University of Port Harcourt

Centre for Information and Communication Engineering

DIT 711 – Computer Network and Security

By
ENOCH, Joseph Diema
June, 2023
Presentation Outline
Computer Network and
Network Security
Computer Networks
Introduction to Computer Network
The first computers were stand-alone machines and later,
timesharing computers were invented that allowed more than one
person to use the machine concurrently.
Today, most computers are networked. They can communicate with
one another, share resources, and access the Internet.
Network today, has no boundary and supports the way we:
 Learn
 Communicate
 Work
 Play
What is Computer Network ? Computer network is the connection of
multiple devices (or hosts) that communicate with one another to share
data and resources
Computer Networks
Introduction to Computer Network
We define a computer network from two perspectives:
physically (hardware infrastructure interconnecting end-
devices) and logically (software and data: a system facilitating
information exchange between applications).
The basic structure of most computer networks consists of the following:
• Network edge: end devices (e.g. Laptop, smart phone , IoT devices etc)
• Network core – network devices (e.g. Router, Switches etc)
• Access networks, physical media (e.g. Wired: cable, Wireless: radio waves etc )
• The data: (e.g. text, images, videos, audio and others)
• Resources: (e.g. printer, an internet connection, applications, etc)
Computer Networks
Uses of Computer Networks
Computer Networks
Network Topology
• A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer
systems or network devices are connected to each other.
• Point-to-Point
• Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer,
switches or routers, servers connected back to back using a single
piece of cable.
Computer Networks
Network Topology
• Bus Topology
• In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication
line or cable.

• Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is
sent in only one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme,
the terminator removes the data from the line.
Computer Networks
Network Topology
• Star Topology
• All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device. Every
communication between hosts, takes place through the central device.

• Ring Topology
• In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other
machines, creating a circular network structure.

•
 Computer Networks
Network Topology
• Mesh Topology
• In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This
topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or
may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts
only.

• Tree Topology
• Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of
network topology in use presently. This topology imitates as extended Star
topology and inherits properties of bus topology.
 Computer Networks
Network Topology
• Daisy Chain
• This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring topology, all hosts
are connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts. Means, if the end hosts in daisy
chain are connected then it represents Ring topology.

