Iare Pslab Manual

POWER SYSTEM COMPUTATIONALLABORATORY
LAB MANUAL
Subject Code : BPSB09

Regulations : R18 – IARE
Class : M.Tech I Semester (EPS)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal – 500 043, Hyderabad
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INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad - 500 043
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)
The students of M.TechElectrical Power Systemsare prepared to:
PEOI: Impartengineering knowledge in specific and re-equip with latest technologies to analyze,
synthesize the problems in power system and multidisciplinary sectors.
PEOII: Design, develop innovative products and services in the field of electrical power systems with the
latest technology and toolset.
PEOIII: Inculcate research attitude and life-long learning for a successful career.
PEOIV: Attain intellectual leadership skills to cater the needs of power industry, academia, society and
environment.
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs)
Upon completion of M.TechElectrical Power Systems,the students will be able to:
PO1: Identify, formulate and solve power system related problems usingadvanced level computing
techniques.
PO2: Explore ideas to carry out research / investigation independently to solve practical problems
throughcontinuing education.
PO3: Demonstrate knowledge and execute projects on contemporary issues in multidisciplinary
environment.
PO4: Ability to write and present a substantial technical report / document.
PO5: Inculcate ethics, professionalism, multidisciplinary approach, entrepreneurial thinking and effective
communication skills.
PO6: Function effectively as an individual or a leader in a team to propagate ideas and promote teamwork.
PO 7: Develop confidence for self-study and to engage in lifelong learning.
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INDEX
S No. List of Experiments Page No.
1 Formation of Bus Admittance Matrix
2 Singular Transformation
3 Gauss -Seidel Load Flow Method
4 Newton - Raphson Load Flow Method
5 Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method
6 DC Load Flow
7 Building Algorithm
8 Short Circuit Analysis
9 Transient Stability
10 Load Dispatch Problem
11 Dynamic Programming Method

12 State Estimation
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ATTAINMENT OF PROGRAM OUTCOMES& PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES
Exp. No Experiment Program Outcomes Attained

1 Formation of Bus Admittance Matrix PO1, PO2, PO3
2 Singular Transformation PO1, PO2, PO3
3 Gauss -Seidel Load Flow Method PO1, PO2, PO3
4 Newton - Raphson Load Flow Method PO1, PO2, PO3
5 Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method PO1, PO2, PO3
6 DC Load Flow PO1, PO2, PO3
7 Building Algorithm PO1, PO2, PO3, PO4
8 Short Circuit Analysis PO2, PO3
9 Transient Stability PO1, PO2, PO3, PO4
10 Load Dispatch Problem PO2, PO3
11 Dynamic Programming Method PO2, PO3
12 State Estimation PO2, PO3, PO4
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POWER SYSTEM COMPUTATIONALLABORATORY
OBJECTIVE
The objective of power system computational laboratory is to analyze electrical power system in steady state
and transient state. In steady state the power system parameters are obtained by different load flow methods.
In transient state the system stability is analyzed. Also, the formation of Ybus and Zbus is explained. In
addition to this, the other methods of power system analysis mentioned here are unit commitment and state
estimation. The simulation tool adopted is MATLAB.
OUTCOMES:
Upon the completion of Power Systems Computational Laboratory practical course, the student will be able
to attain the following:
1. Develop a MATLAB program for [Y]bus formation by direct inspection method and singular
transformation method.
2. Estimate the steady state parameters in power system is by Gauss -Seidal load flow method, Newton -
Raphson load flow method, Fast Decoupledload flow method and DC Load Flow.
3. Construct ZBUS matrix which is a prerequisite to analyze the power system in case of fault.
4. Determine a MATLAB program for short circuit analysis.
5. Determine the economic operation of power systems through economic load dispatch.
6. Recognize the optimal number of generators to supply the load demand by means of unit commitment.
7. Estimate the state of electrical power system.
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EXPERIMENT - 1
FORMATION OF BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX
1.1 AIM:
To develop a program for Ybus formation by direct inspection method.
1.2 APPARATUS:
Desktop Computers with MATLAB software
1.3 THEORY:
To carry out the load flow analysis in steady state, bus admittance matrix (Ybus) is of utmost
importance.
Bus admittance matrix gives the information about the admittances of lines connected to the node as
well as the admittance between the nodes. Principal diagonal elements are called self-admittances of
node and are equal to the algebraic sum of all the admittances terminating at the node. Off-diagonal
elements are called mutual admittances and are equal to the admittances between the nodes. The size
of Ybus is n*n where n is the number of buses in the system and m= n+1 (the total number of buses
including the reference buses).
Ibus = Ybus * Vbus
Where, Ibus = vector of impressed bus currents.
Ybus = bus admittance matrix.
Vbus = vector of bus voltages measured with respect to reference bus.
Inspection method makes use of KCL at all the nodes to get the current equations. From these
equations, Ybus can be directly written. It is the simplest and direct method of obtaining all the
diagonal elements as well as off-diagonal elements in the matrix of any power system. Bus
admittance matrix is a sparse matrix. The concept of sparsity is often used in solving load flow
problems. Sparsity is one of its greatest advantages as it heavily reduces computer memory and time
requirements.
1.4 MATLAB Program:

clc
clear all
n=input('enter no. of buses:'); % no. of buses excluding reference
nl= input('enter no. of lines:'); % no. of transmission lines
sb= input('enter starting bus of each line:'); % starting bus of a line
eb= input('enter ending bus of each line'); % ending bus of a line
zser= input('enter resistance and reactance of each line:'); % line resistance and reactance (R, X)
yshty= input('enter shunt admittance of the bus:'); % shunt admittance
i=0;
k=1;
whilei<nl
zser1(i+1)=zser(k)+j*zser(k+1)
i=i+1;
k=k+2;
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end
zser2=reshape(zser1,nl,1);
yser=ones(nl,1)./zser2;
ybus=zeros(n,n);
fori=1:nl
ybus(sb(i),sb(i))=ybus(sb(i),sb(i))+(j*yshty(i))+yser(i);
ybus(eb(i),eb(i))=ybus(eb(i),eb(i))+(j*yshty(i))+yser(i);
ybus(sb(i),eb(i))=-yser(i);
ybus(eb(i),sb(i))=-yser(i);
end
ybus
INPUT:
enter no. of buses:5
enter no. of lines:7
enter starting bus of each line:[1 1 2 2 2 3 4]
enter ending bus of each line: [2 3 3 4 5 4 5]
enter resistance and reactance of each line:[0.02 0.06 0.08 0.24 0.06 0.18 0.06 0.18 0.04 0.12 0.01
0.03 0.08 0.24]
enter shunt admittance of the bus:[0.03 0.025 0.02 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.025]
OUTPUT:
Ybus=
6.2500 -18.6950i -5.0000 +15.0000j -1.2500 + 3.7500j 0.0000 + 0.0000j 0.0000 + 0.0000j
-5.0000 +15.0000j 10.8333 -32.4150j -1.6667 + 5.0000j -1.6667 + 5.0000j -2.5000 + 7.5000j
-1.2500 + 3.7500j -1.6667 + 5.0000j 12.9167 -38.6950j -10.0000 +30.0000j 0.0000 + 0.0000j
0.0000 + 0.0000j -1.6667 + 5.0000j -10.0000 +30.0000j 12.9167 -38.6950j -1.2500 + 3.7500j
0.0000 + 0.0000j -2.5000 + 7.5000j0.0000 + 0.0000j-1.2500 + 3.7500j 3.7500 -11.2100j
1.9 RESULT:
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define Sparsity?
2. Define load flows?
3. What is Singularity in load flow studies?
4. What are the advantages of Ybus matrix?
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
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EXPERIMENT –2
SINGULAR TRANSFORMATION
2.1 AIM:
To develop a program forYbusformation by singular transformation method
2.2 APPARATUS:
2.3 THEORY:
The admittancematrix is designated asYbus. This matrix is asymmetric and square matrix that
completely describes the configuration of power transmission lines. In realistic systems, which are
quite large containing thousands of buses, the admittance matrix is quite sparse. Each bus in a real
time power system is usually connected to only a few other buses through the transmission lines.
Ybus can be alternatively constitutedwith singular transformation, given by a network topology. This
alternative approach is of great theoretical and practical significance.
The algorithm for obtaining Ybus using singular transformation method is given as follows:
Step 1: Obtain the oriented graph for the given system.
Step 2: Get the bus incidence matrix which is the one which indicates the incidence of all the
elements to nodes in connected graph. The size of this matrix is e*(n-1) where „e‟ is the number of
elements in the graph and „n‟ is the number of nodes
Step 3: Get the primitive admittance matrix from the graph of size [e*e]. If mutual coupling
between the lines is neglected then the resulting primitive matrix is a diagonal matrix(off-diagonal
elements are zero)
Step 4: Ybus can be obtained from the equation, Ybus = AT * [y] *A
MATLAB Program:
clc
clear all
n=input('enter no. of buses:'); % no. of buses excluding reference
nl= input('enter no. of lines:'); % no. of transmission lines
sb= input('enter starting bus of each line:'); % starting bus of a line
eb= input('enter ending bus of each line:'); % ending bus of a line
zser= input('enter resistance and reactance of each line:'); % line resistance and reactance (R, X)
yshty= input('enter shunt admittance of the bus:'); % shunt admittance
i=0;
k=1;
whilei<nl
zser1(i+1)=zser(k)+j*zser(k+1)
i=i+1
k=k+2
end
zser2=reshape(zser1,nl,1);
yser=ones(nl,1)./zser2;
ybus=zeros(n,n);
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ypri=zeros(nl+n, nl+n);
a=zeros(nl+n,n);
fori=1:n
a(i,i)=1;
end
fori=1:nl
a(n+i,sb(i))=1;
a(n+i,eb(i))=-1;
ypri(n+i,n+i)=yser(i);
ypri(sb(i),sb(i))=ypri(sb(i),sb(i))+yshty(i);
ypri(eb(i),eb(i))=ypri(sb(i),eb(i))+yshty(i);
end
at=transpose(a);
ybus=at*ypri*a
zbus=inv(ybus)
INPUT:
enter no. of buses:3
enter no. of lines:3
enter starting bus of each line:[1 1 2]
enter ending bus of each line:[2 3 3]
enter resistance and reactance of each line:[0.01 0.03 0.08 0.24 0.06 0.18]
enter shunt admittance of the bus:[0.01 0.025 0.02]
OUTPUT:
Ybus:
11.2850 -33.7500j -10.0000 +30.0000j -1.2500 + 3.7500j
-10.0000 +30.0000j 11.6967 -35.0000j -1.6667 + 5.0000j
-1.2500 + 3.7500j -1.6667 + 5.0000j 2.9367 - 8.7500j
RESULT:
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. For n bus power system, what is the size of Ybus matrix?
2. Which matrix is used for load flow studies?
3. What is the sparsity of Y bus matrix of a 4 bus power system consists of 4 transmission lines?
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
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EXPERIMENT –3
GAUSS – SEIDAL LOAD FLOW METHOD
3.1 AIM:
To develop a program for Gauss - Seidal load flow algorithm.
3.2 APPARATUS:
3.3 THEORY:
Load flow analysis is the study conducted to determine the steady state operating condition of the
given system under given conditions. A large number of numerical algorithms have been developed
and Gauss Seidel method is one of such algorithm.
2.4 Problem Formulation:

