Detection of Radioactivity

AN
Characteristics of the Three Types of Emission

SI
Nuclear Reactions

S
Half-Life

HU
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes Including Safety Precautions

AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 1
Describe the detection of alpha-particles, beta-particles and gamma-rays

AN
by appropriate methods.

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 2
 Radioactivity is the process whereby unstable

AN
atomic nuclei release energetic subatomic

SSI
particles.

HU
 Radioactivity was first discovered in 1896 by
AD
the French scientist Henri Becquerel, after
M
M

which the SI unit for radiation, the Becquerel,

HA

is named.

Radioactivity 3
HA
M
M
AD
HU
SSI
AN
 Radiation can not be detected with our five

AN
senses, special detectors are therefore needed.

SI
 Several devices have been developed to detect

S
HU
radioactivity, with the earliest being an

AD
unexposed photographic plate placed in the
M
vicinity of a source being detected.
M
 Other devices include:
HA

 the cloud chamber,

 electroscopes,
 the Geiger-Müller tube

Radioactivity 5
 It was named for Hans Geiger who invented the device in 1908 and Walther

AN
Müller who collaborated with Geiger in developing further in 1928

S SI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 6
 AN
SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 7
State and explain the random emission of radioactivity in direction and

AN
time.

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 8
 Most nuclei are stable, but some are unstable

AN
which will emit a tiny particle called nuclear

SSI
radiation.

HU
 The emission occurs spontaneously and
AD
randomly over space and time.
M
M
HA
State, for radioactive emissions, their nature, relative ionising effects and

AN
relative penetrating powers.

S SI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 10
 Alpha particles are a highly ionising form of

AN
particle radiation. In cloud chamber they

SI
produce thick straight tracks.

S
HU
 They consist of two protons and two neutrons
bound together into a particle identical to a
AD
helium nucleus; hence, it can be written as He2+.
M
 As its ionising power is so high it does not
M

penetrate very deeply into matter before its

HA

energy has been used up. Its penetrating power

is therefore very low (absorbed by 10 cm of air,
0.01 mm lead or a sheet of paper).

Radioactivity 11
 Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed

AN
electrons emitted by certain types of

SSI
radioactive nuclei such as potassium-40.

HU
 The beta particles emitted are a form of
AD
ionising radiation also known as beta rays.
M
M

 The high energy electrons have greater range

HA

of penetration than alpha particles, but still

much less than gamma rays.

Radioactivity 12
 Gamma rays are forms of electromagnetic

AN
radiation (EMR) or light emissions of a specific

SI
frequency produced from sub-atomic particle

S
HU
interaction and radioactive decay.
 Gamma rays are generally characterized as

AD
EMR, having the highest frequency and energy,
M
and also the shortest wavelength, within the
M

electromagnetic radiation spectrum.

HA

 Its ionising power is so low it penetrates very

deeply into matter before its energy has been
used up.

Radioactivity 13
Describe the deflection of radioactive emissions in electric fields and

AN
magnetic fields.

S SI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 14
 The products of radioactivity could be

AN
analyzed into three distinct species by either

SSI
a magnetic field or an electric field.

HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 15
type of radiation alpha particles (α) beta particle (β) gamma rays (γ)
each particle is 2 each particle is an electromagnetic

AN
protons + 2 neutrons electron (created waves similar to X-
(it is identical to a when the nucleus rays

SI
nucleus of helium-4) decays)

S
HU
relative charge +2 –1 0
compared with

AD
charge on proton
ionising effect strong M weak very weak
penetrating effect not very penetrating, but very penetrating,
M
penetrating: stopped by a few never completely
HA

stopped by a thick millimetres of stopped, though

sheet of paper, by aluminium or other lead and thick
skin or by a few metal concrete will reduce
centimetres of air intensity
effect of field deflected by deflected by not deflected by
magnetic and magnetic and magnetic or electric
electric field electric field fields
Radioactivity 16
Explain what is meant by radioactive decay.

AN
S SI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 17
 It is process of spontaneous transformation of a

AN
radionuclide by the emission of nuclear

SI
radiation.

S
HU
 The emission of the nuclear radiation is a purely
random event. It cannot be predicted exactly
AD
when an atom will decay, only that a certain
M
number will decay in a given time.
M

 The rate of decay depends on the number of

HA

undecayed nuclei present, so with each decay

event there is a decrease in the activity of a
radioactive sample.