• Hybrid Topology
• A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating
topologies.
Computer Networks
Network Media
1. Network media is the actual path over which an electrical signal travels as it moves
from one component to another.
• Twisted-Pair Cable
• Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and
most modern Ethernet networks.
• Two basic types of twisted-pair cable exist: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair
(STP).
• Commonly used types of UTP cabling are as follows:
• Category 1—Used for telephone communications. Not suitable for transmitting data.
• Category 2—Capable of transmitting data at speeds up to 4 megabits per second (Mbps).
• Category 3—Used in 10BASE-T networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 10 Mbps.
• Category 4—Used in Token Ring networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 16 Mbps.
• Category 5—Can transmit data at speeds up to 100 Mbps.
• Category 5e —Used in networks running at speeds up to 1000 Mbps (1 gigabit per second [Gbps]).
• Category 6—Typically, Category 6 cable consists of four pairs of 24 American Wire Gauge (AWG)
copper wires. Category 6 cable is currently the fastest standard for UTP.
Computer Networks
Network Media
• Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
• Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable combines the techniques of
shielding, cancellation, and wire twisting. Although STP
prevents interference better than UTP, it is more expensive
and difficult to install.
• The following summarizes the features of STP cable:
• Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps
• Average cost per node—Moderately expensive
• Media and connector size—Medium to large
• Maximum cable length—100 m (short)
Computer Networks
Network Media
• Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that
surrounds a single inner wire made of two conducting elements. One of
these elements, located in the center of the cable, is a copper
conductor.
• Wireless Communication
• Wireless communication uses radio frequencies (RF) or
infrared (IR) waves to transmit data between devices on a
LAN.
• Wireless frequencies range from 3 kilohertz (kHz) to 300
gigahertz (GHz). The data-transmission rates range from 9
kilobits per second (kbps) to as high as 54 Mbps.
Computer Networks
Comparing Media Types
Media Type Maximum Speed Cost Advantages Disadvantages
Segment Length
UTP 100 m 10 Mbps to 1000 Least Easy to install; widely available Susceptible to interference; can cover only a
Mbps expensive and widely used limited distance
STP 100 m 10 Mbps to 100 More Reduced crosstalk; more Difficult to work with; can cover only a
Mbps expensive than resistant to EMI than Thinnet or limited distance
UTP UTP
Coaxial 500 m (Thicknet) 10 Mbps to 100 Relatively Less susceptible to EMI Difficult to work with (Thicknet); limited
185 m (Thinnet) Mbps inexpensive, interference than other types of bandwidth; limited application (Thinnet);
but more copper media damage to cable can bring down entire
costly than network
UTP
Fiber-Optic 10 km and 100 Mbps to 100 Expensive Cannot be tapped, so security is Difficult to terminate
farther (single- Gbps (single better; can be used over great
mode) mode) distances; is not susceptible to
2 km and farther 100 Mbps to 9.92 EMI; has a higher data rate than
(multimode) Gbps (multimode) coaxial and twisted-pair cable
Computer Networks
Making LAN Connections
UTP cabling connections are specified by the Electronics Industry
Alliance/Telecommunications Industry Association (EIA/TIA).
Computer Networks
Making LAN Connections
• Straight-through UTP Cables
• A straight-through cable has connectors on each end that are
terminated the same in accordance with either the T568A or T568B
standards.
• Use straight-through cables for the following connections:
• Switch to a router Ethernet port
• Computer to switch
• Computer to hub
Computer Networks
Making LAN Connections
• Crossover UTP Cables
• For two devices to communicate through a cable that is directly
connected between the two, the transmit terminal of one device
needs to be connected to the receive terminal of the other device.
• To summarize, crossover cables directly connect the following devices on a
LAN:
• Switch to switch
• Switch to hub
• Hub to hub
• Router to router Ethernet port connection
• Computer to computer
• Computer to a router Ethernet port
Computer Networks
Making LAN Connections
• Crossover UTP Cables
• For two devices to communicate through a cable that is directly
connected between the two, the transmit terminal of one device
needs to be connected to the receive terminal of the other device.
• To summarize, crossover cables directly connect the following devices on a
LAN:
• Switch to switch
• Switch to hub
• Hub to hub
• Router to router Ethernet port connection
• Computer to computer
• Computer to a router Ethernet port
Computer Networks
Network Devices
• Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines
and other electronic devices to a network are called network devices.
• Modem
• Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over
telephone or cable lines.
• Types of Modem
• Modem can be categorized in several ways like direction in which it can transmit
data, type of connection to the transmission line, transmission mode, etc.
• Depending on direc on of data transmission, modem can be of these types −
• Simplex − A simplex modem can transfer data in only one direc on, from digital device to
network (modulator) or network to digital device (demodulator).
• Half duplex − A half-duplex modem has the capacity to transfer data in both the directions but
only one at a time.
• Full duplex − A full duplex modem can transmit data in both the direc ons simultaneously.
Computer Networks
Network Devices
• RJ45 Connector
• RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45 connector is an 8-pin jack
used by devices to physically connect to Ethernet based local area
networks (LANs).
• Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC),
is a hardware component used by computers to connect to
Ethernet LAN and communicate with other devices on the
LAN.
• A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits
data from one LAN to another if both networks support
the same set of protocols.
Computer Networks
Network Devices
• Routing Table
• A router reads its routing table to decide the best available route the packet can take to
reach its destination quickly and accurately. The routing table may be of these two types
• Static − In a sta c rou ng table the routes are fed manually. So it is suitable only for very small
networks that have maximum two to three routers.
• Dynamic − In a dynamic rou ng table, the router communicates with other routers through
protocols to determine which routes are free. This is suited for larger networks where manual
feeding may not be feasible due to large number of routers.
• Switch is a network device that connects other devices to Ethernet networks through
twisted pair cables. It uses packet switching technique to receive, store and forward
data packets on the network.
• Gateway: is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar
networks.
• Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve
wireless connection to any network.
Computer Networks
Different Types of Network
• PAN (Personal Area Network):
• Example: Wireless Sensor Network; wireless network that connects a computer with
its peripherals like monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, etc.
• LAN (Local Area Network):
• Example: an office network like CITE network
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
• Example: Military network, Campus network
• WAN (Wide Area Network):
• Example: The Internet, network used by international organizations
• Wireless LAN (WLAN) - Similar to a LAN but wirelessly interconnects users
and end points in a small geographical area.
• Storage Area Network (SAN) - A network infrastructure designed to
support file servers and provide data storage, retrieval, and replication.
Computer Networks
IP addressing
• Address - The unique number ID assigned to one host or interface in a
network.
• Subnet - A portion of a network that shares a particular subnet address.
• Subnet mask - A 32-bit combination used to describe which portion of an
address refers to the subnet and which part refers to the host.
• Interface - A network connection.
Understand IP Addresses
• An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely identify a device on
an IP network. The address is made up of 32 binary bits, which can be
divisible into a network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet
mask.
Computer Networks
IP addressing
• And this sample shows an IP address represented in both binary and
decimal. 10. 1. 23. 19 (decimal)
00001010.00000001.00010111.00010011 (binary)
• There are five different classes of networks, A to E. This document
focuses on classes A to C, since classes D and E are reserved. These
terms are rarely used in the industry anymore because of the
introduction of classless interdomain routing (CIDR).
•
Computer Networks
IP addressing
Computer Networks
IP addressing
• Network Masks
• A network mask helps you know which portion of the address identifies the
network and which portion of the address identifies the node. Class A, B, and
C networks have default masks
• Class A: 255.0.0.0 Class B: 255.255.0.0 Class C: 255.255.255.0
• An IP address on a Class A network that has not been subnetted would have
an address/mask pair similar to
• 8.20.15.1/24 = 00001000.00010100.00001111.0000000
• 255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
• Once you have the address and the mask represented in binary, then
identification of the network and host ID is easier.
Computer Networks
IP addressing
• Understand Subnetting
• Subnetting allows you to create multiple logical networks that exist
within a single Class A, B, or C network. In order to subnet a network,
extend the natural mask with some of the bits from the host ID
portion of the address in order to create a subnetwork ID. For
example, 204.17.5.32/27
• 204.17.5.0 204.17.5.31 255.255.255.224 host address range 1 to 30
• 204.17.5.32 204.17.5.63 255.255.255.224 host address range 33 to 62
• 204.17.5.64 255.255.255.224 host address range 65 to 94
• 204.17.5.96 255.255.255.224 host address range 97 to 126
• 204.17.5.128 255.255.255.224 host address range 129 to 158
• 204.17.5.160 255.255.255.224 host address range 161 to 190
• 204.17.5.193 255.255.255.224 host address range 193 to 222
• 204.17.5.224 255.255.255.224 host address range 225 to 254
Computer Networks
IP addressing
• Sample Exercise 1
• In this example, you are given two address / mask combinations, written with the prefix/length
notation, which have been assigned to two devices. Your task is to determine if these devices are on
the same subnet or different subnets.
• Determine the Subnet for DeviceA:
• 172.16.17.30 - 10101100.00010000.00010001.00011110
• 255.255.240.0 - 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
• -----------------| sub|------------
• subnet = 10101100.00010000.00010000.00000000 = 172.16.16.0
• Determine the Subnet for DeviceB:
• 172.16.28.15 - 10101100.00010000.00011100.00001111
• 255.255.240.0 - 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
• -----------------| sub|------------
• subnet = 10101100.00010000.00010000.00000000 = 172.16.16.0
• From these determinations, DeviceA and DeviceB have addresses that are part of the same subnet.
Computer Networks
IP addressing
• Sample Exercise 2
• Given the Class C network of 204.15.5.0/24, subnet the network in order to create the network in Figure
below with the host requirements shown.