The performance equation of the power system may be written as
[Ibus] = [Ybus][Vbus] (1)
Selecting one of the buses as the reference bus, we get (n-1) simultaneous equations.
The bus loading equations can be written as
Ii = Pi-jQi / Vi* (i=1,2,3,…………..n) (2)
𝑛
where, Pi=Re [ 𝑘=1 𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 ] . (3)
𝑛
Qi= -Im [ 𝑘=1 𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 ]. (4)
The bus voltage can be written in form of
𝑛
Vi=(1.0/Yii)[Ii- 𝑗 =1 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 ] (i=1,2,…………n)&i≠slack bus (5)
𝑗 ≠𝑖
Substituting Ii in the expression for Vi, we get

𝑛
Vinew=(1.0/Yii)[Pi-jQi / Vi0* - 𝑗 =1 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑖0 ] (6)
The latest available voltages are used in the above expression, we get
Vinew=(1.0/Yii)[Pi-jQi / 𝑉𝑖0 * - 𝑛
𝑗 =1 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗𝑛 - 𝑛
𝑗 =𝑖+1 𝑌𝑖𝑗 . 𝑉𝑖0 ] (7)
These equations can be solved for voltages in interactive manner. During each iteration, it
cancompute all the bus voltages and check for convergence, which is carried out by comparison with
the voltages obtained at the end of previous iteration. After the solutions is obtained, the stack bus
real and reactive powers, the reactive power generation at other generator buses and line flows can
be calculated.
ALGORITHM:
Step1: Read the data such as line data, specified power, specified voltages, Q limits at the generator
buses and tolerance for convergences.
Step2: Compute Y-bus matrix.
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Step3: Initialize all the bus voltages.
Step4:Iteration count, Iter=1
Step5: Consider i=2, where „i‟ is the bus number.
Step6:Check whether this is PV bus or PQ bus. If it is PQ bus goto step 8 otherwise go to next step.
Step7: Compute Qi check for Q limit violation.
QGi=Qi+QLi.
If QGi>Qi max,equate QGi = Qimax. Then convert it into PQ bus.
If QGi˂Qi min,equate QGi = Qimin. Then convert it into PQ bus.
Step 8: Calculate the new value of the bus voltage using Gauss Seidal formula.
𝑛 𝑛
Vi=(1.0/Yii) [(Pi-j Qi)/Vi0*- 𝑗 =1 𝑌𝑖𝑗 Vj- 𝑗 =𝑖+1 𝑌𝑖𝑗 Vj0]
Adjust voltage magnitude of the bus to specify magnitude if Q limits are not violated.
Step 9: If all buses are considered go to step 10, otherwise increments the bus count, bus no. i=i+1
and go to step6.
Step 10: Check for convergence. If there is no convergence goes to step 11, otherwise go to step12.
Step 11: Update the bus voltage using static load flow equation.
Vinew=Viold+ α(Vinew-Viold);i=1,2,…..n,i≠ slackbus,„α‟ is the acceleration factor=1.4
Step 12: Calculate the slack bus power, reactive power at PV buses, real and reactive powers at load
buses and line losses.Print all the results including all the bus voltages and all the bus angles.
Step 13: Stop.
MATLAB PROGRAM:
clc
clear all
n=3;
V=[1.05 1 1];
Y=[20-j*50 -10+j*20 -10+j*30; -10+j*20 26-j*52 -16+j*32; -10+j*30 -16+j*32 26-j*62] ;
P=[inf -2.566 -1.386];
Q=[inf -1.102 -0.452];
iter=10;
Vprev=V;
foriter=1:10
abs(V);
abs(Vprev);
Vprev=V;
sumyv=[0 0 0 0];
fori=2:n
for k=1:n,
if(i~=k)
sumyv(i)=sumyv(i)+(Y(i,k)*V(k));
end
end
V(i)=(1/Y(i,i))*((P(i)-j*Q(i))/conj(V(i))-sumyv(i))
iter
end
end
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OUTPUT:
Iter=1 V = 1.0500 + 0.0000i 0.9825 - 0.0310i 1.0011 - 0.0353i

Iter=2 V = 1.0500 + 0.0000i 0.9816 - 0.0520i 1.0008 - 0.0459i
iter =3 V = 1.0500 + 0.0000i 0.9808 - 0.0578i 1.0004 - 0.0488i
iter =4 V = 1.0500 + 0.0000i 0.9803 - 0.0594i 1.0002 - 0.0497i
iter =5 V = 1.0500 + 0.0000i 0.9801 - 0.0598i 1.0001 - 0.0499i
iter =6 V = 1.0500 + 0.0000i 0.9801 - 0.0599i 1.0000 - 0.0500i
RESULT:
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the value of acceleration factor used in the G-S method?
2. Which among the following buses constitute the maximum number in a power system?
3. Which quantities are to be determined in slack bus?
4. Which quantities are to be determined in voltage-controlled bus?
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
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EXPERIMENT - 4
NEWTON - RAPHSON LOAD FLOW METHOD
4.1 AIM:
To develop program for N-R load flow algorithm in rectangular and polar coordinates.
4.2 APPARATUS:
4.3 THEORY:
Newton- Raphson Method is an iterative technique for solving a set of various nonlinear equations
with an equal number of unknowns.
ALGORITHM:
Step 1: Form Ybus.

Step 2: Assume the initial value of the bus voltages |Vi0| and phase angle δi0 for i = 2, 3,…..n for
load buses and phase angles for PV buses. Normally, set the assumed bus voltage magnitude
and its phase angles equal to the slack bus quantities |V1| = 1.0 p.u, δ1 = 0 degrees.
Step 3: Compute Pi and Qi for each load bus from the following equation
Nv
Pi  Vi Vk (Gik cos  ik  Bik sin  ik )
k 1
Nv
Qi  Vi Vk (Gik sin  ik  Bik cos  ik )
k 1
Step 4: Now, compute the scheduled errors ΔPi and ΔQi for each load bus from the following
relations given below.
Pi ( r )  Pisp  Pi ((cal
r)
) i  2,3, ..n
Qi( r )  Qisp  Qi((rcal

)
) i  2,3, ..n
For PV buses, the exact value of Qi is not specified, but its limits are known. If the
calculated value of Qi is within the limits only ΔPi is calculated. If the calculated value of Qi
is beyond the limits, then an appropriate limit is imposed and ΔQi is also calculated by
subtracting the calculated value of Qi from the appropriate limit. The bus under
consideration is now treated as a load bus.
Step 5: Compute the elements of the Jacobian matrix.
H N'
 
M L' 
Step 6: Obtain the value of Δδ and Δ|Vi| from the equation shown below.
 P   H N '    
Q     
  M L'  V V 
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Step 7: Using the values of Δδi and Δ|Vi| calculated in the above step, modify the voltage magnitude
and phase angle at all load buses by the equations shown below.
Vi ( r 1)  Vi ( r )   Vi ( r )
 i( r 1)   i( r )    i( r )
Step 8: Start the next iteration cycle following the step 2 with the modified values of |Vi|and δi.
Step 9: Continue until scheduled errors for all the load buses are within a specified tolerance that is
Pi ( r )   , and Qi( r )   ,
where, ε denotes the tolerance level for load buses.
Step 10:Calculate the line and power flow at the slack bus
MATLAB PROGRAM:
clear all;
v=[1.05 1 1.04];
d=[0;0;0];
Ps=[-4;2];
Qs=-2.5;
yb=[20-j*50 -10+j*20 -10+j*30;-10+j*20 26-j*52 -16+j*32;-10+j*30 -16+j*32 26-j*62];
y=abs(yb);
t=angle(yb);
iter=0;
pwracur=0.00025;
DC=10;
while max(abs(DC))>pwracur
iter=iter+1
p=[v(2)*v(1)*y(2,1)*cos(t(2,1)-d(2)+d(1))+v(2)^2*y(2,2)*cos(t(2,2))+v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*cos(t(2,3)-
d(2)+d(3));v(3)*v(1)*y(3,1)*cos(t(3,1)-
d(3)+d(1))+v(3)^2+y(3,3)*cos(t(3,3))+v(3)*v(2)*y(3,2)*cos(t(3,2)-d(3)+d(2))];
q=-v(2)*v(1)*y(2,1)*sin(t(2,1)-d(2)+d(1))-v(2)^2*y(2,2)*sin(t(2,2))-v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*sin(t(2,3)-
d(2)+d(3));
j(1,1)=v(2)*v(1)*y(2,1)*sin(t(2,1)-d(2)+d(1))+v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*sin(t(2,3)-d(2)+d(3));
j(1,2)=-v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*sin(t(2,3)-d(2)+d(3));
j(1,3)=v(1)*y(2,1)*cos(t(2,1)-d(2)+d(1))+2*v(2)*y(2,2)*cos(t(2,2))+v(3)*y(2,3)*cos(t(2,3)-
d(2)+d(3));
j(2,1)=-v(3)*v(2)*y(3,2)*sin(t(3,2)-d(3)+d(2));
j(2,2)=v(3)*v(2)*y(3,1)*sin(t(3,1)-d(3)+d(1))+v(3)*v(2)*y(3,2)*sin(t(3,2)-d(3)+d(2));
j(2,3)=v(3)*y(2,3)*cos(t(3,2)-d(3)+d(2));
j(3,1)=v(2)*v(1)*y(2,1)*cos(t(2,1)-d(2)+d(1))+v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*cos(t(2,3)-d(2)+d(3));
j(3,2)=-v(2)*v(3)*y(2,3)*cos(t(2,3)-d(2)+d(3));
j(3,3)=-v(1)*y(2,1)*sin(t(2,1)-d(2)+d(1))-2*v(2)*y(2,2)*sin(t(2,2))-v(3)*y(2,3)*sin(t(2,3)-
d(1)+d(3));
DP=Ps-p;
DQ=Qs-q;
DC=[DP;DQ]
j
DX=j\DC
d(2)=d(2)+DX(1);
d(3)=d(3)+DX(2);
v(2)=v(2)+DX(3);
v,d,delta=180/pi*d;
end
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p1=v(1)^2*y(1,1)*cos(t(1,1))+v(1)*v(2)*y(1,2)*cos(t(1,2)-d(1)+d(2))+v(1)*v(3)*y(1,3)*cos(t(1,3)-
d(1)+d(3))
q1=-v(1)^2*y(1,1)*sin(t(1,1))-v(1)*v(2)*y(1,2)*sin(t(1,2)-d(1)+d(2))-v(1)*v(3)*y(1,3)*sin(t(1,3)-
d(1)+d(3))
q3=-v(3)*v(1)*y(3,1)*sin(t(3,1)-d(3)+d(1))-v(3)*v(2)*y(3,2)*sin(t(3,2)-d(3)+d(2))-
v(3)^2*y(3,3)*sin(t(3,3))
OUTPUT:
iter = 1
DC = -2.8600 2.4784 -0.2200
j = 54.2800 -33.2800 24.8600 -33.2800 64.4800 -16.6400 -27.1400 16.6400 49.7200
DX = -0.0310 -0.0156 -0.0265
v = 1.0500 0.9735 1.0400
d = 0 -0.0310 -0.0156
iter = 2
DC = -0.0998 0.0015 -0.0520
j = 51.7235 -31.6073 21.3032 -33.1154 63.6413 -15.0727 -28.5380 17.6888 47.5578
DX = -0.0021 -0.0016 -0.0018
v = 1.0500 0.9717 1.0400
d = 0 -0.0331 0.0140
iter = 3
DC = -0.0002 0.0038 0.0008
j = 51.5944 -31.5386 21.1465 - -33.0626 63.5170 -15.0530 -28.5466 17.6743 47.3677
DX = 1.0e-004 * 0.42470.8439 0.1155
v = 1.0500 0.9717 1.0400
d = 0 -0.0331 -0.0141
iter=4
DC = 1.0e-03 * -0.0000 -0.2073 -0.0068
j = 51.5947 -31.5383 21.1466 -33.0636 63.5192 -15.0516 -28.5474 17.6759 47.3699
DX = 1.0e-05 * -0.2889 -0.4790 -0.0097
v = 1.0500 0.9717 1.0400
d = 0 -0.0331 0.0141
p1 = 1.1464
q1 = 1.7913
q3 = 1.0847
RESULT:
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What type of convergence takes place in N-R method?
2. What is the main drawback in N-R method?
3. Which types of equations are solved using Newton Raphson method?
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
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EXPERIMENT - 5
FAST DECOUPLED LOAD FLOW METHOD
5.1 AIM:
To develop program for FDLF algorithm.
5.2 APPARATUS:
5.3 THEORY
An important and useful property of power system is that the change in real power is primarily
governed by the charges in the voltage angles, but not in voltage magnitudes.
On the other hand, the charges in the reactive power are primarily influenced by the charges in
voltage magnitudes, but not in the voltage angles.
 Under normal steady state operation, the voltage magnitudes are all nearly equal to 1.0pu.
 As the transmission lines are mostly reactive, the conductance‟s are quite small as compared to
the susceptance (Gij<<Bij).
 Under normal steady state operation the angular differences among the bus voltages are quite
small (θi− θj) ≈ 0 (within 5o − 10o)).
 The injected reactive power at any bus is always much less than the reactive power consumed
by the elements connected to this bus when these elements are shorted to the ground
(Qi<<BiiVi2).
Hence the Jacobian elements in Newton-Raphson (polar) method are given as
 P   J 1 0    
Q   0 J 4  V 
  