Radioactivity 18
Use the nuclide notation 𝐴𝑍𝑋 to construct equations where radioactive

AN
decay leads to changes in the composition of the nucleus.

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 19
 Nuclear equations can be used to show the decay process.

AN
 These must balance for nucleon number and proton
number.

SSI
 Alpha decay

HU
 When alpha decay occurs a group of two protons and two
neutrons (helium nucleus) comes out of the nucleus. Therefore

AD
the proton number decreases by 2 but the nucleon number
M
decreases by 4. The resulting daughter nucleus is of an element
2 positions to the left of the 'parent' in the periodic table.
M

238
U23490Th  42 He
HA

92
 Look at the numbers on the top line (the nucleon numbers).
▪ 238 = 234 + 4. Therefore the nucleon numbers balance
 Look at the numbers on the bottom line (the proton numbers).
▪ 92 = 90 + 2. Therefore the proton numbers balance
Radioactivity 20
 Beta decay

AN
 When beta decay occurs a neutron within the nucleus emits the

SI
particle and changes into a proton. Therefore the proton

S
number increases by one but the nucleon number stays the

HU
same. The resulting daughter nucleus is of an element 1 position
to the right.

AD C N  β
M 14 14 0
6 7 -1
M
 Look at the numbers on the top line (the nucleon numbers).
HA

▪ 14 = 14 + 0 Therefore the nucleon numbers balance

 Look at the numbers on the bottom line (the proton numbers).
▪ 6 = 7 + (-1) Therefore the proton numbers balance

Radioactivity 21
 Gamma Emission

AN
 Sometimes, after its emission of an alpha, beta or

SSI
positron particle, the nucleus is still in an excited

HU
state, called a metastable state.
AD
 In order to get to a lower energy state it emits a
M
M
quantum of energy in the form of a gamma ray.
HA

Radioactivity 22
HA
M
M
AD
HU
SSI
AN
HA
M
M
AD
HU
SSI
AN
Explain the processes of fusion and fission.

AN
S SI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 25
 Nuclear fusion is the process by which

AN
multiple atomic nuclei join together to form a

SSI
heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the

HU
release or absorption of energy.
 AD
Nuclear fission is a process in nuclear physics
M
M

in which the nucleus of an atom splits into

HA

two or more smaller nuclei as fission

products, and usually some by-product
particles.
Radioactivity 26
Describe, with the aid of a block diagram, one type of fission reactor for

AN
use in a power station.

S SI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 27
 A nuclear reactor produces and controls the

AN
release of energy from splitting the atoms of

SSI
uranium.

HU
 Uranium-fuelled nuclear power is a clean and
AD
efficient way of boiling water to make steam
M
M

which drives turbine generators.

HA
 In the reactor core the

AN
uranium-235 isotope

SI
fissions or splits, producing

S
HU
a lot of heat in a continuous

AD
process called a chain
M
reaction.
M
 The process depends on the
HA

presence of a moderator
such as water or graphite,
and is fully controlled.
  Fuel produces heat,

AN
which is used to boil

SI
water to make steam.

S
HU
 Steam spins a turbine.

AD
 Turbine drives a
generator and the
M
M
generator makes
HA

electricity.
 Electricity goes to the
transformers to produce
the correct voltage.
Discuss theories of star formation and their energy production by fusion.

AN
SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 31
 Stars are the most widely recognized

AN
astronomical objects, and represent the most

SSI
fundamental building blocks of galaxies.

HU
 Stars form when enough dust and gas clump
AD
together because of gravitational forces.
M
 Gravity pulls the dust and gas together.
M
HA

 As the gas falls together, it gets hot.

 A star forms when it is hot enough for nuclear
reactions to start.
 This releases energy, and keeps the star hot.
 The Sun and other stars use nuclear fusion to

AN
release energy.

SI
 During most of a star's lifetime, hydrogen nuclei

S
HU
fuse together to form helium nuclei.

AD
M
M
HA
1. Which line in the table describes the nature

AN
of an α-particle and of a γ-ray?

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

A
2. What is a β-particle and from which part of a

AN
radioactive atom is it emitted?

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

A
3. Which row describes the properties of α-

AN
particles?

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

B
4. Which is the correct comparison of the

AN
penetrating power and ionising power of

SSI
alpha-particles and gamma radiation?

