C++ Menu: C++ Output (Print Text)
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C++ Function Overloading 78-79
C++ Menu
C++ Recursion 79-81
C++ Classes
C++ OOP 81-83
Title pagenumber
C++ Classes/Objects 83-87
C++ Syntax 2-3 C++ Class Methods 87-89
C++ Output 4-7 C++ Constructors 89-93
C++ Comments 7-8 C++ Access Specifiers 93-95
C++
C++ Variables 8-13 C++ Encapsulation 95-97
C++ User Input 13-14 C++ Inheritance 97-102
C++ Data Types 14-18 C++ Polymorphism 102-105
C++ Operators 18-22 C++ Files 105-107
C++ Strings 23-30 C++ Exceptions 108-111
C++ Math 30-32 Add Two Numbers 111-112
C++ Booleans 32-34 C++ Reference
C++ Conditions(if……else) 35-39 C++ Keywords 112-115
C++ Switch 39-42 C++ Math Functions 115-118
A complete guide to C++ While Loop 42-44
C++ For Loop 44-46 C++ Syntax
c++
C++ Break/Continue 46-48
C++ Arrays 48-59 C++ Syntax
et's break up the following code to understand it better:
L
C++ Structures 59-63 Example
C++ References 63-64 #include <iostream>
C++ Pointers 64-67 using namespace std;
C++ Functions 67-71 int main() {
C++ Function Parameters 71-77 cout << "Hello World!";
1 2
return 0; Line 7: Do not forget to add the closing curly bracket } to actually end the main You can add as many cout objects as you want. However, note that it does not
} function. insert a new line at the end of the output:
Example explained Omitting Namespace Example
Line 1: #include <iostream> is a header file library that lets us work with input You might see some C++ programs that runs without the standard namespace #include <iostream>
and output objects, such as cout (used in line 5). Header files add functionality to library. The using namespace std line can be omitted and replaced with the std using namespace std;
C++ programs. keyword, followed by the :: operator for some objects: int main() {
Line 2: using namespace std means that we can use names for objects and Example cout << "Hello World!";
variables from the standard library. #include <iostream> cout << "I am learning C++";
int main() { return 0;
Don't worry if you don't understand how #include <iostream> and using std::cout << "Hello World!"; }
namespace std works. Just think of it as something that (almost) always appears return 0; C++ New Lines
in your program. } New Lines
It is up to you if you want to include the standard namespace library or not. To insert a new line, you can use the \n character:
Line 3: A blank line. C++ ignores white space. But we use it to make the code Example
more readable. C++ Output (Print Text) #include <iostream>
Line 4: Another thing that always appear in a C++ program is int main(). This is using namespace std;
C++ Output (Print Text)
called a function. Any code inside its curly brackets {} will be executed. int main() {
The cout object, together with the << operator, is used to output values/print
Line 5: cout (pronounced "see-out") is an object used together with the insertion cout << "Hello World! \n";
text:
operator (<<) to output/print text. In our example, it will output "Hello World!". cout << "I am learning C++";
Example
Note: Every C++ statement ends with a semicolon ;. return 0;
#include <iostream>
Note: The body of int main() could also been written as: }
using namespace std;
int main () { cout << "Hello world! "; return 0; } Tip : Two \n characters after each other will create a blank line:
int main() {
Remember: The compiler ignores white spaces. However, multiple lines makes
cout << "Hello World!";
the code more readable. Example
return 0; }
Line 6: return 0 ends the main function. #include <iostream>
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using namespace std; \t Creates a horizontal tab /* The code below will print the words Hello World!
int main() { \\ Inserts a backslash character (\) to the screen, and it is amazing */
cout << "Hello World! \n\n"; \" Inserts a double quote character cout << "Hello World!";
cout << "I am learning C++"; Single or multi-line comments?
return 0; C++ Comments It is up to you which you want to use. Normally, we use // for short comments,
} and /* */ for longer.