Thus ∆P depends only on ∆θ and ∆Q depends only on ∆V. Thus, there is a decoupling between „∆P
- ∆θ‟ and „∆Q - ∆V‟ relations.
P
V
 
 B ' 
Matrix B ′ is a constant matrix having a dimension of (n − 1) × (n − 1). Its elements are the negative
of the imaginary part of the element (i, k) of the YƟ matrix where i = 2, 3,⋯⋯ n and k = 2, 3,⋯⋯ n.
Q
V
 
 B '' V
[B ′′] is also a constant matrix having a dimension of (n−m)×(n−m). Its elements are the negative of
the imaginary part of the element (i, k) of the YBUS matrix where i = (m + 1), (m + 2),⋯⋯ n and k =
(m + 1), (m + 2),⋯⋯ n
16 | P a g e
ALGORITHM:
Step 1: Form Y bus.

Step 2: Assume the initial value of the bus voltages |Vi|0 and phase angle δi0 for i = 2, 3,…..n for
load buses and phase angles for PV buses. Normally we set the assumed bus voltage
magnitude and its phase angle equal to the slack bus quantities |V1| = 1.0 p.u, δ1 = 0
degrees.
Step 3: Compute Pi and Qi for each load bus from the following equation (5) and (6) shown above.
Step 4: Now, compute the scheduled errors ΔPi and ΔQifor each load bus from the following
relations given below.
Pi ( r )  Pi sp  Pi ((rcal) ) i  2,3,......n
Qi( r )  Qi sp  Qi((rcal
)
) i  2,3,......n
For PV buses, the exact value of Qi is not specified, but its limits are known. If the
calculated value of Qi is within the limits only ΔPi is calculated. If the calculated value of
Qi is beyond the limits, then an appropriate limit is imposed and ΔQi is also calculated by
subtracting the calculated value of Qi from the appropriate limit. The bus under
consideration is now treated as a load bus.
Step 5: Compute B‟ and B‟‟ matrices.
Step 7: Modify the voltage magnitude and phase angle at all load buses by the equations shown
below.
Vi ( r 1)  Vi ( r )   Vi ( r )
 i( r 1)   i( r )    i( r )
Step 8: Start the next iteration cycle following the step 2 with the modified values of |Vi|and δi.
Step 9: Continue until scheduled errors for all the load buses are within a specified tolerance that is
Pi ( r )   , and Qi( r )   ,
where, „ε‟ denotes the tolerance level for load buses.
Step 10:Calculate the line and power flow at the slack bus.
RESULT:
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. For what studies, the FDLF method used?
2. What is the advantage of FDLF method?
3. What quantities are decoupled in FDLF method?
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
17 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT - 6
DC LOAD FLOW
6.1 AIM:
To develop program for DC load flow algorithm.
6.2 APPRATUS:
6.3 THEORY:
Direct Current Load Flow (DCLF) gives estimations of lines power flows on AC power systems.
DCLF looks only at active power flows and neglects reactive power flows. This method is non-
iterative and absolutely convergent but less accurate than AC Load Flow (ACLF) solutions. DCLF
is used wherever repetitive and fast load flow estimations are required. In DCLF, nonlinear model of
the AC system is simplified to a linear form
 Line resistances (active power losses) are negligible i.e. R / X.
 Voltage angle differences are assumed to be small i.e. sin(Ɵ) = Ɵ and cos(Ɵ) = 1.
 Magnitudes of bus voltages are set to 1.0 per unit (flat voltage profile).
 Tap settings are ignored. Based on the above assumptions, voltage angles and active power
injections are the variables of DCLF. Active power injections are known in advance. Therefore
for each bus i in the system,
N
Pi   Bij ( i   j )
j 1
Here Bij is the reciprocal of the reactance between bus i and bus j. As mentioned earlier, B ijis the
imaginary part of Yij. As a result, active power flow through transmission line i, between buses s and
r, can be calculated as
1
PLi  ( s   r )
X Li
where XLi is the reactance of line i. DC power flow equations in the matrix form and the
corresponding matrix relation for flows through branches are represented as
  [ B]1 P
PL  (b X A)
P N х 1 vector of bus active power injections for buses 1, …, N
B N х N admittance matrix with R = 0
Ɵ N х 1 vector of bus voltage angles for buses 1, …, N
PL M х 1 vector of branch flows (M is the number of branches)
b M х M matrix (bkk is equal to the susceptance of line k and non-diagonal elements
are zero)
A M х N bus-branch incidence matrix
MATLAB Program:
clc
clear
%DC Load Flow Method
Os=2;
%Number of Buses:
Nb=5;
%Number of Lines:
Nl=6;
%Choose delta reference;
Delta_r= 1;
%{
18 | P a g e
Transmission line parameters:
Write them without j or i
1st & 2nd column for line "From-To"
From | To | R | X | Gsh | Bsh
%}
T=[1 2 0.0108 0.0640 0.01 0.1
2 3 0 0.04 0 0
1 4 0.0235 0.0941 0.05 2
2 5 0.0118 0.0471 0.02 1
3 5 0.0147 0.0588 0 0
4 5 0.0118 0.0529 0.05 2];
%{
Generators & loads:
Start from bus 1 to Nb
Assumptions all |Vbus|=1
if Eg~=0 && Pd==0 (slack bus)
even if you choose Delta_r
Eg | Pg | Sd
%}
B= [1.05 0 0
0 0 3+2.5i
0 0 1+0.8i
0 0 2.5+2.5i
1 1.8 0.8+0.8i];
% Decide the slack bus if was chosen incorrectly
for f=1:Nb
if B(f,1)~=0 && B(f,2)==0
Delta_r=f;
break;
end
end
k=1:Nb;
N=0;
% Build Y Matrix
fori=1:Nb
for z=1:Nl
for j=1:2
if T(z,j)==k(1,i)
M=(T(z,3)+T(z,4)*1i)^-1;
if abs(M)==inf
M=0;
end
N=N + M ;
if j/2 ~= 1
P=T(z,2);
Y(i,P)=-M;
elseif j/2 == 1
P=T(z,1);
Y(i,P)=-M;
end
end
end
end
Y(i,i)=N;
N=0;
end
By=-imag(Y);
19 | P a g e
Yj=0;
% Eliminate Row and Column of slack bus
fori=1:Nb
Xi=1;
k=1;
for j=1:Nb
ifi~=Delta_r&& j~=Delta_r
if k==1
Yj=Yj+1;
k=0;
end
G(Yj,Xi)=By(i,j);
Xi=Xi+1;
end
end
end
Xi=0;
By=G;
% Build Power Matrix
fori=1:Nb
ifi~=Delta_r
Xi=Xi+1;
P(Xi,1)=B(i,2)-real(B(i,3));
end
end
% Angles
R=transpose(By^-1*P);
D=(R*180)/pi;
Sr=size(R);
fprintf(' \n')
fprintf('Count from bus #1 to #%d and skip the slack bus(%d):\n',Nb,Delta_r)
% Form 1
ifOs==1
fprintf('|V|\n')
disp(ones(size(R)))
fprintf('Delta in radian:\n')
disp(R)
fprintf('Delta in degree:\n')
disp(D)
fprintf('Slack bus: V%d =1 ,Delta%d =0 \n',Delta_r,Delta_r)
end
% Form 2
ifOs==2
for Hi=1:Sr(1,2)
Nubi(1,Hi)=cos(R(1,Hi))+1i*sin(R(1,Hi));
end
disp(Nubi)
fprintf('Slack bus: V%d =1.0000 + 0.0000i \n',Delta_r)
end
% -----------The End-----------
RESULT:
20 | P a g e
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the necessity of DC load flow analysis?
2. What are the types of assumptions made in DC load flow studies?
3. What are the applications of DC load flow analysis?
4. What is the advantage of DC load flow analysis?
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
21 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT - 7
BUILDING ALGORITHM
7.1 AIM:
Develop program for ZBUS building algorithm.
7.2 APPARATUS:
7.3 THEORY:
The Ybus /Zbus matrix constitutes the models of the passive portions of the power network. The
impedance matrix is a full matrix and is most useful for short circuit studies. An algorithm for
formulating [Zbus] is described in terms of modifying an existing bus impedance matrixdesignated as
[Zbus]old. The modified matrix is designated as [Zbus]new. The network consists of areference bus
and a number of other buses. When a new element having self-impedance,Zb isadded, a new bus
may be created (if the new element is a tree branch) or a new bus may not becreated (if the new
element is a link). Each of these two cases can be subdivided into two typesso that Zb may be added
in the following ways:
1. Adding Zb from a new bus to reference bus.