• An example of how you might assign the subnetworks is:

• netA: 204.15.5.0/27 host address range 1 to 30 netB: 204.15.5.32/27 host address range 33 to 62
• netC: 204.15.5.64/27 host address range 65 to 94 netD: 204.15.5.96/27 host address range 97 to 126
• netE: 204.15.5.128/27 host address range 129 to 158
Computer Networks
IP addressing
• VLSM Example
• In all of the previous examples of subnetting, notice that the same subnet mask was
applied for all the subnets. This means that each subnet has the same number of
available host addresses.
• VLSM Example
• Determine what mask allows the required number of hosts.
• netA: requires a /28 (255.255.255.240) mask to support 14 hosts netB: requires a /27
(255.255.255.224) mask to support 28 hosts netC: requires a /30 (255.255.255.252)
mask to support 2 hosts netD*: requires a /28 (255.255.255.240) mask to support 7
hosts netE: requires a /27 (255.255.255.224) mask to support 28 hosts
• CIDR
• Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) was introduced in order to improve both
address space utilization and routing scalability in the Internet. It was needed
because of the rapid growth of the Internet and growth of the IP routing tables
held in the Internet routers.
Computer Networks
IP addressing
• IPv6 Addressing Formats
• IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length and written in hexadecimal.
• IPv6 addresses are not case-sensitive and can be written in either lowercase or uppercase.
• The preferred format for writing an IPv6 address is x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x, with each “x” consisting of four hexadecimal values.
• In IPv6, a hextet is the unofficial term used to refer to a segment of 16 bits, or four hexadecimal values.
• Examples of IPv6 addresses in the preferred format:
2001:0db8:0000:1111:0000:0000:0000:0200
2001:0db8:0000:00a3:abcd:0000:0000:1234

