is the
Well dressed, elegant, good-looking and concept of beauty. Beauty is of two types: the inner
attractive. These are the words we usually associate beauty which refers to the inner qualities of the person
with beauty. As Kenny and Nichols describe, they are and the external beauty which refers to the physical
the determining factors shaping beauty. “Attractive characteristics of the person.
children, and adults are treated more favourably by The Role of Culture in our Understanding of Body
others in the society.” Image and Self-Esteem
Standards of beauty and appearance are the Culture is commonly defined as the shared
product of a diverse mix of cultural and historical patterns of thoughts, beliefs, behaviors and habits in
influences. Norms of beauty and appearance are tied to both material and symbolic realms. Culture includes
ideals of appearance and hard work. Today, the norm or language, technology, economic, political and
standard of beauty includes wavy blond hair, light skin educational systems, religious and aesthetic patterns,
and eyes, and a tall and slim form. Some people have social structures and so on. Through culture, society
the good fortune to possess features that adhere to shapes us in many ways.As mentioned earlier, body
standardized ideals of beauty though nature bestows image is both internal and external. These includes how
less-than-perfect physical attributes upon others such as we perceived our bodies visually, how we feel about our
slightly misshapen noses, protuberant chins, breasts that physical appearance, how we think and talk to ourselves
appear too large or too small. For the most part, people about our bodies, and our sense of how other people
learn to live with these imperfections. But in several view our bodies.
cases, the individual is so dissatisfied with his/her Margo de Mello (2014) explains that the culture
physical attributes that he/ she seeks to alter them of physical improvement trains us not only to believe that
through surgical means. Breasts augmentation is the all bodily processes are under our control, but to feel
favourite while liposuction is also prevalent. Plastic ashamed about those parts of our flesh that refuse to
surgery remains most popular among women, comply with the cultural ideal. Body shame is a culturally
maintaining beautiful bodies through plastic surgery conditioned reaction to a commercially-fabricated
procedures. fantasy of physical perfection.
Popular interest in body image issues has grown Audrey Tramel (2013) mentions that the
dramatically in recent years, due to an emphasis on predominance of “pop culture” in today’s society
individual responsibility and self-determination in definitely has some effects such as the way teenagers
contemporary society as well as the seemingly limitless think of themselves, how they associate with others, and
capacities of modern medicine. What do we exactly how they express characteristics of their maturation. Pop
mean by body image? It refers to the person’s culture or popular culture is a culture widely accepted
perception of the level of attractiveness of his/ her body and patronized by the public as in pop music which is
or it can be somebody’s own impression of how his/ her very appealing to the youth. Pop culture influences how
body looks. It may also be our sense of how other teens define themselves as in the case of a recent
people view our bodies. In that sense, body image can famous K-pop boy band, named “Exo” which gained the
admiration of millions of Filipino teenagers. It influences endorsed by their favourite actor/actress. They feel
the way they define themselves. Indeed, an important upset after seeing handsome/beautiful personalities on
characteristic of every teenager’s maturation is his/her TV or internet. They edit their solo pictures to make them
self-definition. Self- definition refers to the way a person look better before posting them online. They feel
sees himself. handsome/beautifuk when their solo picture gets a lot of
Recent researchers agree that pop culture has likes.
some impact on teenagers’ self-definition. Pop culture Impact of Media on the Self-esteem of the
can provide benchmarks which become the teenagers’ Adolescent
basis of their self-definition. In this way, they see Evidence from different types of studies in the
themselves adopting certain characteristics from the fields of eating disorders, media, psychology, health
various celebrities and other models they see in pop psychology, and mass communication indicates that
culture. Lastly, self-definition can be intrinsically tied into mass media are an extremely important source of
self-esteem and confidence, two critical components of a information and reinforcement in relation to the nature of
healthy disposition throughout maturation and into the thin beauty ideal, its importance, and how to attain it.
adulthood. In the concepts of physical changes in the body
The influence of Media on the Adolescent’s and identity of adolescent, Davies & Furnham, found out
Understanding of Beauty that the average teenager is sensitive to, and critical of,
The media creates ideals, in the form of his/her physical self. Constant exposure to cultural
celebrities and models, for men and women to admire. standards of beauty in evaluating own body image (via
These give us pressure to conform to expectations. media and social networks) may produce non-normative
Images in the media often make us worry about our own shift in the form of dieting practices which may lead to
appearance, defining what body is attractive and which eating disorders as a result of body image
one is not seeing being fat as unattractive. dissatisfaction, the feeling of discrepancy between actual
Genesis M. Javellana (2014) mentions that the and ideal body image. Stice and Withenton (2002), have
media plays a large role in how teenagers view found body image dissatisfaction to be a strong predictor
themselves by shaping images of what teenagers are of depression, exercise dependence, eating disorders
supposed to be or do. Research findings revealed that and steroid use among young people in the US. The
the internet is the most frequently used media with the “Cultural Ideal Hypothesis” predicts that, since the
respondents using it often. Magazines have the cultural ideal for the female body is being slim,
strongest negative relationship with the weight of the adolescent girls should more likely to express body
respondents; and proposed that measures such as dissatisfaction and resort to dieting. A cultural ideal is
media awareness seminars and screening and that male bodies be big and strong while ideal female
balancing of commercials and advertisements on bodies in Western and Asian culture is slim.