2. Adding Zb from a new bus to an existing bus.
3. Adding Zb from an existing bus to reference bus.
4. Adding Zb between two existing buses.
Type 1 modification:
In type 1 modification, an impedance Zb is added between a new bus p and the reference bus
asshown in Figure 1
Figure 1: Addition of impedance between new bus and reference bus
Let the current through bus „p‟ be Ip, then the voltage across the bus p is given by,
Vp = Ip Zb
The potential at other buses remains unaltered and the system equations can be written as,
22 | P a g e
Type 2 modification:
In type 2 modification, an impedance Zb is added between a new bus p and an existing bus k as
shown in Figure 2. The voltages across the bus k and p can be expressed as,
Vk(new) = Vk + Ip Zkk
Vp = Vk(new) + Ip Zp= Vk+ Ip(Zb + Zkk)
where, Vk is the voltage across bus k before the addition of impedance Zb
Zkk is the sum of all impedance connected to bus k.
Figure 2: Addition of impedance between new bus andexisting bus

The system of equations can be expressed as,
Type 3 Modification:
In this modification, an impedance Zb is added between a existing bus k and a reference bus.
Then the following steps are to be followed:
1. Add Zb between a new bus p and the existing bus k and the modifications are done as in
type 2.
2. Connect bus p to the reference bus by letting Vp = 0.
To retain the symmetry of the Bus Impedance Matrix, network reduction technique can beused to
remove the excess row or column.
Type 4 Modification:
In this type of modification, an impedance Zb is added between two existing buses j and k asshown
in Figure 3. From Figure 3, the relation between the voltages of bus k and j can be writtenas,
Vk – Vj= IbZb
23 | P a g e
Figure 3: Addition of impedance between two existing buses
The voltages across all the buses connected to the network changes due to the addition of
impedance Zb and they can be expressed as,
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2 + - - - - - - - - + Z1j(Ij + Ib) + Z1k(Ik – Ib)+- - -
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2 + - - - - - - - - + Z2j(Ij + Ib) + Z2k(Ik – Ib)+ - - -
Vj = Zj1I1 + Zj2I2 + - - - - - - - - + Zjj(Ij + Ib) + Zjk(Ik – Ib) + - - -
Vk= Zk1I1 + Zk2I2 + - - - - - - - - + Zkj(Ij + Ib) + Zkk(Ik – Ib) + - - -
Vn = Zn1I1 + Zn2I2 + - - - - - - - - + Znj(Ij + Ib) + Znk(Ik – Ib) + - - -
The system of equations can be rewritten as,
where,
Zbb = Zjj+ Zkk – 2 Zjk + Zb
Procedure for formation of Zbusmatrix:
Step1: Number the nodes of the given network, starting with those nodes at the ends
of branches connected to the reference node.
Step2: Start with a network composed of all those branches connected to thereference node.
Step3: Add a new node to the ith node of the existing network.
Step4: Add a branch between ith and jth nodes. Continue until all the remainingbranches are
connected.
MATLAB PROGRAM:
clc;
clear all;
nb=input('Enter the number of buses');
Zbusm=null(nb,nb);
ele=input('Enter the number of elements:');
dim=0;
for i=1:ele
disp(' ');
disp('1.Addition of Branch 2.Addition of Link');
24 | P a g e
ch=input('Enter your choice:');
p=input('enter p value');
q=input('enter q value');
val=input('Enter value to be added;');
switch(ch)
case 1
dim=dim+1;
if p==0||q==0
for row=1:dim
for col=1:dim
Zbusm(dim,dim)=val;
Zbusm(dim+1:end,dim+1:end)=0;
end;
end;
else
for i=1:dim
Zbusm(q,i)=Zbusm(p,i);
Zbusm(i,q)=Zbusm(q,i);
end;
Zbusm(q,q)=Zbusm(p,q)+val;
end;
%end;
case 2
Zbusrm=null(dim,dim);
li=dim+1;
if p==0
for i=1:li
Zbusm(li,i)=-Zbusm(q,i);
Zbusm(i,li)=Zbusm(li,i);
end;
%end
Zbusm(li,li)=-Zbusm(q,li)+val;
else
for i=1:li
Zbusm(li,i)=Zbusm(p,i)-Zbusm(q,i);
Zbusm(i,li)=Zbusm(li,i);
end;
Zbusm(li,li)=Zbusm(p,li)-Zbusm(q,li)+val
for i=1:dim
for j=1:dim
Zbusrm(i,j)=Zbusm(i,j)-(((Zbusm(i,li))*Zbusm(li,j))/Zbusm(li,li));
end;
end;
disp(Zbusrm);
Zbusm=Zbusrm
end;
end;
end
OUTPUT:
Enter the number of buses: 3
Enter the number of elements:5
1. Addition of Branch 2.Addition of Link
Enter your choice:1
enter p value0
enter q value1
25 | P a g e
Enter value to be added: 0.2
1.Addition of Branch 2.Addition of Link
Enter your choice:1
enter p value0
enter q value2
Enter value to be added;0.4
Enter your choice:1
enter p value1
enter q value3
Zbusm =
0.2000 0 0.2000
0 0.4000 0
0.2000 0 0.6000
Enter your choice:2
enter p value1
enter q value2
Zbusm =
0.2000 0 0.2000 0.2000
0 0.4000 0 -0.4000
0.2000 0 0.6000 0.2000
0.2000 -0.4000 0.2000 1.4000
0.1714 0.0571 0.1714
0.0571 0.2857 0.0571
0.1714 0.0571 0.5714
Zbusm =
0.1714 0.0571 0.1714
0.0571 0.2857 0.0571
0.1714 0.0571 0.5714
Enter your choice:2
enter p value2
enter q value3
Zbusm =
0.1714 0.0571 0.1714 -0.1143
0.0571 0.2857 0.0571 0.2286
0.1714 0.0571 0.5714 -0.5143
-0.1143 0.2286 -0.5143 1.1429
0.1600 0.0800 0.1200
0.0800 0.2400 0.1600
0.1200 0.1600 0.3400
Zbusm =
0.1600 0.0800 0.1200
0.0800 0.2400 0.1600
0.1200 0.1600 0.3400
RESULT:
26 | P a g e
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the diagonal elements of bus impedance matrix called?
2. When a branch of impedance Zb is added from a new bus to the reference bus, what will be the order
of the bus impedance matrix?
3. What are the off diagonal elements in Ybus called?
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
27 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT - 8
SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
8.1 AIM:
To develop program for short circuit analysis using ZBUS algorithm
8.2 APPARATUS:
8.3 THEORY:
A fault in a circuit is a failure that interferes with the normal flow of current. A short circuit fault
occurs when the insulation of the system fails resulting in low impedance path either between phases
or phase(s) to ground. This causes excessively high currents to flow in the circuit, requiring the
operation of protective equipment to prevent damage to equipment.
The short circuit faults can be classified as:
• Symmetrical faults
• Unsymmetrical faults
A three phase symmetrical fault is caused by application of three equal fault impedances Z¯ f to the
three phases.
Faults in which the balanced state of the network is disturbed are called unsymmetrical or
unbalanced faults. The most common type of unbalanced fault in a system is a single line to ground
fault (LG fault). Almost 60 to 75% of faults in a system are LG faults. The other types of
unbalanced faults are line to line faults (LL faults) and double line to ground faults (LLG faults).
About 15 to 25% faults are LLG faults and 5 to 15% are LL faults.
28 | P a g e
ALGORITHM:
Step 1: Obtain pre-fault voltages at all buses and currents in all lines through a load flow study.
V10 
 
0
VBUS  V20 
Vn0 
 
Ifrthbus is faulted through a fault impedance,Zf,the post fault bus voltage is given by
f
VBUS  VBUS
0
 V
where ΔV is the vector of changes in bus voltages caused by the fault.
Step 2:The Thevenin network of the system with generators replaced by transient /subtransient
reactance with their emfs shorted.
Step 3: Excite the passive Thevenin networkwith –Vr0 in series with Zf. ΔV is given as
V Z BUS J f
Where,
 Z11 Z1n 
Bus impedance matrix of the passive Thevinin network is, [ Z BUS ] 
Z nn 
and
Z n1
Jf = Bus current injection vector
The current, -Ifis injected at the rth bus,
 0 
I f f 
 I 
[J ]   r
f
 | 
 