HU
AD
M
M
HA

C
5. The diagram shows the paths of three

AN
different types of radiation, X, Y and Z.

S SI
HU
AD
M
M
HA
1. Which row in the table correctly identifies X,

AN
Y and Z?

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

B
6. A student investigates a radioactive source

AN
that emits only alpha-particles. Without any

SSI
source nearby, the detector shows a low

HU
reading.
AD
The source and thick cardboard are placed
7.
M
M

near the detector, as shown.

HA
HA
M
M
AD
HU
SSI
AN
1. What is the reading on the detector now,

AN
and why?

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

A
7. S is a radioactive source emitting α-

AN
particles, β-particles and γ-rays. A detector

SSI
is placed 5 cm away from S. A thin sheet of

HU
paper is placed as shown in the diagram.
AD
M
M
HA
1. Which radiations can be detected?

AN
SI
A. α-particles and β-particles only

S
HU
B. α-particles and γ-rays only

AD
C. β-particles and γ-rays only
M
D. α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays
M
HA
8. Which travels in a straight line across a

AN
magnetic field?

SSI
HU
A. alpha-particle

AD
B. electron
M
C. gamma-ray
M

D. proton
HA
9. A radioactive source emits alpha-particles,

AN
beta-particles and gamma-rays. A Geiger-

SSI
Müller tube and counter detect the

HU
emissions, which pass through a thin sheet
AD
of paper and a strong magnetic field.
M
M
HA
HA
M
M
AD
HU
SSI
AN
1. What is detected by the Geiger-Müller tube?

AN
SI
A. alpha-particles and beta-particles

S
HU
B. alpha-particles only

AD
C. beta-particles and gamma-rays
M
D. beta-particles only
M
HA
10. A student investigates the emission from an

AN
unknown radioactive source. The source is

SSI
10 cm in front of a detector. A strong

HU
magnetic field between the source and the
AD
detector is then switched on.
M
M
HA
HA
M
M
AD
HU
SSI
AN
1. The results are shown.

AN
S SI
HU
AD
M
M
HA
1. Which radioactive source produced these

AN
results?

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

C
11. Which statement is true for all three types of

AN
radioactive emission (alpha-particles, beta-

S SI
particles and gamma-rays)?

HU
A. They are completely absorbed by a thin
aluminium sheet.AD
M
M

B. They are deflected by electric fields.

HA

C. They emit light.

D. They ionise gases.
12. The diagram shows five atoms in a

AN
radioactive substance. The atoms each give

SI
S
out an α-particle.

HU
AD
M
M
HA
HA
M
M
AD
HU
SSI
AN
1. Atom 1 is the first to give out a particle.

AN
Atom 3 is the second to give out a particle.

SI
S
Which atom will give out the next particle?

HU
2.
A. atom 2
AD
M
B. atom 4
M

C. atom 5
HA

D. impossible to tell
13. What occurs in the decay of a radioactive

AN
nucleus?

S SI
HU
A. The nucleus absorbs another nucleus.

AD
B. The nucleus absorbs at least one form of
radiation.
M
M

C. The nucleus always splits into two equal

HA

fragments.
D. The nucleus emits at least one form of radiation.
14. A uranium nucleus emits an α-particle.

AN
What are the new nucleon and proton

SI
15.

S
numbers?

HU
AD
M
M
HA

D
15. A nucleus is represented by . It emits one

AN
alpha-particle and then one beta-particle.

SSI
16. What is the resulting nucleus X?

HU
AD
M
M
C
HA
16. In one radioactive decay, radium (Ra) gives

AN
rise to radon (Rn) as shown.

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA
1. What particle is also produced?

AN
SI
A. an alpha-particle

S
HU
B. a beta-particle

AD
C. both an alpha-particle and a beta-particle
M
D. no particle but only gamma-rays
M
HA
Explain what is meant by the term half-life.

AN
S SI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 62
 Half-life is the time taken for half of

AN
radioactive nuclei to decay.

SSI
It is also define as the time taken for the

HU

count rate to fall to half of its original reading.
AD
M
M
HA
Make calculations based on half-life which might involve information in

AN
tables or shown by decay curves.

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 64
HA
M
M
AD
HU
SSI
AN
1. A radioactive element has a half-life of 40 minutes.