C++ Comments
Another way to insert a new line, is with the endl manipulator:
Example
Comments can be used to explain C++ code, and to make it more readable. It can C++ Variables
also be used to prevent execution when testing alternative code. Comments can
#include <iostream>
be single-lined or multi-lined. C++ Variables
using namespace std;
Variables are containers for storing data values.
int main() {
Single-line Comments In C++, there are different types of variables (defined with different keywords),
cout << "Hello World!" << endl;
Single-line comments start with two forward slashes (//). for example:
cout << "I am learning C++";
Any text between // and the end of the line is ignored by the compiler (will not int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such as 123 or -123
return 0;
be executed). double - stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such as 19.99 or -19.99
}
This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code: char - stores single characters, such as 'a' or 'B'. Char values are surrounded by
Both \n and endl are used to break lines. However, \n is most used.
Example single quotes
// This is a comment string - stores text, such as "Hello World". String values are surrounded by
But what is \n exactly?
cout << "Hello World!"; double quotes
The newline character (\n) is called an escape sequence, and it forces the cursor
This example uses a single-line comment at the end of a line of code: bool - stores values with two states: true or false
to change its position to the beginning of the next line on the screen. This
Example
results in a new line.
cout << "Hello World!"; // This is a comment Declaring (Creating) Variables
C++ Multi-line Comments To create a variable, specify the type and assign it a value:
Examples of other valid escape sequences are:
Multi-line comments start with /* and ends with */. Syntax
Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by the compiler: type variableName = value;
Escape Sequence description
Example
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Where type is one of C++ types (such as int), and variableName is the name of int myNum = 5; // Integer (whole number without decimals) Example
the variable (such as x or myName). The equal sign is used to assign values to the double myFloatNum = 5.99; // Floating point number (with decimals) int x = 5, y = 6, z = 50;
variable. char myLetter = 'D'; // Character cout << x + y + z;
To create a variable that should store a number, look at the following example: string myText = "Hello"; // String (text) One Value to Multiple Variables
Example bool myBoolean = true; // Boolean (true or false) You can also assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:
Create a variable called myNum of type int and assign it the value 15: You will learn more about the individual types in the Data Types chapter. Example
int myNum = 15; int x, y, z;
cout << myNum; Display Variables x = y = z = 50;
You can also declare a variable without assigning the value, and assign the value The cout object is used together with the << operator to display variables. cout << x + y + z;
later: To combine both text and a variable, separate them with the << operator:
Example C++ Identifiers
int myNum; Example C++ Identifiers
myNum = 15; int myAge = 35; All C++ variables must be identified with unique names.
cout << myNum; cout << "I am " << myAge << " years old."; These unique names are called identifiers.
Note that if you assign a new value to an existing variable, it will overwrite the Add Variables Together Identifiers can be short names (like x and y) or more descriptive names (age,
previous value: To add a variable to another variable, you can use the + operator: sum, totalVolume).
Example
Example int x = 5; Note: It is recommended to use descriptive names in order to create
int myNum = 15; // myNum is 15 int y = 6; understandable and maintainable code:
myNum = 10; // Now myNum is 10 int sum = x + y; Example
cout << myNum; // Outputs 10 cout << sum; // Good
Other Types int minutesPerHour = 60;
A demonstration of other data types: C++ Declare Multiple Variables // OK, but not so easy to understand what m actually is
Declare Many Variables int m = 60;
Example To declare more than one variable of the same type, use a comma-separated list: The general rules for naming variables are:
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This however, will not work: In this example, the user must input two numbers. Then we print the sum by
Names can contain letters, digits and underscores const int minutesPerHour; calculating (adding) the two numbers:
Names must begin with a letter or an underscore (_) minutesPerHour = 60; // error
Names are case-sensitive (myVar and myvar are different variables)
C++ User Input
Example
Names cannot contain whitespaces or special characters like !, #, %, etc. int x, y;
Reserved words (like C++ keywords, such as int) cannot be used as names int sum;
C++ User Input
C++ Constants
cout << "Type a number: ";
You have already learned that cout is used to output (print) values. Now we will
cin >> x;
use cin to get user input.
cout << "Type another number: ";
Constants cin is a predefined variable that reads data from the keyboard with the
cin >> y;
When you do not want others (or yourself) to change existing variable values, use extraction operator (>>).