 0 
Forrthbus,
Vr  Z rr I f
Step 4: The voltage at the rthbus under fault is
Vr f Vro  Vr0  Vro  Z rr I f
Vr f   Z rr I f
Z f I f Vro  Z rr I f
Vro
If 
Z rr  Z f
Z ir
Vi f Vi o  Vr0
Z rr  Z f
ZBUS matrix is obtained byZBUSbuilding algorithm.
29 | P a g e
MATLAB PROGRAM:
zdata1 = [0 1 0 0.25
0 2 0 0.25
1 2 0 0.125
1 3 0 0.15
2 3 0 0.25];
zdata0 = [0 1 0 0.40
0 2 0 0.10
1 2 0 0.30
1 3 0 0.35
2 3 0 0.7125];
zdata2 = zdata1;
Zbus1 = zbuild(zdata1)
Zbus0 = zbuild(zdata0)
Zbus2 = Zbus1;
symfault(zdata1,Zbus1)
lgfault(zdata0, Zbus0, zdata1, Zbus1, zdata2, Zbus2)
llfault(zdata1, Zbus1, zdata2, Zbus2)
dlgfault(zdata0, Zbus0, zdata1, Zbus1, zdata2, Zbus2)
symfault
function symfaul(zdata, Zbus, V)
nl = zdata(:,1); nr = zdata(:,2); R = zdata(:,3);
X = zdata(:,4);
nc = length(zdata(1,:));
if nc> 4
BC = zdata(:,5);
elseif nc ==4, BC = zeros(length(zdata(:,1)), 1);
end
ZB = R + j*X;
nbr=length(zdata(:,1)); nbus = max(max(nl), max(nr));
if exist('V') == 1
if length(V) == nbus
V0 = V;
else, end
else, V0 = ones(nbus, 1) + j*zeros(nbus, 1);
end
fprintf('\Three-phase balanced fault analysis \n')
ff = 999;
while ff > 0
nf = input('Enter Faulted Bus No. -> ');
while nf<= 0 | nf>nbus
fprintf('Faulted bus No. must be between 1 & %g \n', nbus)
end
fprintf('\nEnter Fault Impedance Zf = R + j*X in ')
Zf = input('complex form (for bolted fault enter 0). Zf = ');
fprintf(' \n')
fprintf('Balanced three-phase fault at bus No. %g\n', nf)
If = V0(nf)/(Zf + Zbus(nf, nf));
Ifm = abs(If); Ifmang=angle(If)*180/pi;
fprintf('Total fault current = %8.4f per unit \n\n', Ifm)
%fprintf(' p.u. \n\n', Ifm)
fprintf('Bus Voltages during fault in per unit \n\n')
fprintf(' Bus Voltage Angle\n')
30 | P a g e
fprintf(' No. Magnitude degrees\n')
for n = 1:nbus
if n==nf
Vf(nf) = V0(nf)*Zf/(Zf + Zbus(nf,nf)); Vfm = abs(Vf(nf));
angv=angle(Vf(nf))*180/pi;
else, Vf(n) = V0(n) - V0(n)*Zbus(n,nf)/(Zf + Zbus(nf,nf));
Vfm = abs(Vf(n)); angv=angle(Vf(n))*180/pi;
end
fprintf(' %4g', n), fprintf('%13.4f', Vfm),fprintf('%13.4f\n', angv)
end
fprintf(' \n')
fprintf('Line currents for fault at bus No. %g\n\n', nf)
fprintf(' From To Current Angle\n')
fprintf(' Bus Bus Magnitude degrees\n')
for n= 1:nbus
%Ign=0;
for I = 1:nbr
if nl(I) == n | nr(I) == n
if nl(I) ==n k = nr(I);
elseif nr(I) == n k = nl(I);
endi
f k==0
Ink = (V0(n) - Vf(n))/ZB(I);
Inkm = abs(Ink); th=angle(Ink);
%if th<= 0
if real(Ink) > 0
fprintf(' G '), fprintf('%7g',n), fprintf('%12.4f', Inkm)
fprintf('%12.4f\n', th*180/pi)
end
elseif real(Ink) ==0 &imag(Ink) < 0
fprintf(' G '), fprintf('%7g',n), fprintf('%12.4f', Inkm)
fprintf('%12.4f\n', th*180/pi)
else, end
Ign=Ink;
elseif k ~= 0
Ink = (Vf(n) - Vf(k))/ZB(I)+BC(I)*Vf(n);
%Ink = (Vf(n) - Vf(k))/ZB(I);
Inkm = abs(Ink); th=angle(Ink);
%Ign=Ign+Ink;
%if th<= 0
if real(Ink) > 0
fprintf('%7g', n), fprintf('%10g', k),
fprintf('%12.4f', Inkm), fprintf('%12.4f\n', th*180/pi)
elseif real(Ink) ==0 &imag(Ink) < 0
fprintf('%12.4f', Inkm), fprintf('%12.4f\n', th*180/pi)
else, end
else, end
else, end
if n==nf
fprintf('%7g',n), fprintf(' F'), fprintf('%12.4f', Ifm)
fprintf('%12.4f\n', Ifmang)
else, end
end
resp=0;
while strcmp(resp, 'n')~=1 &strcmp(resp, 'N')~=1 &strcmp(resp, 'y')~=1 &
strcmp(resp, 'Y')~=1
31 | P a g e
resp = input('Another fault location? Enter ''y'' or ''n'' within single quote-> ');
if strcmp(resp, 'n')~=1 &strcmp(resp, 'N')~=1 &strcmp(resp, 'y')~=1 &
fprintf('\n Incorrect reply, try again \n\n'), end
end
if resp == 'y' | resp == 'Y'
nf = 999;
else ff = 0; end
end % end for while
lgfault
function lgfault(zdata0, Zbus0, zdata1, Zbus1, zdata2, Zbus2, V)
if exist('zdata2') ~= 1
zdata2=zdata1;
else, end
if exist('Zbus2') ~= 1
Zbus2=Zbus1;
else, end
nl = zdata1(:,1); nr = zdata1(:,2); nl0 = zdata0(:,1);
nr0 = zdata0(:,2); nbr=length(zdata1(:,1)); nbus =
max(max(nl), max(nr)); nbr0=length(zdata0(:,1));
R0 = zdata0(:,3); X0 = zdata0(:,4);
R1 = zdata1(:,3); X1 = zdata1(:,4);
R2 = zdata1(:,3); X2 = zdata1(:,4);
for k=1:nbr0
if R0(k)==inf | X0(k) ==inf
R0(k) = 99999999; X0(k) = 99999999;
else, end
end
ZB1 = R1 + j*X1; ZB0 = R0 + j*X0;
ZB2 = R2 + j*X2;
if exist('V') == 1
V0 = V;
else, end
end
fprintf('\nLine-to-ground fault analysis \n')
ff = 999;
while ff > 0
end
fprintf(' \n')
fprintf('Single line to-ground fault at bus No. %g\n', nf)
a =cos(2*pi/3)+j*sin(2*pi/3);
sctm = [1 1 1; 1 a^2 a; 1 a a^2];
Ia0 = V0(nf)/(Zbus1(nf,nf)+Zbus2(nf, nf)+ Zbus0(nf, nf)+3*Zf); Ia1=Ia0; Ia2=Ia0;
I012=[Ia0; Ia1; Ia2];
Ifabc = sctm*I012;
Ifabcm = abs(Ifabc);
fprintf('Total fault current = %9.4f per unit\n\n', Ifabcm(1))
fprintf('Bus Voltages during the fault in per unit \n\n')
fprintf(' Bus -------Voltage Magnitude------- \n')
32 | P a g e
fprintf(' No. Phase a Phase b Phase c \n')
for n = 1:nbus
Vf0(n)= 0 - Zbus0(n, nf)*Ia0;
Vf1(n)= V0(n) - Zbus1(n, nf)*Ia1;
Vabc = sctm*[Vf0(n); Vf1(n); Vf2(n)];
Va(n)=Vabc(1); Vb(n)=Vabc(2); Vc(n)=Vabc(3);
fprintf(' %5g',n)
fprintf(' %11.4f', abs(Va(n))),fprintf(' %11.4f', abs(Vb(n)))
fprintf(' %11.4f\n', abs(Vc(n)))
end
fprintf(' \n')
fprintf(' From To -----Line Current Magnitude---- \n')
fprintf(' Bus Bus Phase a Phase b Phase c \n')
for n= 1:nbus
for I = 1:nbr
if nl(I) == n | nr(I) == n
end
end
if k ~= 0
Ink1(n, k) = (Vf1(n) - Vf1(k))/ZB1(I);
Ink2(n, k) = (Vf2(n) - Vf2(k))/ZB2(I);
else, end
else, end
for I = 1:nbr0
if nl0(I) == n | nr0(I) == n
if nl0(I) ==n k = nr0(I);
elseif nr0(I) == n k = nl0(I);
end
end
if k ~= 0
Ink0(n, k) = (Vf0(n) - Vf0(k))/ZB0(I);
else, end
else, end
for I = 1:nbr
if nl(I) == n | nr(I) == n
end
if k ~= 0
Inkabc = sctm*[Ink0(n, k); Ink1(n, k); Ink2(n, k)];
Inkabcm = abs(Inkabc); th=angle(Inkabc);
if real(Inkabc(1)) > 0
fprintf(' %11.4f', abs(Inkabc(1))),fprintf(' %11.4f',
abs(Inkabc(2)))
abs(Inkabc(2)))
fprintf(' %11.4f\n', abs(Inkabc(3)))
elseif real(Inkabc(1)) ==0 &imag(Inkabc(1)) < 0
else, end
end
33 | P a g e
else, end
else, end
end
if n==nf
fprintf('%7g',n), fprintf(' F'),
fprintf(' %11.4f', Ifabcm(1)),fprintf(' %11.4f', Ifabcm(2))
fprintf(' %11.4f\n', Ifabcm(3))
else, end
resp=0;
resp = input('Another fault location? Enter ''y'' or ''n'' within single quote-> ');
end
nf = 999;
else ff = 0; end
end % end for while
llfault
function llfault(zdata1, Zbus1, zdata2, Zbus2, V)
zdata2=zdata1;
else, end
Zbus2=Zbus1;
else, end
nl = zdata1(:,1); nr = zdata1(:,2);
R1 = zdata1(:,3); X1 = zdata1(:,4);
R2 = zdata2(:,3); X2 = zdata2(:,4);
ZB1 = R1 + j*X1; ZB2 = R2 + j*X2;
nbr=length(zdata1(:,1)); nbus = max(max(nl), max(nr));
if exist('V') == 1
V0 = V;
else, end
end
fprintf('\nLine-to-line fault analysis \n')
ff = 999;
while ff > 0
end
fprintf(' \n')
fprintf('Line-to-line fault at bus No. %g\n', nf)
sctm = [1 1 1; 1 a^2 a; 1 a a^2];
Ia0=0;
Ia1 = V0(nf)/(Zbus1(nf,nf)+Zbus2(nf, nf)+Zf); Ia2=-Ia1;
I012=[Ia0; Ia1; Ia2];
Ifabc = sctm*I012;
34 | P a g e
Ifabcm = abs(Ifabc);
fprintf('Total fault current = %9.4f per unit\n\n', Ifabcm(2))
for n = 1:nbus
Vf0(n)= 0;

fprintf(' %5g',n)
end
fprintf(' \n')
for n= 1:nbus
for I = 1:nbr
if nl(I) == n | nr(I) == n
end
if k ~= 0
Ink0(n, k) = 0;
Ink1(n, k) = (Vf1(n) - Vf1(k))/ZB1(I);
Ink2(n, k) = (Vf2(n) - Vf2(k))/ZB2(I);
if real(Inkabc(2)) < 0
abs(Inkabc(2)))
abs(Inkabc(2)))
elseif real(Inkabc(2)) ==0 &imag(Inkabc(2)) > 0
else, end
end
else, end
else, end
end
if n==nf
else, end
resp=0;
resp = input('Another fault location? Enter ''y'' or ''n'' within single quote
-> ');
35 | P a g e
end
nf = 999;
else ff = 0; end
end % end for while
dlgfault
function dlgfault(zdata0, Zbus0, zdata1, Zbus1, zdata2, Zbus2, V)
zdata2=zdata1;
else, end
Zbus2=Zbus1;
else, end
nl = zdata1(:,1); nr = zdata1(:,2); nl0 = zdata0(:,1);
nr0 = zdata0(:,2); nbr=length(zdata1(:,1)); nbus =
max(max(nl), max(nr)); nbr0=length(zdata0(:,1));
R0 = zdata0(:,3); X0 = zdata0(:,4);
R1 = zdata1(:,3); X1 = zdata1(:,4);
R2 = zdata2(:,3); X2 = zdata2(:,4);
for k = 1:nbr0
if R0(k) == inf | X0(k) == inf
R0(k) = 99999999; X0(k) = 999999999;
else, end
end
ZB1 = R1 + j*X1; ZB0 = R0 + j*X0;
ZB2 = R2 + j*X2;
if exist('V') == 1
V0 = V;
else, end
end
fprintf('\nDouble line-to-ground fault analysis \n')
ff = 999;
while ff > 0
end
fprintf(' \n')
fprintf('Double line-to-ground fault at bus No. %g\n', nf)
sctm = [1 1 1; 1 a^2 a; 1 a a^2];
Z11 = Zbus2(nf, nf)*(Zbus0(nf, nf)+ 3*Zf)/(Zbus2(nf, nf)+Zbus0(nf, nf)+3*Zf);
Ia1 = V0(nf)/(Zbus1(nf,nf)+Z11);
Ia2 =-(V0(nf) - Zbus1(nf, nf)*Ia1)/Zbus2(nf,nf);
Ia0 =-(V0(nf) - Zbus1(nf, nf)*Ia1)/(Zbus0(nf,nf)+3*Zf);