television and magazines are needed to balance the Certainly, the exposure to the thin-ideal media
effects of media on adolescents. image on women posed a great impact on their self-
Findings from further studies, showed that esteem. It increase body dissatisfaction, negative mode
teenagers imagine themselves being the actor/actress in states and eating disorder symptoms and decreased
a movie they have watched.They copy an actor’s/ self-esteem.
actresses’ clothes, hairstyle, and/or lines in the movie Self- esteem and Its Significance
because it would make them look cool or feel good. Self-esteem, sometimes referred to as self-worth
They like a movie because the actor/ actress in that or self-respect, is an important part of success. In other
movie look exceptionally good. They use the product words, self- esteem is how much you appreciate and like
yourself. Self- esteem is often seen as a personality trait b. Emphasize numbers as pounds, kilograms or
which tends to be stable and enduring. It can involve a inches, feet and meters on the scale; they don’t
variety of beliefs about yourself, such as the appraisal of tell us anything meaningful about the body as a
your own appearance, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors. whole or our health;
Self-esteem is one of the basic human motivations.Too c. Stop comparing ourselves with others and
little self-esteem can leave people feeling defeated or remember that each one is unique;
depressed. It can also lead people to make bad choices, d. We need to appreciate and enjoy our bodies in
fall into destructive relationships, or fail to live up to their the uniqueness of what we have;
full potential. Too much self-esteem, however, as e. Spend time with people who have a healthy
exhibited in narcissistic personality disorder, can relationship with food, activity, and their bodies;
certainly be irritating to others and can even damage f. Question the degree to which self-esteem
personal relationships. depends on our appearance because basing our
Those who consistently receive overly critical or happiness on how we look is likely to lead us to
negative assessments from caregivers, family members, failure and frustration, and may therefore
and friends will likely experience problems with low self- prevent us from finding true happiness;
esteem. Additionally, your inner thinking, age, any g. Broaden our perspective about health and
potential illnesses, disabilities, or physical limitations, beauty by reading about body image cultural
and your job can affect your self- esteem. Possessing variances, or media influence and check out a
little self-regard can lead people to become depressed, local art gallery payingparticular attention to fine
to fall short of their potential, or to tolerate abusive art collections that show a variety of body types
situations and relationships. Too much self-love, on the throughout the ages and in different cultures;
other hand, results in an irritating sense of entitlement h. Recognize that size prejudice is a form of
and an inability to learn from failures. It can also be a discrimination, as shape and size are not
sign of clinical narcissism which is a personality disorder. indicators of character, morality, intelligence, or
Developing Self-esteem success;
To overcome such adverse effects on the issues i. Approach health and well-being from a firm and
of self-esteem, here our best insights on how to strike a socially engaging perspective and put
balance between accurate self-knowledge and respect importance on a healthy lifestyle and;
for who you are. You need to develop a positive body j. Keep in mind that the body, in whatever shape
image which involves: or size, is good and sacred, having been created
a. Understanding that healthy, attractive bodies in the image and likeness of god. Such body
come in many shapes and sizes; deserves love and respect.
b. Physical appearance says very little about our We will have a positive body image when we have a
character or value as a person; realistic perception of our bodies, when we enjoy, accept
c. How we get to this point of acceptance often and celebrate who or what and how we are, and let go of
depends on our individual development and self- negative societal or media perpetuated conditioning.
acceptance. Lesson 2: The Material Self/ Economic Self
To get to that all important point of balance, there We are living in a world of sale and shopping
are a few steps we can take: spree. We are given a wide array of products to
a. Talk back to the media and speak our purchase from a simple set of spoon and fork to owning
dissatisfaction with the focus on appearance; a restaurant. Almost everywhere, including the digital
space, we can find promotions of product purchase.
Product advertisements are suggestive of making us feel Moreover, our immediate family hold another
better or look good. Part of us wants to have that great important part of our self. What they do or become
product. What makes us want to have and already affects us. When an immediate family members dies,
possess is related to our self. part of our self dies, too. When their lives are in success,
Belk (1988) stated that “we regard our we feel their victories as if we are the one holding the
possessions as part of our selves. We are what we have trophy.
and what we possess.” Our wanting to have and The fourth component of material self is home.
possess has a connection with another aspect of the Home is where our heart is. It is the earliest nest of our
self, the material self. selfhood. Our experiences inside the home were
Material self refers to all of the physical recorded and marked on particular parts and things in
elements that reflect who a person is which includes his/ our home. There was an old saying about rooms: “if only
her body, possessions and home. Materialism refers to walls can speak”. The home thus is an extension of self,
the theory or belief that nothing exists except matter, its because in it, we can directly connect our self.