sum = x + y;
the const keyword (this will declare the variable as "constant", which means In the following example, the user can input a number, which is stored in the
cout << "Sum is: " << sum;
unchangeable and read-only): variable x. Then we print the value of x:
Example
const int myNum = 15; // myNum will always be 15
Example
int x;
C++ Data Types
myNum = 10; // error: assignment of read-only variable 'myNum' cout << "Type a number: "; // Type a number and press enter C++ Data Types
You should always declare the variable as constant when you have values that cin >> x; // Get user input from the keyboard As explained in the Variables chapter, a variable in C++ must be a specified data
are unlikely to change: cout << "Your number is: " << x; // Display the input value type:
Example Good To Know Example
const int minutesPerHour = 60; int myNum = 5; // Integer (whole number)
const float PI = 3.14; cout is pronounced "see-out". Used for output, and uses the insertion operator float myFloatNum = 5.99; // Floating point number
Notes On Constants (<<) double myDoubleNum = 9.98; // Floating point number
When you declare a constant variable, it must be assigned with a value: cin is pronounced "see-in". Used for input, and uses the extraction operator (>>) char myLetter = 'D'; // Character
Example bool myBoolean = true; // Boolean
Like this: Creating a Simple Calculator string myText = "Hello"; // String
const int minutesPerHour = 60; Basic Data Types
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The data type specifies the size and type of information the variable will store: double myNum = 19.99; Example
cout << myNum; bool isCodingFun = true;
Data Type Size Description float vs. double bool isFishTasty = false;
cout << isCodingFun; // Outputs 1 (true)
boolean 1 byte Stores true or false values
The precision of a floating point value indicates how many digits the value can cout << isFishTasty; // Outputs 0 (false)
char 1 byte Stores a single character/letter/number, or
have after the decimal point. The precision of float is only six or seven decimal Boolean values are mostly used for conditional testing
ASCII values
digits, while double variables have a precision of about 15 digits. Therefore it is
int 2 or 4 bytes Stores whole numbers, without decimals
safer to use double for most calculations. C++ Character Data Types
float 4 bytes Stores fractional numbers, containing one or more
decimals. Sufficient for storing 6-7 decimal digits Character Types
Scientific Numbers The char data type is used to store a single character. The character must be
double 8 bytes Stores fractional numbers, containing one or more
A floating point number can also be a scientific number with an "e" to indicate surrounded by single quotes, like 'A' or 'c':
decimals. Sufficient for storing 15 decimal digits
the power of 10: Example
C++ Numeric Data Types char myGrade = 'B';
Example cout << myGrade;
Numeric Types
float f1 = 35e3; Alternatively, if you are familiar with ASCII, you can use ASCII values to display
Use int when you need to store a whole number without decimals, like 35 or
double d1 = 12E4; certain characters:
1000, and float or double when you need a floating point number (with
cout << f1; Example
decimals), like 9.99 or 3.14515.
cout << d1; char a = 65, b = 66, c = 67;
Int C++ Boolean Data Types cout << a;
cout << b;
int myNum = 1000;
Boolean Types cout << c;
cout << myNum;
A boolean data type is declared with the bool keyword and can only take the Tip: A list of all ASCII values can be found in our ASCII Table Reference.
float
float myNum = 5.75; values true or false.
When the value is returned, true = 1 and false = 0.
C++ String Data Types
cout << myNum;
Double String Types
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The string type is used to store a sequence of characters (text). This is not a Although the + operator is often used to add together two values, like in the / Division Divides one value by another
built-in type, but it behaves like one in its most basic usage. String values must example above, it can also be used to add together a variable and a value, or a x / y
be surrounded by double quotes: variable and another variable: % Modulus Returns the division remainder
Example x % y
Example int sum1 = 100 + 50; // 150 (100 + 50) ++ Increment Increases the value of a variable by
string greeting = "Hello"; int sum2 = sum1 + 250; // 400 (150 + 250) 1++x
cout << greeting; int sum3 = sum2 + sum2; // 800 (400 + 400) -- Decrement Decreases the value of a variable by
To use strings, you must include an additional header file in the source code, the C++ divides the operators into the following groups: 1--x
<string> library: Arithmetic operators
Assignment operators C++ Assignment Operators
Example Comparison operators
Assignment Operators
// Include the string library Logical operators
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.