I012=[Ia0; Ia1; Ia2];
Ifabc = sctm*I012; Ifabcm=abs(Ifabc);
36 | P a g e
Ift = Ifabc(2)+Ifabc(3);
Iftm = abs(Ift);
fprintf('Total fault current = %9.4f per unit\n\n', Iftm)
for n = 1:nbus
fprintf(' %5g',n)
end
fprintf(' \n')
for n= 1:nbus
for I = 1:nbr
if nl(I) == n | nr(I) == n
end
end
if k ~= 0
Ink1(n, k) = (Vf1(n) - Vf1(k))/ZB1(I);
Ink2(n, k) = (Vf2(n) - Vf2(k))/ZB2(I);
else, end
else, end
for I = 1:nbr0
if nl0(I) == n | nr0(I) == n
if nl0(I) ==n k = nr0(I);
elseif nr0(I) == n k = nl0(I);
end
end
if k ~= 0
Ink0(n, k) = (Vf0(n) - Vf0(k))/ZB0(I);
else, end
else, end
for I = 1:nbr
if nl(I) == n | nr(I) == n
end
if k ~= 0
if real(Inkabc(2)) < 0
abs(Inkabc(2)))
abs(Inkabc(2)))
37 | P a g e
elseif real(Inkabc(2)) ==0 &imag(Inkabc(2)) > 0
else, end
end
else, end
else, end
end
if n==nf
else, end
resp=0;
resp = input('Another fault location? Enter ''y'' or ''n'' within single quote
-> ');
end
nf = 999;
else ff = 0; end
end % end for while
OUTPUT:
Enter Faulted Bus No. -> 3
Enter Fault Impedance Zf = R + j*X in complex form (for bolted fault enter 0). Zf = j*0.1
Balanced three-phase fault at bus No. 3
Total fault current = 3.1250 per unit
Bus Voltages during fault in per unit
Bus Voltage Angle
No. Magnitude degrees
1 0.5938 0.0000
2 0.6250 0.0000
3 0.3125 0.0000
Line currents for fault at bus No. 3
From To Current Angle
Bus Bus Magnitude degrees
G 1 1.6250 -90.0000
1 3 1.8750 -90.0000
G 2 1.5000 -90.0000
2 1 0.2500 -90.0000
2 3 1.2500 -90.0000
3 F 3.1250 -90.0000
Another fault location? Enter 'y' or 'n' within single quote -> 'n'
Line-to-ground fault analysis
Single line to-ground fault at bus No. 3
Bus Voltages during the fault in per unit
Bus -------Voltage Magnitude-------
38 | P a g e
No. Phase a Phase b Phase c
1 0.6330 1.0046 1.0046
2 0.7202 0.9757 0.9757
3 0.2752 1.0647 1.0647
From To -----Line Current Magnitude----
Bus Bus Phase a Phase b Phase c
95
1 3 1.6514 0.0000 0.0000
2 1 0.3761 0.1560 0.1560
2 3 1.1009 0.0000 0.0000
3 F 2.7523 0.0000 0.0000
Line-to-line fault analysis
Line-to-line fault at bus No. 3
1 1.0000 0.6720 0.6720
2 1.0000 0.6939 0.6939
3 1.0000 0.5251 0.5251
1 3 0.0000 1.9245 1.9245
2 1 0.0000 0.2566 0.2566
2 3 0.0000 1.2830 1.2830
3 F 0.0000 3.2075 3.2075
Double line-to-ground fault analysis

Double line-to-ground fault at bus No. 3
1 1.0066 0.5088 0.5088
2 0.9638 0.5740 0.5740
3 1.0855 0.1974 0.1974
1 3 0.0000 2.4350 2.4350
2 1 0.1118 0.3682 0.3682
2 3 0.0000 1.6233 1.6233
3 F 0.0000 4.0583 4.0583
RESULT:
39 | P a g e
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What percentage of fault occurring in the power system is LLG fault?
2. What percentage of fault occurring in the power system is line to line fault?
3. What are the types of unsymmetrical faults?
4. Which is the most severe fault?
5. In which portion of the transmission system is the occurrence of the fault more common?
6. Which is the most commonly occurring fault?
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
40 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT - 9
TRANSIENT STABILITY
9.1 AIM:
To develop program for transient stability analysis for single machine connected to infinitebus
9.2 APPARATUS:
9.3 THEORY:
Stability: Stability problem is concerned with the behavior of power system when it is subjected
todisturbance and is classified into small signal stability problem if the disturbances are small
andtransient stability problem when the disturbances are large.
Transient stability: When a power system is under steady state, the load plus transmission loss
equals to the generation in the system. The generating units run a synchronous speed and system
frequency, voltage, current and power flows are steady. When a large disturbance such as three
phase fault, loss of load, loss of generation etc., occurs the power balance is upset and the generating
units rotors experience either acceleration or deceleration. The system may come back to a steady
state condition maintaining synchronism or it may break into subsystems or one or more machines
may pull out of synchronism. In the former case the system is said to be stable and in the later case it
is said to be unstable.
Reactive power Qe = sin(cos-1(p.f))

Stator current, It=S*/Et*
= Pe-jQe/Et*
Voltage behind transient condition
Voltage of infinite bus
Angular separation between E1 and EB
Pre-fault Operation:
41 | P a g e
During Fault Condition:
Find out X from the equivalent circuit during fault condition

Post fault Condition:
Find out X from the equivalent circuit during post fault condition
Critical Clearing Angle:
42 | P a g e
Critical Clearing Time:
MATLAB PROGRAM:
a) Pm = 0.8; E = 1.17; V = 1.0;

X1 = 0.65; X2 = inf; X3 = 0.65;
eacfault(Pm, E, V, X1, X2, X3)
b) Pm = 0.8; E = 1.17; V = 1.0;

X1 = 0.65; X2 = 1.8; X3 = 0.8;
eacfault(Pm, E, V, X1, X2, X3)
eacfault
function eacfault(Pm, E, V, X1, X2, X3)
if exist('Pm')~=1
Pm = input('Generator output power in p.u. Pm = '); else, end
if exist('E')~=1
E = input('Generator e.m.f. in p.u. E = '); else, end
if exist('V')~=1
V = input('Infinite bus-bar voltage in p.u. V = '); else, end
if exist('X1')~=1
X1 = input('Reactance before Fault in p.u. X1 = '); else, end
if exist('X2')~=1
X2 = input('Reactance during Fault in p.u. X2 = '); else, end
if exist('X3')~=1
X3 = input('Reactance aftere Fault in p.u. X3 = '); else, end
Pe1max = E*V/X1; Pe2max=E*V/X2; Pe3max=E*V/X3;
delta = 0:.01:pi;
Pe1 = Pe1max*sin(delta); Pe2 = Pe2max*sin(delta); Pe3 = Pe3max*sin(delta);
d0 =asin(Pm/Pe1max); dmax = pi-asin(Pm/Pe3max);
cosdc = (Pm*(dmax-d0)+Pe3max*cos(dmax)-Pe2max*cos(d0))/(Pe3max-Pe2max);
if abs(cosdc) > 1
fprintf('No critical clearing angle could be found.\n')
fprintf('system can remain stable during this disturbance.\n\n')
return
else, end
dc=acos(cosdc);
if dc >dmax
fprintf('No critical clearing angle could be found.\n')
fprintf('System can remain stable during this disturbance.\n\n')
return
else, end
Pmx=[0 pi-d0]*180/pi; Pmy=[Pm Pm];
x0=[d0 d0]*180/pi; y0=[0 Pm]; xc=[dc dc]*180/pi; yc=[0 Pe3max*sin(dc)];
xm=[dmaxdmax]*180/pi; ym=[0 Pe3max*sin(dmax)];
d0=d0*180/pi; dmax=dmax*180/pi; dc=dc*180/pi;
x=(d0:.1:dc);
y=Pe2max*sin(x*pi/180);
y1=Pe2max*sin(d0*pi/180);
y2=Pe2max*sin(dc*pi/180);
43 | P a g e
x=[d0 x dc];
y=[Pm y Pm];
xx=dc:.1:dmax;
h=Pe3max*sin(xx*pi/180);
xx=[dc xx dmax];
hh=[Pm h Pm];
delta=delta*180/pi;
if X2 == inf
fprintf('\nFor this case tc can be found from analytical formula. \n')
H=input('To find tc enter Inertia Constant H, (or 0 to skip) H = ');
if H ~= 0
d0r=d0*pi/180; dcr=dc*pi/180;
tc = sqrt(2*H*(dcr-d0r)/(pi*60*Pm));
else, end
else, end
%clc
fprintf('\nInitial power angle = %7.3f \n', d0)
fprintf('Maximum angle swing = %7.3f \n', dmax)
fprintf('Critical clearing angle = %7.3f \n\n', dc)
if X2==inf & H~=0
fprintf('Critical clearing time = %7.3f sec. \n\n', tc)
else, end
h = figure; figure(h);
fill(x,y,'m')
hold;
fill(xx,hh,'c')
plot(delta, Pe1,'-', delta, Pe2,'r-', delta, Pe3,'g-', Pmx, Pmy,'b-', x0,y0,
xc,yc, xm,ym), grid
Title('Application of equal area criterion to a critically cleared system')
xlabel('Power angle, degree'), ylabel(' Power, per unit')
text(5, 1.07*Pm, 'Pm')
text(50, 1.05*Pe1max,['Critical clearing angle = ',num2str(dc)])
axis([0 180 0 1.1*Pe1max])
hold off;
OUTPUT:
a) To find tc enter Inertia Constant H, (or 0 to skip) H = 5
Initial power angle = 26.388
Maximum angle swing = 153.612
Critical clearing angle = 84.775
Critical clearing time = 0.260 sec.
44 | P a g e
b) Initial power angle = 26.388
Maximum angle swing = 146.838
Critical clearing angle = 98.834
MATLAB PROGRAM:
E=1.35; V=1.0; H=9.94; X=0.65; Pm=0.6; D=0.138; f0=60;
Pmax=E*V/X, d0=asin(Pm/Pmax)
Ps=Pmax*cos(d0)
wn=sqrt(pi*60/H*Ps)
z=D/2*sqrt(pi*60/(H*Ps))
wd=wn*sqrt(1-z^2),fd=wd/(2*pi)
tau=1/(z*wn)
th=acos(z)
Dd0=10*pi/180;
t=0:.01:3;
Dd=Dd0/sqrt(1-z^2)*exp(-z*wn*t).*sin(wd*t+th);
d=(d0+Dd)*180/pi;
Dw=-wn*Dd0/sqrt(1-z^2)*exp(-z*wn*t).*sin(wd*t);
f=f0+Dw/(2*pi);
subplot(2,1,1),plot(t,d),grid
xlabel('t sec'),ylabel('Delta degree')
45 | P a g e
subplot(2,1,2),plot(t,f),grid
xlabel('t sec'),ylabel('frquency hertz')
subplot(111)
OUTPUT:
Pmax = 2.0769
d0 = 0.2931
Ps = 1.9884
wn = 6.1405
z = 0.2131
wd = 5.9995
fd = 0.9549
tau = 0.7643
th = 1.3561
RESULT:
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. By using which component can the transient stability limit of a power system be improved?
2. What is power system stability?
3. Mention the different methods to improve transient stability.
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
46 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT - 10
LOAD DISPATCH PROBLEM
10.1 AIM:
To develop program for economic load dispatch problem using lambda iterative method
10.2 APPARATUS:
10.3 THEORY:
A modern power system is invariably fed from a number of power plants. Research and
development has led to efficient power plant equipment. A generating unit added to the systemtoday
is likely to be more efficient than the one added some time back. With a very large numberof
generating units at hand, it is the job of the operating engineers to allocate the loads betweenthe
units such that the operating costs are the minimum. The optimal load allocation is byconsidering a
system with any number of units. The loads should be so allocated among thedifferent units that
every unit operates at the same incremental cost. This criterion can bedeveloped mathematically by
the method of lagrangian multiplier.
Statement of Economic Dispatch Problem:

In a power system, with negligible transmission losses and with N number of spinning thermal
generating units the total system load PD at a particular interval can be met by different sets of
generation schedules.
(K) (K) (K)
PG1 , PG2 , … … . . PGN k =1,2,……….NS
Out of these NS sets of generation schedules, the system operator has to choose that setof schedule
which minimizes the system operating cost which is essentially the sum of theproduction costs of all
the generating units. This economic dispatch problem is mathematicallystated as an optimization
problem. Given the number of available generating units Ns theirproduction cost function, their
operating limits and the system load PD.
To determine the set of generating schedule PG,
Min FT = Ni Fi . PGi (1)