movements and its modifications; the theory or belief Having investments of self to things, made us
that consciousness and will are wholly due to material attached to those things. The more investment of self-
agency; a tendency to consider material possessions given to the particular thing, the more we identify
and physical comfort as more important than spiritual ourselves to it. We also tended to collect and possess
values. properties. Goldberg and Lewis (1978) go further in
We Are What We Have suggesting that “many collectors who are inhibited and
People had a “material self”, in the words of uncomfortable in social interaction, surround themselves
William James, the Harvard psychologist and giant of the with favoured objects upon which they project human-
American intellectual scene in the late nineteenth like qualities. They practically talk to these objects; they
century. According to James, the material self is about find comfort in being with them and regard them as
our bodies, family and reputation but also clothes and friends”. The collections in different degree of investment
his house, his lands and horses, and yacht and bank of self, becomes part of the self. Possessions then
account. If they grew, their owners felt triumphant. If they become a part or an extension of the self.
faded, people felt a part of themselves was dying. We As we grow older, putting importance to material
are deeply affected by these things because we have possession decreases. However, material possession
put much investment of our self to them. gains higher value in our lifetime if we use material
The material self is constituted by our bodies, possession to find happiness, associate these things
clothes, immediate family, and home. It is to these things with significant events, accomplishments, and people in
that we are most deeply affected because of our our lives. There are even times, when material
investments of self within these things. The innermost possession of a person that is closely identified to the
part or our material self is our body. Intentionally, we are person, gains acknowledgment with high regard even if
investing in our body. We are directly attached to this the person already passed away. Example of these are
commodity that we cannot live without. We strive hard to the chair in the dining room on which the person is
make sure that this body functions well and good. always seated, the chair will be the constant reminder of
Influenced by the “Philosophy of Dress” by the person seated there; a well-loved and kept vehicle of
Herman Lotze, James believed that clothing is an the person, which some of the bereaved family members
essential part of the material self. Clothing is a form of have a difficulty to sell or let go of because that vehicle is
self-expression. We choose and wear clothes that very much identified with the owner who passed away;
reflects our self. the favourite pet or book, among others that the owner
placed a high value, these favourite things are symbols individuals are more self-sufficient than their peers,
of the owner. particularly when money is made the focus.
The possessions that we dearly have tell c. Self-View
something about who we are, our self-concept, our past, The amount one earns could have an effect on
and even our future. how he/she views both himself/ herself and others.
There is a connection between wealth and well- The wealthiest people are those with the deepest
being, a belief that feeds what Juliet Schor (1998) calls sense of “class essentialism” – the idea that
the “cycle of work and spend” – work more to buy more. differences between classes are based upon identity
The level of consumption is set mainly by people’s and genetics, rather than circumstance. Poor people
choices about how much to work, and therefore how tend to believe that social class was not related to
much income to earn. The individual chooses between genes, that essentially, anyone can be rich and
hours at work (which yield income) and leisure (a good anyone can be poor. Rich people were more likely to
in itself, but a costly one because it entails foregoing believe that wealth was part of genes and identity,
income). that they were entitled to wealth based upon their
Curtis (2017) manifested that cash can serious personal circumstances and actions.
bearing on one’s belief regarding the way a person d. Ethics
views himself/ herself. The following are evidences Those who perceive themselves to be in a
behind the idea that money truly can change people: higher class were the most likely to engage in
a. Social and Business Value unethical behaviour, particularly when a symbol of
By recognizing a task’s social value, a person wealth was introduced, such as cutting off a
sees it as a worthy investment of time and a part of pedestrian when in a luxury car. Self- interest
his/ her social duty, and he/she is usually happy to maximization is an idea that suggests those who
help out. When money is offered as the motivation, have the most money or occupy higher classes are
however, people then start thinking less of the social more likely to take a “what’s in it for me?” attitude.
aspect and more about the business value. e. Addiction
As a matter of fact, even relatives who ask for a Many addictions begin because a person gets a
favour nursing the dependent senior citizens require positive response from a certain type of behaviour,
compensation to equate the effort done. The more whether it’s a happy feeling that one gets from
money received the more frequent visits and more shopping or a thrill that comes from gambling,
tasks done. If less money is paid, the lesser the actively seeking out that behaviour again and again
chances of coming back with many alibis and for the same outcome can trigger an addiction. This
excuses given. is called “behavioural or process addiction” a
b. Self-Sufficiency and Service compulsive behaviour not motivated by dependency
Those who are conscious of money typically on an addictive substance, but rather by a process
strive to be more self-sufficient than those for whom that leads to a seemingly positive outcome. Earning
money isn’t a priority. When given a very difficult and money can be very addictive for some individuals.
even impossible task, with instructions that help was That high of a big check or a well- padded savings
available, it was the money-related group that account can become the sole purpose of a wealth-
seemed the most intent on getting the job done searcher’s life.
alone, even when it was not possible to finish the
task solo. It only means that money-conscious