Rule 1 – Omit Leading Zero

• 01ab can be represented as 1ab
• 09f0 can be represented as 9f0
• 0a00 can be represented as a00
• 00ab can be represented as ab
Computer Networks
IP addressing

•Global Routing Prefix:

• The global routing prefix is the prefix, or network, portion of the address that is assigned by the provider, such as an ISP, to
a customer or site. The global routing prefix will vary depending on ISP policies.
•Subnet ID:
• The Subnet ID field is the area between the Global Routing Prefix and the Interface ID. The Subnet ID is used by an
organization to identify subnets within its site.
•Interface ID:
• The IPv6 interface ID is equivalent to the host portion of an IPv4 address. It is strongly recommended that in most cases
/64 subnets should be used, which creates a 64-bit interface ID.
Computer Networks
Network Model
•Is a commonly used in describing network communications. among which
the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/Internet Protocol (IP) is one of the
most widely used and is older than Open Source Interconnect (OSI) model.
• OSI Reference Model Layers
• OSI model is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes
how different software and hardware components involved in a network
communication should divide labor and interact with one another.
• TCP/IP Model Layers
• TCP/IP model is also a layered reference model, but it is a four-layer
model. Another name for it is Internet protocol suite. It is commonly
known as TCP/IP because the foundational protocols are TCP and IP, but
not only these two protocols are used in this model.
Computer Networks
Network Model
Computer Networks
Network Model
These are the benefits of using a layered model:
• Assist in protocol design because protocols that operate at a specific
layer have defined information that they act upon and a defined
interface to the layers above and below
• Foster competition because products from different vendors can work
together
• Prevent technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting
other layers above and below
• Provide a common language to describe networking functions and
capabilities
Computer Networks
Network Model
OSI Model Layer Description
7 - Application Contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.
Provides for common representation of the data transferred between
6 - Presentation
application layer services.
5 - Session Provides services to the presentation layer and to manage data exchange.
Defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data for individual
4 - Transport
communications.
3 - Network Provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network.
2 - Data Link Describes methods for exchanging data frames over a common media.
Describes the means to activate, maintain, and de-activate physical
1 - Physical
connections.
Computer Networks
Network Model
TCP/IP Model Layer Description
Application Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialog control.
Transport Supports communication between various devices across diverse networks.
Internet Determines the best path through the network.
Network Access Controls the hardware devices and media that make up the network.
Computer Networks
Network Model
• How Is Data Processed During the Transmission?
• In a layered system, devices of a layer exchange data in different format, which is known as
protocol data unit (PDU). Data flows down from upper layers to lower layers, each layer add
header/footer to the PDU.
Computer Networks
Network Model
• The Significance of TCP/IP and OSI to Troubleshooting
• With the knowledge of division of layers, we can diagnose where the
problem lies when a connection fails. The principle is to check from
the lowest level, rather than from the highest level. Because each
layer serves for the layer higher than it, and it will be easier to deal
with lower-layer problems. For example, if your computer cannot
connect the Internet, the first thing you should do is checking if the
network cable is plugged to your computer, or if the wireless access
point (WAP) is connected to the switch, or if the pins of the RJ45
connectors are in good condition.
Computer Networks
Network Model
• ATM Reference Model
• ATM stands for Asynchronous Transfer Mode. It is a switching
technique that uses time division multiplexing (TDM) for data
communications.
Computer Networks
Network Model
• Benefits of ATM Networks are
• It provides the dynamic bandwidth that is particularly suited for
bursty traffic.
• Since all data are encoded into identical cells, data transmission is
simple, uniform and predictable.
• Uniform packet size ensures that mixed traffic is handled efficiently.
• Small sized header reduces packet overload, thus ensuring effective
bandwidth usage.
• ATM networks are scalable both in size and speed.
Computer Networks
Network Model
• Network Protocols working at different layers
• Layer-3 in the OSI model is called Network layer. Network layer manages options
pertaining to host and network addressing, managing sub-networks, and
internetworking.
• Layer-3 Functionalities
• Devices which work on Network Layer mainly focus on routing. Routing may
include various tasks aimed to achieve a single goal. These can be:
• Addressing devices and networks.
• Populating routing tables or static routes.
• Queuing incoming and outgoing data and then forwarding them according to
quality of service constraints set for those packets.
• Internetworking between two different subnets.
• Delivering packets to destination with best efforts.
• Provides connection oriented and connection less mechanism.
Computer Networks
Network Model
• Network Layer Features: Layer 3 can provide various features as:
• Quality of service management
• Load balancing and link management
• Security
• Interrelation of different protocols and subnets with different schema.
• Different logical network design over the physical network design.
• L3 VPN and tunnels can be used to provide end to end dedicated connectivity.