#include <string> Bitwise operators
In the example below, we use the assignment operator (=) to assign the value 10
// Create a string variable Arithmetic Operators
to a variable called x:
string greeting = "Hello";
Example
// Output string value Arithmetic operators are used to perform common mathematical operations.
int x = 10;
cout << greeting;
The addition assignment operator (+=) adds a value to a variable:
C++ Operators
Operator Name Description
Example
Example
int x = 10;
C++ Operators + Addition Adds together two values
x += 5;
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values. x + y
A list of all assignment operators:
In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values: - Subtraction Subtracts one value from another
Example x - y
Operator Example Same As
int x = 100 + 50; * Multiplication Multiplies two values
= x = 5 x = 5
x * y
+= x += 3 x = x + 3
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-= x -= 3 x = x - 3 C++ Strings
*= x *= 3 x = x * 3 Operator Name Example Strings are used for storing text.
/= x /= 3 x = x / 3 == Equal to x == y A string variable contains a collection of characters surrounded by double
%= x %= 3 x = x % 3 != Not equal x != y quotes:
&= x &= 3 x = x & 3 > Greater than x > y
|= x |= 3 x = x | 3 < Less than x < y Example
^= x ^= 3 x = x ^ 3 >= Greater than or equal to x >= y Create a variable of type string and assign it a value:
>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3 <= Less than or equal to x <= y string greeting = "Hello";
<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3
C++ Logical Operators
To use strings, you must include an additional header file in the source code, the
C++ Comparison Operators
<string> library:
Logical Operators
Example
Comparison Operators As with comparison operators, you can also test for true (1) or false (0) values
// Include the string library
Comparison operators are used to compare two values (or variables). This is with logical operators.
#include <string>
important in programming, because it helps us to find answers and make Logical operators are used to determine the logic between variables or values:
// Create a string variable
decisions.
string greeting = "Hello";
The return value of a comparison is either 1 or 0, which means true (1) or false Operator Name Description
(0). These values are known as Boolean values, and you will learn more about
them in the Booleans and If..Else chapter. &&
Example
Logical and Returns true if both statements are true
C++ String Concatenation
In the following example, we use the greater than operator (>) to find out if 5 is x < 5 && x < 10 String Concatenation
greater than 3: || Logical or Returns true if one of the statements is true The + operator can be used between strings to add them together to make a new
Example x < 5 || x < 4 string. This is called concatenation:
int x = 5; ! Logical not Reverse the result, returns false if the result is true Example
int y = 3; !(x < 5 string firstName = "John ";
cout << (x > y); // returns 1 (true) because 5 is greater than 3
C++ Strings
string lastName = "Doe";
A list of all comparison operators: string fullName = firstName + lastName;
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cout << fullName; Numbers are added. Strings are concatenated. Tip: You might see some C++ programs that use the size() function to get the
In the example above, we added a space after firstName to create a space If you add two numbers, the result will be a number: length of a string. This is just an alias of length(). It is completely up to you if
between John and Doe on output. However, you could also add a space with Example you want to use length() or size():
quotes (" " or ' '): int x = 10; Example
Example int y = 20; string txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
string firstName = "John"; int z = x + y; // z will be 30 (an integer) cout << "The length of the txt string is: " << txt.size();
string lastName = "Doe"; If you add two strings, the result will be a string concatenation:
string fullName = firstName + " " + lastName; Example C++ Access Strings
cout << fullName; string x = "10";
Access Strings
Append string y = "20";
You can access the characters in a string by referring to its index number inside
A string in C++ is actually an object, which contain functions that can perform string z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a string)
square brackets [ ].
certain operations on strings. For example, you can also concatenate strings If you try to add a number to a string, an error occurs:
This example prints the first character in myString:
with the append() function: Example
Example
Example string x = "10";
string myString = "Hello";
string firstName = "John "; int y = 20;
cout << myString[0];
string lastName = "Doe"; string z = x + y;
// Outputs H
string fullName = firstName.append(lastName);
cout << fullName; C++ String Length Note: String indexes start with 0: [0] is the first character. [1] is the second
character, etc.