AN
The initial count rate was 1000 per minute. How long

SI
will it take for the count rate to drop to (a) 250 per

S
HU
minute and (b) 125 per minute?
2. A radiation counter is set up and a background count

AD
of 20 counts per minute is recorded. A radioactive
M
sample is placed less than a centimetre from the
M

detector and the counter then records 820 counts per

HA

minute. After 20 min, the count rate falls to 420

counts per minute. What would you expect the count
rate to be 60 min after placing the radioactive sample
in front of the detector.
Radioactivity 66
3. The half-life of a radioactive element is 4 days. How

AN
long does it take for 20 g for a sample of the

SI
radioactive element to decay to 5 g.

S
4. A radioactive element has a half-life of 5 days. If the

HU
mass of a sample of the element is 32 g, what mass of

AD
the element is left after 20 days?
5. The table below shows how the activity of a
M
radioactive source varies with time as recorded using
M

a G-M tube and ratemeter.

HA

Time (minute) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Counts per minute 4000 2800 2000 1440 1000 720 500

6. Determine the half-life of the radioactive source.

Radioactivity 67
6. Radioisotopes Y has a half-life of 2000 years.

AN
How long will it take the activity of a sample

SSI
Y to decrease to one-eight of its initial

HU
value?
AD
A sample radioactive substance contains
7.
M
M

200 undecayed atoms. How many will

HA

remain after 3 half-lives?

8. A radioactive source has a half-life of 30
minutes. What fraction is left after 2 hours?
Radioactivity 68
9. The graph shows the rapid decay of a very

AN
unstable radioactive isotope in terms of

SI
S
count rate per minute (cpm) versus minutes.

HU
AD From the graph
M
determine the
M
HA

time it takes for

half of the
radioactive atoms
to decay.
10. Determine the half-life of a nuclide from a

AN
decay curve.

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA
Describe how radioactive materials are moved, used and stored in a safe

AN
way.

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 71
 We cannot do much to reduce our exposure

AN
to natural background radiation, but great

SSI
care is needed when handling radioactive

HU
materials. Precautions include:
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 72
 wearing protective clothing

AN
SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 73
 keeping as far away as is practicable - for

AN
example, by using tongs or robotic arms.

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 74
 keeping radioactive materials in lead-lined

AN
containers, labelled with the appropriate

SSI
hazard symbol.

HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 75
 keeping your exposure time as short as

AN
possible

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 76
Discuss the way in which the type of radiation emitted and the half-life

AN
determine the use for the material.

S SI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 77
 A radioactive isotope is introduced into a living

AN
system, where it flows along the bloodstream,

SI
following the path of chemical processes

S
HU
therein.
 It is easily detected using a scanner or Geiger

AD
counter. The scanner take pictures and are run
M
together in rapid succession, giving physicians a
M

movie-like view of the isotope's path.

HA

 When the procedure is finished the isotope is

flushed out of the body along with other waste
products.

Radioactivity 78
HA
M
M
AD
HU
SSI
AN
 A common procedure is the injection of iodine-

AN
131 for the observation of the thyroid gland.

SI
 A healthy thyroid will accumulate any iodine

S
HU
entering the body.

AD
 When a physician scans the patient, if iodine-131
M
is present in the thyroid, the gland is working
M
properly.
HA

 However, if the trace element has not collected

in the thyroid, the physician knows the gland is
failing.

Radioactivity 80
 AN
SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 81
 A method for determining the position of a leak

AN
in a conduit or pipeline.

SI
 Short-lived radioisotope is inserted into the

S
HU
conduit or pipeline and is caused to move along
it by pressuring up the conduit or pipeline from
AD
one or both ends thereof with fluid, for example
M
water.
M

 The carrier body travels to the leak but no

HA

further and its location is detected from outside

the conduit or pipeline using a radiation
detector.

Radioactivity 82
 AN
SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 83
 A source of beta radiation is used to pass beta

AN
particles through the paper.

SI
 A detector on the other side of the paper detects the

S
beta particles that pass through.

HU
 The detector is connected to a hydraulic control via a

AD
processor unit.
 If the radiation level detected drops it means the
M
paper is too thick so the hydraulic control pushes
M

rollers closer together in order to reduce the paper

HA

thickness.
 If the radiation level detected increases it means the
paper is too thin so the hydraulic control pulls the
rollers apart so the paper thickness can be increased.
Radioactivity 84
 AN
SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 85
Discuss the origins and effect of background radiation.