• There are different kinds of network addresses in existence:

• IP
• IPX
• AppleTalk
• We are discussing IP here as it is the only one we use in practice these days
Computer Networks
Network Model
• Network address can be of one of the following:
• Unicast (destined to one host)
• Multicast (destined to group)
• Broadcast (destined to all)
• Anycast (destined to nearest one)
• A router never forwards broadcast traffic by default.

• Data Link Layer

• Data Link Layer is second layer of OSI Layered Model. This layer is one of
the most complicated layers and has complex functionalities and liabilities.
Data link layer hides the details of underlying hardware and represents
itself to upper layer as the medium to communicate.
Computer Networks
Network Model
• Data link layer has two sub-layers:
• Logical Link Control: It deals with protocols, flow-control, and error control
• Media Access Control: It deals with actual control of media

• Functionality of Data-link Layer: Data link layer does many tasks on behalf of upper layer. These are:
• Framing: Data-link layer takes packets from Network Layer and encapsulates them into Frames. Then, it sends
each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware. At receiver’ end, data link layer picks up signals from hardware and
assembles them into frames.
• Addressing: Data-link layer provides layer-2 hardware addressing mechanism. Hardware address is assumed to
be unique on the link. It is encoded into hardware at the time of manufacturing.
• Synchronization: When data frames are sent on the link, both machines must be synchronized in order to
transfer to take place.
• Error Control: Sometimes signals may have encountered problem in transition and the bits are flipped. These
errors are detected and attempted to recover actual data bits. It also provides error reporting mechanism to the
sender.
• Flow Control: Stations on same link may have different speed or capacity. Data-link layer ensures flow control
that enables both machine to exchange data on same speed.
• Multi-Access: When host on the shared link tries to transfer the data, it has a high probability of collision. Data-
link layer provides mechanism such as CSMA/CD to equip capability of accessing a shared media among multiple
Systems.
Computer Networks
Network Model
• Types of Errors
• There may be three types of errors:
• Single bit error
• In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is corrupt.
• Multiple bits error
• Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.
• Burst error
• Frame contains more than1 consecutive bits corrupted.

Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:

• Error detection
• Error correction
Computer Networks
Multiple access protocol
• CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
• It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to
sense the traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data.
It means that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the
channel. Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle. Hence,
it reduces the chances of a collision on a transmission medium.
• CSMA/ CD
• It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network
protocol to transmit data frames.
• CSMA/ CA
• It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network
protocol for carrier transmission of data frames.
Computer Networks
Network Media
• Ethernet
• is the traditional technology for connecting devices in a wired local area
network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN).
• Wireless LAN (WLAN)
• is a wireless computer network that links two or more devices using
wireless communication to form a local area network (LAN) within a
limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or
office building.
• Bluetooth.
• A form of wireless connection used to exchange data between mobile
and fixed devices over short distances.
Computer Networks
Switching techniques
• In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver.
The switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.
• Classification Of Switching Techniques
Computer Networks
Switching techniques
• Circuit Switching: Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path
between sender and receiver.
• Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
• In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.
• It has fixed bandwidth.
• Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
• Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.
• It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data can be
transmitted.
• It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for each
connection.
• It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, then
the capacity of the path is wasted.
• In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if
the channel is free.
Computer Networks
Switching techniques
• Message Switching
• Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete
unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
• Advantages Of Message Switching
• Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency of
using available bandwidth.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
• Message priority can be used to manage the network.
• The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it supports
the data of unlimited size.
• Disadvantages Of Message Switching
• The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store the
messages until the message is forwarded.
• The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the message
switching technique.
Computer Networks
Switching techniques
• Packet Switching: The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one
go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
• Advantages Of Packet Switching:
• Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require massive secondary
storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the
packet switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
• Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the Packet Switching
technique provides reliable communication.
• Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established path prior to
the transmission, and many users can use the same communication channel simultaneously, hence
makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.
• Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
• Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require low delay and
high-quality services.
• The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high
implementation cost.
• If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets. It can also
lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.
Computer Networks
Routing Algorithms
• A routing algorithm is a procedure that lays down the route or path to transfer
data packets from source to the destination.
• Routers: This is the most intelligent device that exists on the network. It
handles all the traffic in your network and sends it to the proper destination.
• Switches: Switches come in different flavors, meaning they could have
different functionalities depending on the IOS that they had and the needs of
your network.
• Bridges: Bridges are like switches, but they are much more limited, with fewer
ports, are software-based instead of hardware-based
• Hubs: are not used on a network in today's IT world. Hubs are unintelligent
devices. They are a layer one device; their main function is to act like a
multiport repeater.
Computer Networks
Network Layer Protocols
• TCP/IP supports the following protocols:
• ARP
• ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
• It is used to associate an IP address with the MAC address.
• Each device on the network is recognized by the MAC address imprinted on the NIC.
Therefore, we can say that devices need the MAC address for communication on a local area
network. MAC address can be changed easily. For example, if the NIC on a particular
machine fails, the MAC address changes but IP address does not change. ARP is used to find
the MAC address of the node when an internet address is known.