2
where𝐹𝑖 . 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑐𝑖 i=1,2……N (2)
𝑁
Φ= 𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 − 𝑃𝐷 =0 (3)
𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥  (4)
where ai, bi and ci are constants.
The ED problem is given by the equations (1) to (3). By omitting the inequality constraint
thereduced ED problem may be restated as an unconstrained optimization problem by augmenting
the objective function with the constraint function Φ multiplied by Lagrange multiplier λ to obtain
the Lagrange function L as,
(5)
(6)
(7)
The solution to ED problem can be obtained by solving simultaneously the necessary conditions(6)
and (7) which state that the economic generation schedules not only satisfy the system powerbalance
47 | P a g e
equation (8) but also demand that the incremental cost rates of all the units be equal to λwhich can
be interpreted as “incremental cost of received power” when the inequality constraints(3) are
included in the ED problem the necessary condition (6) gets modified as
(8)
The solution to the ED problem with the production cost function assumed to be a
quadraticfunction, equation (4), can be obtained by simultaneously solving (6) and (7) using a
directmethod as given below,
(9)
(10)
Substituting Equation (10) in Equation (7) we obtain
(11)
The method of solution involves computing λ using equation (11) and then computing theeconomic
schedules PGi; i=1,2,........N using equation (10). In order to satisfy the operating limits(3) the
following iterative algorithm is to be used.
ALGORITHM:
Step 1: Choose appropriate value of Lagrangian multiplier λ

Step 2: Start iteration iter=0
Step 3: Iteration iter=iter+1
Step 4: Solve for power generated by ith unit using equation
Step 5: Check if any Pi is beyond or below the inequality constant

If Pi <Pi,min, fix Pi= Pi,min
If Pi>Pi,max, fix Pi= Pi,max
Step 6: Calculate the power loss using the equation
Step 7: Calculate power mismatch using the formula,
Step 8: If , then increment λ, λnew=λ+0.001 and go to step 3else go to step 9
Step 9: If , then decrement λ, λnew=λ-0.001 and go to step 3else go to step 10

Step 10:If ΔP is less than tolerance value , print the values of generatedpower and losses
Step11:Stop
MATLAB Program:
clc;
clear all; % a b c fc max min
48 | P a g e
data= [0.00142 7.20 510 1.1 600 150
0.00194 7.85 310 1 400 100
0.00482 7.97 78 1 200 050];
ng=length(data(:,1));
a=data(:,1);
b=data(:,2);
c=data(:,3);
fc=data(:,4);
pmax=data(:,5);
pmin=data(:,6);
% loss=[0.00003 0.00009 0.00012];
loss=[ 0 0 0];
C=fc.*c; B=fc.*b; A=fc.*a;
la=1; pd=850; acc=0.2;
diff=1;
145
while acc<(abs(diff));
for i=1:ng;
p(i)= (la-B(i))/(2*(la*loss(i)+A(i)));
if p(i)<pmin(i);
p(i)=pmin(i);
end;
if p(i)>pmax(i);
p(i)=pmax(i);
end;
end;
LS=sum(((p.*p).*loss));
diff=(pd+LS-sum(p));
if diff>0
la=la+0.001;
else la=la-0.001;
end;
end;
PowerShared=p
Lambda=la
Loss=LS
OUTPUT:
a). When loss = [0.00003 0.00009 0.00012]
Power Shared = 435.1026 299.9085 130.6311
Lambda = 9.5290
Loss = 15.8222
b). When loss = 0
Power Shared = 393.0858 334.5361 122.1992
Lambda = 9.1490
Loss = 0
RESULT:
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define economic load disptach
2. State the objectives of economic load dispatch.
3. Name the methods of finding economic dispatch
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
49 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT - 11
DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING METHOD
11.1 AIM:
To developprogram for unit commitment problem using forward dynamic programming method.
11.2 APPARATUS:
11.3 THEORY:
Unit commitment (UC) is an optimization problem used to determine the operation schedule of the
generating units at every hour interval with varying loads under different constraints and
environments.
In the dynamic-programming approach that follows, we assume that:
1. A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating and
2. The start-up cost of a unit is independent of the time it has been off-line
3. There are no costs for shutting down a unit.
4. There is a strict priority order, and in each interval a specified minimumamount of capacity must
be operating.
A feasible state is one in which the committed units can supply the required load and that meets the
minimum amount of capacity each period.
Flowchart:
50 | P a g e
The recursive algorithm to compute the minimum cost in hour K with combination I is,
Where
State ( K , 1) is the Zth combination in hour K . For the forward dynamic programming
approach, we define a strategy as the transition, or path, from one state at a given hour to a state at the next
hour.
X = number of states to search each period
N = number of strategies, or paths, to save at each step
These variables allow control of the computational effort.
MATLAB PROGRAM:
RESULT:
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is unit commitment and List the constraints in unit commitment problem?
2. What is the need for unit commitment problem?
3. Define minimum up time?
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
EXPERIMENT - 12
51 | P a g e
EXPERIMENT - 12
STATE ESTIMATION
12.1 AIM:
To develop program for state estimation of power system.
12.2 APPARATUS:
12.3 THEORY:
Power System State Estimation is a process whereby telemetered data from network measuring
points to a central computer, can be formed into a set of reliable data for control and recording
purposes. State estimation for electric transmission grids was first formulated as a weighted least-
squares problem by Fred Schweppe and his research group in 1969.
A static state estimate is obtained from measurements taken within a time interval of about 0-5 s.
This is the commonly used state estimator. A state estimator of this type essentially gives a steady
state snapshot of the system.
A dynamic state estimate is obtained from measurements in a relatively shorter time (say 0.01 s).
Moreover, all such measurements are synchronised or "time stamped" using a common clock and
communicated from geographically distant locations to a load dispatch centre. These measurements
could be used for advanced control schemes.
The state variables of State estimation are the voltages and phase angles. Once the estimates of the
state variables are known proper actions, if required (during emergency, normal insecure states), can
be taken to bring the system back to its normal secure state.
Mathematical model:
Let the measurements, states and measurement errors be related by the nonlinear equation
Z = h(x) + p (1)
where Z is the (m x 1) measurement vector,
h(x) is the vector of nonlinear functions,
x is the (n x i) state vector,
p is the measurement error vector,
m is the number of measurements and
n the number of state variables.
A state estimate x is sought that minimizes
J(x) = ~ [z - h(x)] T w [z - h(x)] (2)
where W is a diagonal matrix whose elements are the inverses of the measurement variances.
It is assumed that E(p) = 0 and E(pvT) T = R.
The minimum of J(x) is achieved by getting an estimator of x which makes its gradient zero :
(3)
The Taylor series expansion of the nonlinear function around a nominal condition is
(4)
Substituting equation (4) into equation (3) gives
where
52 | P a g e
(5)
is known as the information matrix. Equation (5) describes the standard WLS
algorithm.
MATLAB PROGRAM :
num = 14; % IEEE - 14
ybus = ybusppg(num); % Get YBus..
zdata = zdatas(num); % Get Measurement data..
bpq = bbusppg(num); % Get B data..
nbus = max(max(zdata(:,4)),max(zdata(:,5))); % Get number of buses..
type = zdata(:,2); % Type of measurement, Vi - 1, Pi - 2, Qi - 3, Pij - 4, Qij - 5, Iij - 6..
z = zdata(:,3); % Measuement values..
fbus = zdata(:,4); % From bus..
tbus = zdata(:,5); % To bus..
Ri = diag(zdata(:,6)); % Measurement Error..
V = ones(nbus,1); % Initialize the bus voltages..
del = zeros(nbus,1); % Initialize the bus angles..
E = [del(2:end); V]; % State Vector..
G = real(ybus);
B = imag(ybus);
vi = find(type == 1); % Index of voltage magnitude measurements..
ppi = find(type == 2); % Index of real power injection measurements..
qi = find(type == 3); % Index of reactive power injection measurements..
pf = find(type == 4); % Index of real powerflow measurements..
qf = find(type == 5); % Index of reactive powerflow measurements..
nvi = length(vi); % Number of Voltage measurements..
npi = length(ppi); % Number of Real Power Injection measurements..
nqi = length(qi); % Number of Reactive Power Injection measurements..
npf = length(pf); % Number of Real Power Flow measurements..
nqf = length(qf); % Number of Reactive Power Flow measurements..
iter = 1;
tol = 5;
while(tol> 1e-4)
%Measurement Function, h
h1 = V(fbus(vi),1);
h2 = zeros(npi,1);
h3 = zeros(nqi,1);
h4 = zeros(npf,1);
h5 = zeros(nqf,1);
fori = 1:npi
m = fbus(ppi(i));
for k = 1:nbus
h2(i) = h2(i) + V(m)*V(k)*(G(m,k)*cos(del(m)-del(k)) + B(m,k)*sin(del(m)-del(k)));
end
end
fori = 1:nqi
m = fbus(qi(i));
for k = 1:nbus
h3(i) = h3(i) + V(m)*V(k)*(G(m,k)*sin(del(m)-del(k)) - B(m,k)*cos(del(m)-del(k)));
53 | P a g e
end
end
fori = 1:npf
m = fbus(pf(i));
n = tbus(pf(i));
h4(i) = -V(m)^2*G(m,n) - V(m)*V(n)*(-G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)) - B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)));
end
fori = 1:nqf
m = fbus(qf(i));
n = tbus(qf(i));
h5(i) = -V(m)^2*(-B(m,n)+bpq(m,n)) - V(m)*V(n)*(-G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)) + B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-
del(n)));
end
h = [h1; h2; h3; h4; h5];
% Residue..
r = z - h;
% Jacobian..
% H11 - Derivative of V with respect to angles.. All Zeros
H11 = zeros(nvi,nbus-1);
% H12 - Derivative of V with respect to V..
H12 = zeros(nvi,nbus);
for k = 1:nvi
for n = 1:nbus
if n == k
H12(k,n) = 1;
end
end
end
% H21 - Derivative of Real Power Injections with Angles..
H21 = zeros(npi,nbus-1);
fori = 1:npi
m = fbus(ppi(i));
for k = 1:(nbus-1)
if k+1 == m
for n = 1:nbus
H21(i,k) = H21(i,k) + V(m)* V(n)*(-G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)) + B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)));
end
H21(i,k) = H21(i,k) - V(m)^2*B(m,m);
else
H21(i,k) = V(m)* V(k+1)*(G(m,k+1)*sin(del(m)-del(k+1)) - B(m,k+1)*cos(del(m)-del(k+1)));
end
end
end
% H22 - Derivative of Real Power Injections with V..

H22 = zeros(npi,nbus);
fori = 1:npi
m = fbus(ppi(i));
for k = 1:(nbus)
if k == m
for n = 1:nbus
H22(i,k) = H22(i,k) + V(n)*(G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)) + B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)));
54 | P a g e
end
H22(i,k) = H22(i,k) + V(m)*G(m,m);
else
H22(i,k) = V(m)*(G(m,k)*cos(del(m)-del(k)) + B(m,k)*sin(del(m)-del(k)));
end
end
end
% H31 - Derivative of Reactive Power Injections with Angles..