AN
SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 86
Discuss the dating of objects by the use of 14C.

AN
S SI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

Radioactivity 87
 Radiocarbon dating uses the amount of Carbon 14

AN
(C14) available in living creatures as a measuring stick.

SI
 All living things maintain a content of carbon 14 in

S
HU
equilibrium with that available in the atmosphere,
right up to the moment of death. When an organism
AD
dies, the amount of C14 available within it begins to
M
decay at a half life rate of 5700 years
M

 Comparing the amount of C14 in a dead organism to

HA

available levels in the atmosphere, produces an

estimate of when that organism died.

Radioactivity 88
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years.

AN
1. Cro-Magnon man is one of our ancestors. Five adult
skeletons were found near Les Eyzies in France. A 1 g

SSI
sample of charcoal from this site produced a radioactive

HU
count of 0.5 counts per minute. A modern sample of
charcoal of same mass produces a count rate of 32

AD
counts per minute. Both counts were corrected for
M
background radiation. How long ago did Cro-Magnon
M
man live?
HA

2. A 10-g sample of wood cut recently from a living tree has

an activity of 160 counts/minute. A piece of charcoal
taken from a prehistoric campsites also weighs 10 g but
has an activity of 40 counts/minute. Estimate the age of
the charcoal.

Radioactivity 89
3. A wooden post from an archaeological dig produces

AN
150 counts per minute. Wood from an identical

SI
species of tree currently alive gives 600 counts per

S
minute. How long ago did the wood from the

HU
archaeological dig die?

AD
4. In a carbon-dating experiment a sample of wood
from an object was burnt and the carbon dioxide
M
produced was collected. The activity of the carbon
M

dioxide was equivalent to 2.25 count per minute per

HA

gram of carbon. When the same experiment was

repeated using wood from a modern source, the
corrected counts was 18 count per minute per gram
of carbon. What is the likely age of the find?
 Carbon dating can be used on anything which

AN
used to be alive.

SSI
 Examples are

HU
 Animal (or human) remains, including skin, fur and
bone.
AD
M
 Plant remains, including wood, natural fibres
M
HA

(cotton, silk, wool, cloth, rope), seeds and pollen

grains.
 Some fossils can be dated this way if they still contain
some of the original carbon of the plant or animal.
Radioactivity 91
 Carbon dating cannot be used on things which have

AN
never lived.

SI
 Examples are brick, rock and metal.

S
HU
 The amount of carbon-14 in samples is very small and
after 9 or 10 half-lives the amount of radioactivity
AD
which is emitted by the sample is too tiny for an
M
accurate count rate to be measured.
M

 Therefore carbon dating cannot be used to date samples

HA

which are more than 50,000 to 60,000 years old.

 The method of carbon dating uses an assumption
that the amount of carbon-14 present in the past
is the same as that present in the environment today.
Radioactivity 92
1. A sample of radioactive isotope is decaying.

AN
2. The nuclei of which atoms will decay first?

SSI
A. impossible to know, because radioactive decay is

HU
random

AD
B. impossible to know, unless the age of the
M
material is known
M

C. atoms near the centre, because they are

HA

surrounded by more atoms

D. atoms near the surface, because the radiation
can escape more easily
2. The activity of a radioactive source is

AN
measured over a period of time. The graph

SI
S
shows the decay curve.

HU
AD
M
M
HA
HA
M
M
AD
HU
SSI
AN
1. Why is the curve not smooth?

AN
SI
A. Background radiation has not been subtracted.

S
HU
B. Radioactive decay is a random process.

AD
C. The half-life is not constant.
M
D. The temperature is changing.
M
HA
3. Which statement explains the meaning of

AN
the half-life of a radioactive substance?

SSI
HU
A. half the time taken for half the substance to
decay
AD
B. half the time taken for the substance to decay
M
M
completely
HA

C. the time taken for half the substance to decay

D. the time taken for the substance to decay
completely
4. A sample of radioactive uranium has mass 1

AN
g. Another sample of the same material has

SI
S
mass 2 g.

HU
5. Which property is the same for both
samples? AD
M
M

A. the amount of radiation emitted per second

HA

B. the half-life
C. the number of uranium atoms
D. the volume
5. A powder contains 400 mg of a radioactive

AN
material that emits α-particles.