• There are two types of ARP entries:

• Dynamic entry: It is an entry which is created automatically when the sender broadcast its
message to the entire network. Dynamic entries are not permanent, and they are removed
periodically.
• Static entry: It is an entry where someone manually enters the IP to MAC address
association by using the ARP command utility
Computer Networks
Network Layer Protocols
• RARP: stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

• ICMP: stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

• Five types of errors are handled by the ICMP protocol:
• Destination unreachable
• Source Quench
• Time Exceeded
• Parameter problems
• Redirection
Computer Networks
Internet Protocol (IP)
• Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol, or set of rules, for routing and
addressing packets of data so that they can travel across networks and
arrive at the correct destination.
• IPv6: is the most recent version of Internet Protocol (IP). It's designed to
supply IP addressing and additional security to support the predicted
growth of connected devices in IoT, manufacturing, and emerging areas
like autonomous driving.
• Why use IPv6 vs IPv4? IPv4 is based on 32-bit addressing, limiting it to a
total of 4.3 billion addresses. IPv6 is based on 128-bit addressing and
can support 340 undecillion. which is 340 trillion3 addresses.
Computer Networks
Routing Protocols
• Routing information protocol (RIP) an interior gateway protocol, is one
of the first protocols created. You can use it with local area networks
(LANs), which are linked computers in a small range, or wide area
networks (WANs), which are telecommunications networks that cover a
greater range. There are two different versions of this protocol type:
RIPv1 and RIPv2.
• Interior gateway protocol (IGRP): Cisco, an international technology
company, created IGRP. It uses many of RIP's foundational functions but
increases the maximum amount of supported hops to 100.
• Enhanced interior gateway routing protocol (EIGRP)
• Cisco also developed EIGRP, which allows for 255 hops. This type
classifies as a distance vector, interior gateway and classless protocol.
Computer Networks
Routing Protocols
• Open shortest path first (OSPF): which classifies as a link state, interior
gateway and classless protocol—uses the shortest path first (SPF) algorithm to
ensure the efficient transmission of data.
• Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): a type of exterior gateway protocol, is
useful for exchanging data or information between different gateway hosts in
autonomous systems.
• Border gateway protocol (BGP): is another type of exterior gateway protocol
that was initially developed to replace EGP. It uses the best path selection
algorithm for performing data package transfers, making it a distance vector
protocol as well.
• Immediate system-to-immediate system (IS-IS): IS-IS—classified as a link
state, interior gateway and classless protocol—is commonly used to send and
share IP routing information on the internet.
Computer Networks
UDP and TCP
Transmission control protocol (TCP) User datagram protocol (UDP)
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. Connection-orientation means that UDP is the Datagram oriented protocol. This is because there is no
the communicating devices should establish a connection before overhead for opening a connection, maintaining a connection, and
transmitting data and should close the connection after transmitting the terminating a connection. UDP is efficient for broadcast and multicast type
data. of network transmission.
TCP is reliable as it guarantees the delivery of data to the destination
The delivery of data to the destination cannot be guaranteed in UDP.
router.
TCP provides extensive error checking mechanisms. It is because it
UDP has only the basic error checking mechanism using checksums.
provides flow control and acknowledgement of data.
Sequencing of data is a feature of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). this There is no sequencing of data in UDP. If the order is required, it has to be
means that packets arrive in-order at the receiver. managed by the application layer.
TCP is comparatively slower than UDP. UDP is faster, simpler, and more efficient than TCP.
There is no retransmission of lost packets in the User Datagram Protocol
Retransmission of lost packets is possible in TCP, but not in UDP.
(UDP).
TCP has a (20-60) bytes variable length header. UDP has an 8 bytes fixed-length header.

TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.

TCP doesn’t support Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.

TCP is used by HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, SMTP and Telnet. UDP is used by DNS, DHCP, TFTP, SNMP, RIP, and VoIP.
Network Security
Network Security
• Security is the most important and unavoidable parameter in the computer
system in today’s world. With increase in dependency on online systems
today, there is an increase in the demand of the system’s security.
• There are 4 types of computing security that are used interchangeably.
However, there is slight different between them.
• Information Security: protective measures to guard and prevent the information
(both physical and digital data) from unauthorized access.
• Cybersecurity (also called Internet Security): protective measures to guard
networked systems and data connected to the Internet from harm or unauthorized
use. Cybersecurity protects only digital data.
• Network Security: Planning and implementing network security measures to protect
the integrity of networks and programs against hacking and unauthorized access.
• Computer Security: protection of computer systems (usually standalone systems)
and their information from harm, theft, and unauthorized access/use
Network Security
Network Security
• Security Goals/Requirements: There are three main primary objectives in any security
service, namely: confidentiality, integrity and authority usually called C-I-A Triad or
security Triad
• Confidentiality: computer-related assets must be accessed only by authorised parties. --
-Synonyms: secrecy, privacy
• Integrity: computer-related assets must be maintained in a correct state and nobody
should be able to improperly modify it, either accidentally or maliciously. ---Purpose:
accuracy, consistency, and trustworthiness of assets.
• Integrity covers the following
• Data Integrity - Data has not been modified by unauthorised parties.
• Authentication (Origin Integrity) – proof about origin of a message(e.g.Something you know, Something you
have, Something you are, etc.)
• Non-Repudiation - Sender cannot deny having sent a message
• Availability: computer-related assets must be accessible to authorised parties at
appropriate times (whenever they need to do so). It describes the services and data
being well maintained and able to be accessed all the time
• Access control:This refers to the ability to control the level of access that individuals or entities have to a
network or system and how much information they can receive. The right parties should have access
permission at the right time
Network Security
Network Security
• Other attacks include the following:
• Brute force attackis an activity which involves repetitive successive attempts of
trying various password combinations to break into any website.
• Virus is malware which requires some form of user’s interaction to infect the
user’s device.
• Worm is malware which can enter a device without any explicit user interaction.
• Trojan horse is a type of malicious code or program that developed by hackers to
disguise as legitimate software to gain access to victim’s systems.
• Botnet is a network of private computers infected with malicious software and
controlled as a group without the owners’ knowledge, e.g. to send spam.
• DoS (Denial of Service) attack renders a network, host, or other pieces of
infrastructure unusable by legitimate users. Most Internet DoS attacks fall into
one of three categories:
Network Security
Network Security
• Packet sniffer is a passive receiver that records a copy of every packet that flies by is
called a packet sniffer. By placing a passive receiver in the vicinity of the wireless
transmitter, that receiver can obtain a copy of every packet that is transmitted. One
defence against packet sniffing involve cryptography.
• IP Spoofing is the ability to inject packets into the Internet with a false source address is
known as IP spoofing, and is but one of many ways in which one user can masquerade as
another user. End-point authentication can help.
• Compromised-Key Attack – A key is a secret code or number necessary to interpret
secured information. An attacker uses the compromised key to gain access to a secured
communication without the sender or receiver being aware of the attack.
• DNS spoofing – Also referred to as DNS cache poisoning, is a form of computer security
hacking in which corrupt Domain Name System data is introduced into the DNS resolver’s
cache, causing the name server to return an incorrect IP address.
• Rootkits are stealthy packages designed to benefit administrative rights and get the right
of entry to a community tool. Once installed, hackers have complete and unrestricted get
right of entry to the tool and can, therefore, execute any movement including spying on
customers or stealing exclusive data with no hindrance.
Network Security
Network Security
Four types of network security required
• Physical Security
• User Security
• File Security
• Intruder Security
You will need to address all 4