C++ Numbers and Strings String Length
To get the length of a string, use the length() function: This example prints the second character in myString:
Adding Numbers and Strings Example Example
WARNING! string txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ"; string myString = "Hello";
cout << "The length of the txt string is: " << txt.length(); cout << myString[1];
C++ uses the + operator for both addition and concatenation. // Outputs e
Change String Characters
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To change the value of a specific character in a string, refer to the index number, Example string fullName;
and use single quotes: string txt = "It\'s alright."; cout << "Type your full name: ";
Example The sequence \\ inserts a single backslash in a string: cin >> fullName;
string myString = "Hello"; Example cout << "Your name is: " << fullName;
myString[0] = 'J'; string txt = "The character \\ is called backslash."; // Type your full name: John Doe
cout << myString; Other popular escape characters in C++ are: // Your name is: John
// Outputs Jello instead of Hello From the example above, you would expect the program to print "John Doe", but
C++ Special Characters
Escape Character Result it only prints "John".
\n New Line That's why, when working with strings, we often use the getline() function to
\t Tab read a line of text. It takes cin as the first parameter, and the string variable as
Strings - Special Characters
C++ User Input Strings
second:
Because strings must be written within quotes, C++ will misunderstand this
Example
string, and generate an error:
string fullName;
string txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."; User Input Strings
cout << "Type your full name: ";
The solution to avoid this problem, is to use the backslash escape character. It is possible to use the extraction operator >> on cin to store a string entered by
getline (cin, fullName);
The backslash (\) escape character turns special characters into string a user:
cout << "Your name is: " << fullName;
characters: Example
// Type your full name: John Doe
string firstName;
// Your name is: John Doe
Escape character Result Description cout << "Type your first name: ";
\'
\"
'
"
Single quote
Double quote
cin >> firstName; // get user input from the keyboard
cout << "Your name is: " << firstName;
C++ String Namespace
\\ \ Backslash // Type your first name: John Omitting Namespace
The sequence \" inserts a double quote in a string: // Your name is: John You might see some C++ programs that runs without the standard namespace
Example However, cin considers a space (whitespace, tabs, etc) as a terminating character, library. The using namespace std line can be omitted and replaced with the std
string txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."; which means that it can only store a single word (even if you type many words): keyword, followed by the :: operator for string (and cout) objects:
The sequence \' inserts a single quote in a string: Example Example
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#include <iostream> #include <cmath> fmin(x, y) Returns the lowest value of a floating x and y
#include <string> cout << sqrt(64); fmod(x, y) Returns the floating point remainder of x/y
int main() { cout << round(2.6); pow(x, y) Returns the value of x to the power of y
std::string greeting = "Hello"; cout << log(2); sin(x) Returns the sine of x (x is in radians)
std::cout << greeting; Other Math Functions sinh(x) Returns the hyperbolic sine of a double value
return 0; A list of other popular Math functions (from the <cmath> library) can be found tan(x) Returns the tangent of an angle
} in the table below: tanh(x) Returns the hyperbolic tangent of a double value
It is up to you if you want to include the standard namespace library or not.
C++ Booleans
C++ Math
Function Description
abs(x) Returns the absolute value of x
C++ Booleans
acos(x) Returns the arccosine of x
C++ Math Very often, in programming, you will need a data type that can only have one of
asin(x) Returns the arcsine of x
C++ has many functions that allows you to perform mathematical tasks on two values, like:
atan(x) Returns the arctangent of x
numbers. YES / NO
cbrt(x) Returns the cube root of x
Max and min ON / OFF
ceil(x) Returns the value of x rounded up to its nearest integer
The max(x,y) function can be used to find the highest value of x and y: TRUE / FALSE
cos(x) Returns the cosine of x
Example For this, C++ has a bool data type, which can take the values true (1) or false (0).