H31 = zeros(nqi,nbus-1);
fori = 1:nqi
m = fbus(qi(i));
for k = 1:(nbus-1)
if k+1 == m
for n = 1:nbus
H31(i,k) = H31(i,k) + V(m)* V(n)*(G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)) + B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)));
end
H31(i,k) = H31(i,k) - V(m)^2*G(m,m);
else
H31(i,k) = V(m)* V(k+1)*(-G(m,k+1)*cos(del(m)-del(k+1)) - B(m,k+1)*sin(del(m)-del(k+1)));
end
end
end
% H32 - Derivative of Reactive Power Injections with V..

H32 = zeros(nqi,nbus);
fori = 1:nqi
m = fbus(qi(i));
for k = 1:(nbus)
if k == m
for n = 1:nbus
H32(i,k) = H32(i,k) + V(n)*(G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)) - B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)));
end
H32(i,k) = H32(i,k) - V(m)*B(m,m);
else
H32(i,k) = V(m)*(G(m,k)*sin(del(m)-del(k)) - B(m,k)*cos(del(m)-del(k)));
end
end
end
% H41 - Derivative of Real Power Flows with Angles..

H41 = zeros(npf,nbus-1);
fori = 1:npf
m = fbus(pf(i));
n = tbus(pf(i));
for k = 1:(nbus-1)
if k+1 == m
H41(i,k) = V(m)* V(n)*(-G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)) + B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)));
elseif k+1 == n
H41(i,k) = -V(m)* V(n)*(-G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)) + B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)));
else
H41(i,k) = 0;
end
end
end
end
55 | P a g e
% H42 - Derivative of Real Power Flows with V..
H42 = zeros(npf,nbus);
fori = 1:npf
m = fbus(pf(i));
n = tbus(pf(i));
for k = 1:nbus
if k == m
H42(i,k) = -V(n)*(-G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)) - B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n))) - 2*G(m,n)*V(m);
elseif k == n
H42(i,k) = -V(m)*(-G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)) - B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)));
else
H42(i,k) = 0;
end
end
end
end
% H51 - Derivative of Reactive Power Flows with Angles..

H51 = zeros(nqf,nbus-1);
fori = 1:nqf
m = fbus(qf(i));
n = tbus(qf(i));
for k = 1:(nbus-1)
if k+1 == m
H51(i,k) = -V(m)* V(n)*(-G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)) - B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)));
elseif k+1 == n
H51(i,k) = V(m)* V(n)*(-G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)) - B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)));
else
H51(i,k) = 0;
end
end
end
end
% H52 - Derivative of Reactive Power Flows with V..

H52 = zeros(nqf,nbus);
fori = 1:nqf
m = fbus(qf(i));
n = tbus(qf(i));
for k = 1:nbus
if k == m
H52(i,k) = -V(n)*(-G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)) + B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n))) - 2*V(m)*(-B(m,n)+
bpq(m,n));
elseif k == n
H52(i,k) = -V(m)*(-G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)) + B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)));
else
H52(i,k) = 0;
end
end
end
end
% Measurement Jacobian, H..

H = [H11 H12; H21 H22; H31 H32; H41 H42; H51 H52];
% Gain Matrix, Gm..

Gm = H'*inv(Ri)*H;
56 | P a g e
%Objective Function..
J = sum(inv(Ri)*r.^2);
% State Vector..
dE = inv(Gm)*(H'*inv(Ri)*r);
E = E + dE;
del(2:end) = E(1:nbus-1);
V = E(nbus:end);
iter = iter + 1;
tol = max(abs(dE));
end
CvE = diag(inv(H'*inv(Ri)*H)); % Covariance matrix..
Del = 180/pi*del;
E2 = [V Del]; % Bus Voltages and angles..
disp('-------- State Estimation ------------------');
disp('--------------------------');
disp('| Bus | V | Angle | ');
disp('| No | pu | Degree | ');
disp('--------------------------');
for m = 1:n
fprintf('%4g', m); fprintf(' %8.4f', V(m)); fprintf(' %8.4f', Del(m)); fprintf('\n');
end
disp('---------------------------------------------');
disp('---------------------------------------------');
functionbbus = bbusppg(num) % Returns B-bus..

linedata = linedatas(num);
fb = linedata(:,1);
tb = linedata(:,2);
b = linedata(:,5);
nbus = max(max(fb),max(tb)); % no. of buses...
nbranch = length(fb); % no. of branches...
bbus = zeros(nbus,nbus);
for k=1:nbranch
bbus(fb(k),tb(k)) = b(k);
bbus(tb(k),fb(k)) = bbus(fb(k),tb(k));
end
function Y = ybusppg(num) % Returns Y
linedata = linedatas(num); % Calling Linedatas...

fb = linedata(:,1); % From bus number...
tb = linedata(:,2); % To bus number...
r = linedata(:,3); % Resistance, R...
x = linedata(:,4); % Reactance, X...
b = linedata(:,5); % Ground Admittance, B/2...
a = linedata(:,6); % Tap setting value..
z = r + i*x; % z matrix...
y = 1./z; % To get inverse of each element...
b = i*b; % Make B imaginary...
nb = max(max(fb),max(tb)); % No. of buses...

nl = length(fb); % No. of branches...
Y = zeros(nb,nb); % InitialiseYBus...
% Formation of the Off Diagonal Elements...

for k = 1:nl
57 | P a g e
Y(fb(k),tb(k)) = Y(fb(k),tb(k)) - y(k)/a(k);
Y(tb(k),fb(k)) = Y(fb(k),tb(k));
end
% Formation of Diagonal Elements....

for m = 1:nb
for n = 1:nl
if fb(n) == m
Y(m,m) = Y(m,m) + y(n)/(a(n)^2) + b(n);
elseif tb(n) == m
Y(m,m) = Y(m,m) + y(n) + b(n);
end
end
end
%Y; % Bus Admittance Matrix
%Z = inv(Y); % Bus Impedance Matrix
function [rho theta] = rect2pol(x)

rho = sqrt(real(x).^2 + imag(x).^2);
theta = atan(imag(x)./real(x));
functionrect = pol2rect(rho,theta)
rect = rho.*cos(theta) + j*rho.*sin(theta);
% Traditional Measurement Data..

% Vi - 1, Pi - 2, Qi - 3, Pij - 4, Qij - 5, Iij - 6;
% |Msnt |Type | Value | From | To | Rii |
zdata = [ %---- Voltage Magnitude ------------%
1 1 1.06 1 0 9e-4;
%-----------------------------------%
%---- Real Power Injection ---------%
2 2 0.1830 2 0 1e-4;
3 2 -0.9420 3 0 1e-4;
4 2 0.00 7 0 1e-4;
5 2 0.00 8 0 1e-4;
6 2 -0.0900 10 0 1e-4;
7 2 -0.0350 11 0 1e-4;
8 2 -0.0610 12 0 1e-4;
9 2 -0.1490 14 0 1e-4;
%------------------------------------%
%---- Reative Power Injection -------%
10 3 0.3523 2 0 1e-4;
11 3 0.0876 3 0 1e-4;
12 3 0.00 7 0 1e-4;
13 3 0.2103 8 0 1e-4;
14 3 -0.0580 10 0 1e-4;
15 3 -0.0180 11 0 1e-4;
16 3 -0.0160 12 0 1e-4;
17 3 -0.0500 14 0 1e-4;
%------------------------------------%
%------ Real Power Flow ------------- %
18 4 1.5708 1 2 64e-6;
19 4 0.7340 2 3 64e-6;
20 4 -0.5427 4 2 64e-6;
21 4 0.2707 4 7 64e-6;
22 4 0.1546 4 9 64e-6;
23 4 -0.4081 5 2 64e-6;
24 4 0.6006 5 4 64e-6;
58 | P a g e
25 4 0.4589 5 6 64e-6;
26 4 0.1834 6 13 64e-6;
27 4 0.2707 7 9 64e-6;
28 4 -0.0816 11 6 64e-6;
29 4 0.0188 12 13 64e-6;
%------------------------------------%
%------ Real Power Flow ------------- %
30 5 -0.1748 1 2 64e-6;
31 5 0.0594 2 3 64e-6;
32 5 0.0213 4 2 64e-6;
33 5 -0.1540 4 7 64e-6;
34 5 -0.0264 4 9 64e-6;
35 5 -0.0193 5 2 64e-6;
36 5 -0.1006 5 4 64e-6;
37 5 -0.2084 5 6 64e-6;
38 5 0.0998 6 13 64e-6;
39 5 0.1480 7 9 64e-6;
40 5 -0.0864 11 6 64e-6;
41 5 0.0141 12 13 64e-6;];
%--------------------------------------%
RESULT:
LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Write the applications of state estimation
2. What is the need of state estimation in power systems?
3. What are the different methods of state estimation in power systems?
LAB ASSIGNMENTS:
59 | P a g e

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POWER SYSTEM COMPUTATIONALLABORATORY

Subject Code : BPSB09

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

The students of M.TechElectrical Power Systemsare prepared to:

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs)

Upon completion of M.TechElectrical Power Systems,the students will be able to:

S No. List of Experiments Page No.

1 Formation of Bus Admittance Matrix

3 Gauss -Seidel Load Flow Method

4 Newton - Raphson Load Flow Method

5 Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method

10 Load Dispatch Problem

11 Dynamic Programming Method

Exp. No Experiment Program Outcomes Attained

To develop a program for Ybus formation by direct inspection method.

1.4 MATLAB Program:

LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

To develop a program forYbusformation by singular transformation method

LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

To develop a program for Gauss - Seidal load flow algorithm.

2.4 Problem Formulation:

Substituting Ii in the expression for Vi, we get

Iter=1 V = 1.0500 + 0.0000i 0.9825 - 0.0310i 1.0011 - 0.0353i

LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

Desktop Computers with MATLAB software

Step 1: Form Ybus.

Qi( r )  Qisp  Qi((rcal

LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

To develop program for FDLF algorithm.

Desktop Computers with MATLAB software

Step 1: Form Y bus.

LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

Desktop Computers with MATLAB software

1. Adding Zb from a new bus to reference bus.

Figure 1: Addition of impedance between new bus and reference bus

Figure 2: Addition of impedance between new bus andexisting bus

The system of equations can be rewritten as,

Procedure for formation of Zbusmatrix:

Desktop Computers with MATLAB software

Vabc = sctm*[Vf0(n); Vf1(n); Vf2(n)];

Ia0 =-(V0(nf) - Zbus1(nf, nf)*Ia1)/(Zbus0(nf,nf)+3*Zf);

Enter Faulted Bus No. -> 3

Desktop Computers with MATLAB software

Reactive power Qe = sin(cos-1(p.f))

Voltage of infinite bus

Angular separation between E1 and EB

Find out X from the equivalent circuit during fault condition

Critical Clearing Angle:

a) Pm = 0.8; E = 1.17; V = 1.0;

b) Pm = 0.8; E = 1.17; V = 1.0;

LAB VIVA QUESTIONS:

Desktop Computers with MATLAB software

Statement of Economic Dispatch Problem:

Min FT = Ni Fi . PGi (1)

Step 1: Choose appropriate value of Lagrangian multiplier λ

Step 5: Check if any Pi is beyond or below the inequality constant

Step 6: Calculate the power loss using the equation

Step 7: Calculate power mismatch using the formula,

Ia0 =-(V0(nf) - Zbus1(nf, nf)Ia1)/(Zbus0(nf,nf)+3Zf);