• Network Security - Physical

• Obviously, must not allow computers to be stolen, so may need bolting down
• Secure cables that carry sensitive information
• Is another aspect to the physical security –availability
• Introduce redundancy and duplication
Network Security
Network Security
• Network Security - User
• Two aspects
• Access to required resources
• No access to Private/Confidential data
• Users will need authentication
• May use extra authentication for specific resources, but don’t go overboard
• Group users logically
• Network Security - File
• Must protect your files
• Two aspects
• Unauthorised access
• File integrity
• Most OS provide many permissions on both files and folders
• Users will require access to the files they require for their job
Network Security
Network Security
Network Security - Intruder
• Firewalls
• security for All connections
• Users should be forced to periodically changepasswords
• Administrative accounts should be usedsparingly
• configuration of the devices/files
Network Security
Introduction to Cryptography
Cryptography is one of the techniques used for security control. It concerned
with the writing (ciphering or encoding) and deciphering (decoding) of
messages in secret code. Most cryptographic algorithms work in
combination with keys (numbers, word, phrase), to encrypt the plaintext.
While cryptography is the science of securing data, cryptanalysis is the
science of analysing and breaking secure communication.
• Some of the cryptographic mechanisms are:
• Encipherment: the process of transforming readable information to unreadable for
unauthorized users.
• Digital Signature: Data or cryptographic transformation of a data unit is appended to
the data, so that the recipientof the data unit is convinced of the source and integrity
of the data unit and this can also serve toprotect the data against forgery
• Access Control: A variety of mechanisms are available that enforce access rights to
resources.
Network Security
Introduction to Cryptography
Most cryptographic techniques are based on encryption/decryption
algorithms. Encryptionis the process of using mathematical algorithms to
convert plaintext intocipher text in such a way as to hide its substance. The
transformation and subsequent recovery of the data depend on an
algorithm and zero or more c keys.Decryption is the opposite of encryption
– used of algorithm to change cipher text (scrambled code) to readable
message (plaintext).
• Two main requirements are needed for secure use of conventional
encryption:
• A strong encryption algorithm is needed. It is desirable that the algorithm should be
in such a way that, even the attacker who knows the algorithm and has access to one
or more cipher texts would be unable to decipher the cipher text or figure out the
key.
• The secret key must be distributed among the sender and receiver in a very secured
way. If in any way the key is discovered and with the knowledge of algorithm, all
communication using this key is readable.
Network Security
Cryptographic Techniques
• There are different types cryptographic techniques used in many
applications
• AES: The Advanced Encryption Standard
• AES is a block cipher symmetry cryptography. The very first step of AES
encryption is dividing the plaintext (text that is not written in code) into
these blocks. AES encrypts 128-bit blocksize data with 128-bit, 192-bit,or
256-bit keys using 10, 12, or 14 rounds, respectively.

• RSA - Rivest, Shamir & Adleman

• Most well-known and commonly used Public key algorithm
• Still difficult to implement, although not as impractical as others
• Have to work with big keys to make it secure as encryption and decryption
keys are mathematically linked
Network Security
Cryptographic Techniques
• Hash algorithm
• Hash algorithm are used to create digital fingerprint of data called
digest, message digest or simply hash.
• Basic Characteristics of hash algorithm include
• Secure – Non- reversible function (one-way encryption: cannot get original
data)
• Fixed size – long or short data will produce the fixed-size digest
• Unique – two datasets cannot produce the same digest
• It is used for comparison, not encryption (data integrity)
• It is used for password storage
Network Security
Cryptographic Techniques
• Digital signature
• A digital signature is equivalent to hand written signature.
• It is an electronic verification of the sender
• Use asymmetric cryptography
• Purposes:
• Authentication: DS makes receiver believe sender created and sent the message
• Non-repudiation: with DS, sender cannot deny having sent the message later
• Integrity: a DS ensures the message was not altered in transit
• DS does not encrypt the message itself
• It should be tied to the signing user, and to the message
• Used: financial transaction, software distribution, email, and other cases
where it is important to detect fraud
Network Security
Cryptographic Techniques
• Here is how sending a digital signature works:
• The sender selects the file to be digitally signed in the document platform
or application.
• The sender’s computer calculates the unique hash value of the file content.
• This hash value is encrypted with the sender’s private key to create the
digital signature.
• The original file along with its digital signature is sent to the receiver.
• The receiver uses the associated document application, which identifies
that the file has been digitally signed.
• The receiver’s computer then decrypts the digital signature using the
sender’s public key.
Network Security
SECURITY WLANs
• WLANs are deployed as an extension to the existing fixed/wired LANs and
due to the fact that the nature of WLANs are different from their wired
counterparts, it is important to raise the security of WLANs to levels closer
or equal to the wired LANs.
• Wireless Security Protocols
• WPA and WPA2: The current industry standard for securing wireless
networks. It uses the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) for encryption.
AES is currently considered the strongest encryption protocol.
• WPA3: The next generation of Wi-Fi security. All WPA3-enabled devices use
the latest security methods, disallow outdated legacy protocols, and
require the use of Protected Management Frames (PMF). However, devices
with WPA3 are not yet readily available.
Thank You