cosh(x) Returns the hyperbolic cosine of x
cout << max(5, 10); Boolean Values
exp(x) Returns the value of Ex
And the min(x,y) function can be used to find the lowest value of x and y: A boolean variable is declared with the bool keyword and can only take the
expm1(x) Returns ex -1
Example values true or false:
fabs(x) Returns the absolute value of a floating x
cout << min(5, 10); Example
fdim(x, y) Returns the positive difference between x and y
C++ <cmath> Header bool isCodingFun = true;
floor(x) Returns the value of x rounded down to its nearest integer
Other functions, such as sqrt (square root), round (rounds a number) and log bool isFishTasty = false;
hypot(x, y) Returns sqrt(x2 +y2) without intermediate overflow or underflow
(natural logarithm), can be found in the <cmath> header file: cout << isCodingFun; // Outputs 1 (true)
fma(x, y, z) Returns x*y+z without losing precision
Example cout << isFishTasty; // Outputs 0 (false)
fmax(x, y) Returns the highest value of a floating x and y
// Include the cmath library
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From the example above, you can read that a true value returns 1, and false Real Life Example
returns 0. Let's think of a "real life example" where we need to find out if a person is old C++ If ... Else
However, it is more common to return a boolean value by comparing values and enough to vote.
C++ Conditions and If Statements
variables . In the example below, we use the >= comparison operator to find out if the age
You already know that C++ supports the usual logical conditions from
C++ Boolean Expressions
(25) is greater than OR equal to the voting age limit, which is set to 18:
mathematics:
Example
Less than: a < b
int myAge = 25;
Boolean Expression Less than or equal to: a <= b
int votingAge = 18;
A Boolean expression returns a boolean value that is either 1 (true) or 0 (false). Greater than: a > b
cout << (myAge >= votingAge); // returns 1 (true), meaning 25 year olds are
This is useful to build logic, and find answers. Greater than or equal to: a >= b
allowed to vote!
You can use a comparison operator, such as the greater than (>) operator, to find Equal to a == b
Cool, right? An even better approach (since we are on a roll now), would be to
out if an expression (or variable) is true or false: Not Equal to: a != b
wrap the code above in an if...else statement, so we can perform different
Example You can use these conditions to perform different actions for different
actions depending on the result:
int x = 10; decisions.
Example
int y = 9; C++ has the following conditional statements:
Output "Old enough to vote!" if myAge is greater than or equal to 18. Otherwise
cout << (x > y); // returns 1 (true), because 10 is higher than 9 Use if to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified condition is true
output "Not old enough to vote.":
Or even easier: Use else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same condition is false
int myAge = 25;
Example Use else if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is false
int votingAge = 18;
cout << (10 > 9); // returns 1 (true), because 10 is higher than 9 Use switch to specify many alternative blocks of code to be executed
if (myAge >= votingAge) {
In the examples below, we use the equal to (==) operator to evaluate an The if Statement
cout << "Old enough to vote!";
expression: Use the if statement to specify a block of C++ code to be executed if a condition
} else {
Example is true.
cout << "Not old enough to vote.";
int x = 10; Syntax
}
cout << (x == 10); // returns 1 (true), because the value of x is equal to 10 if (condition) {
// Outputs: Old enough to vote!
Example // block of code to be executed if the condition is true
Booleans are the basis for all C++ comparisons and conditions.
cout << (10 == 15); // returns 0 (false), because 10 is not equal to 15 }
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Note that if is in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters (If or IF) will generate an if (condition) { } else {
error. // block of code to be executed if the condition is true // block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2
} else { is false
In the example below, we test two values to find out if 20 is greater than 18. If // block of code to be executed if the condition is false }
the condition is true, print some text: } Example
Example Example int time = 22;
if (20 > 18) { int time = 20; if (time < 10) {
cout << "20 is greater than 18"; if (time < 18) { cout << "Good morning.";
} cout << "Good day."; } else if (time < 20) {
We can also test variables: } else { cout << "Good day.";
Example cout << "Good evening."; } else {
int x = 20; } cout << "Good evening.";
int y = 18; // Outputs "Good evening." }
if (x > y) { Example explained // Outputs "Good evening."
cout << "x is greater than y"; In the example above, time (20) is greater than 18, so the condition is false. Example explained
} Because of this, we move on to the else condition and print to the screen "Good In the example above, time (22) is greater than 10, so the first condition is false.