SSI
The half-life of the material is 5 days.

HU
6.
7. What mass of that material remains after 10
days? AD
M
M

A. 0 mg
HA

B. 40 mg
C. 100 mg
D. 200 mg
6. A radioactive substance has a half-life of 2

AN
weeks. At the beginning of an investigation the

SSI
substance emits 3000 β-particles per minute.

HU
7. How many β-particles will it emit per minute
after 6 weeks?
AD
M
M
A. 0
HA

B. 375
C. 500
D. 1500
7. The half-life of a radioactive material is 24

AN
years.

SSI
The activity of a sample falls to a fraction of

HU
8.
its initial value after 72 years.
AD
What is the fraction?
9.
M
M

A. 1/3
HA

B. 1/4
C. 1/6
D. 1/8
8. The half-life of a radioisotope is 2400 years.

AN
The activity of a sample is 720 counts / s.

SSI
How long will it take for the activity to fall to

HU
9.
90 counts / s?
AD
M
A. 300 years
M

B. 2400 years
HA

C. 7200 years
D. 19 200 years
9. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 5

AN
hours. A sample is tested and found to contain

SSI
0.48 g of the substance.

HU
10. How much of the substance was present in the

AD
sample 20 hours before the sample was tested?
M
M
A. 0.03 g
HA

B. 0.12 g
C. 1.92 g
D. 7.68 g
10. A radioactive element has a half-life of 70 s.

AN
11. The number of emissions per second, N, of a

SI
sample of the element is measured at a certain

S
HU
time.

AD
12. What was the number of emissions per second
M
70 s earlier?
M

A. 0
HA

B. N/2
C. N
D. 2N
11. The count-rate from a radioactive source

AN
falls from 400 to 50 in 3.0 minutes.

SI
S
12. What is the half-life?

HU
A. 0.75 minutes
AD
M
B. 1.0 minutes
M

C. 2.7 minutes
HA

D. 8.0 minutes
12. A detector is used to measure the count-rate

AN
near a radioactive source. The reading is 4000

SI
counts per minute. After 30 minutes the count-

S
HU
rate has fallen to 500 counts per minute.
13. What is the half-life of the radioactive source?

AD
You may ignore the effects of background
M
radiation.
M

A. 3 minutes
HA

B. 5 minutes
C. 6 minutes
D. 10 minutes
13. The count rates of four radioactive sources

AN
were measured at the same time on three

SSI
consecutive days.

HU
14. Which source has a half-life of two days?
AD
M
M
HA

B
14. The table shows details of two samples of

AN
radioactive nuclides X and Y.

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA
1. After how many days will the number of

AN
atoms of nuclide X be equal to the number

SI
S
of atoms of nuclide Y?

HU
A. 2 days
AD
M
B. 4 days
M

C. 6 days
HA

D. 8 days
15. The graph shows the decay curve for one

AN
particular radioactive nuclide.

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA
1. What is the half-life of this nuclide?

AN
SI
A. 1.0 day

S
HU
B. 1.5 days

AD
C. 2.0 days M
D. 2.5 days
M
HA
16. Which row is correct for fission and for

AN
fusion?

SSI
HU
AD
M
M
HA

C
17. Which equation shows a nuclear fission

AN
reaction?

SI
S
HU
AD
M
M
HA

D
18. Which material is commonly used as a lining

AN
for a box for storing radioactive samples?

SSI
HU
A. aluminium

AD
B. copper
M
C. lead
M

D. uranium
HA
19. When dealing with radioactive substances

AN
there are possible dangers.

SI
Which statement is correct?

S
20.

HU
A. Beta-particles can pass through skin and damage

AD
body cells. M
B. Gamma-radiation is more dangerous than alpha or
M
beta because it has a longer half-life.
HA

C. Materials that emit only alpha-particles must be

kept in thick lead containers.
D. Radioactive materials are safe to handle after two
half-lives.
20. In the treatment of brain cancer, a patient’s

AN
head is enclosed in a helmet containing a

SSI
number of radioactive sources. The radiation

HU
from each source is directed towards the
cancer. AD
M
M

21. Which nuclide is the most suitable for these

HA

sources?
HA
M
M
AD
HU
SSI
AN
A