Example explained evening". If the time was less than 18, the program would print "Good day". The next condition, in the else if statement, is also false, so we move on to the
In the example above we use two variables, x and y, to test whether x is greater The else if Statement else condition since condition1 and condition2 is both false - and print to the
than y (using the > operator). As x is 20, and y is 18, and we know that 20 is Use the else if statement to specify a new condition if the first condition is false. screen "Good evening".
greater than 18, we print to the screen that "x is greater than y". Syntax However, if the time was 14, our program would print "Good day."
The else Statement if (condition1) {
Use the else statement to specify a block of code to be executed if the condition // block of code to be executed if condition1 is true
C++ Short Hand If Else
is false. } else if (condition2) { Short Hand If...Else (Ternary Operator)
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2
Syntax is true
36 37 38
There is also a short-hand if else, which is known as the ternary operator // code block cout << "Wednesday";
because it consists of three operands. It can be used to replace multiple lines of break; break;
code with a single line. It is often used to replace simple if else statements: case y: case 4:
Syntax // code block cout << "Thursday";
variable = (condition) ? expressionTrue : expressionFalse; break; break;
Instead of writing: default: case 5:
Example // code block cout << "Friday";
int time = 20; } break;
if (time < 18) { This is how it works: case 6:
cout << "Good day."; The switch expression is evaluated once cout << "Saturday";
} else { The value of the expression is compared with the values of each case break;
cout << "Good evening."; If there is a match, the associated block of code is executed case 7:
} The break and default keywords are optional, and will be described later in this cout << "Sunday";
You can simply write: chapter break;
Example The example below uses the weekday number to calculate the weekday name: }
int time = 20; Example // Outputs "Thursday" (day 4)
string result = (time < 18) ? "Good day." : "Good evening."; int day = 4; The break Keyword
cout << result; switch (day) { When C++ reaches a break keyword, it breaks out of the switch block.
C++ Switch
case 1: This will stop the execution of more code and case testing inside the block.
cout << "Monday"; When a match is found, and the job is done, it's time for a break. There is no
break; need for more testing.
C++ Switch Statements
case 2: A break can save a lot of execution time because it "ignores" the execution of all
Use the switch statement to select one of many code blocks to be executed.
cout << "Tuesday"; the rest of the code in the switch block.
Syntax
break;
switch(expression) {
case 3: The default Keyword
case x:
39 40 41
The default keyword specifies some code to run if there is no case match: // code block to be executed The example below uses a do/while loop. The loop will always be executed at
Example } least once, even if the condition is false, because the code block is executed
int day = 4; In the example below, the code in the loop will run, over and over again, as long before the condition is tested:
switch (day) { as a variable (i) is less than 5: Example
case 6: Example int i = 0;
cout << "Today is Saturday"; int i = 0; do {
break; while (i < 5) { cout << i << "\n";
case 7: cout << i << "\n"; i++;
cout << "Today is Sunday"; i++; }
break; } while (i < 5);
default: Note: Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop
cout << "Looking forward to the Weekend"; loop will never end! will never end!
}
// Outputs "Looking forward to the Weekend" C++ Do/While Loop C++ For Loop
C++ While Loop The Do/While Loop
The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will execute the code
C++ For Loop
When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of
C++ Loops block once, before checking if the condition is true, then it will repeat the loop code, use the for loop instead of a while loop:
Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached. as long as the condition is true. Syntax
Loops are handy because they save time, reduce errors, and they make code Syntax for (statement 1; statement 2; statement 3) {
more readable. do { // code block to be executed
C++ While Loop // code block to be executed }
The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition is } Statement 1 is executed (one time) before the execution of the code block.
true: while (condition); Statement 2 defines the condition for executing the code block.
Syntax Statement 3 is executed (every time) after the code block has been executed.
while (condition) {
42 43 44
The example below will print the numbers 0 to 4: // Outer loop You have already seen the break statement used in an earlier chapter of this
Example for (int i = 1; i <= 2; ++i) { tutorial. It was used to "jump out" of a switch statement.
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) { cout << "Outer: " << i << "\n"; // Executes 2 times The break statement can also be used to jump out of a loop.
cout << i << "\n"; // Inner loop This example jumps out of the loop when i is equal to 4:
} for (int j = 1; j <= 3; ++j) { Example
Example explained cout << " Inner: " << j << "\n"; // Executes 6 times (2 * 3) for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
Statement 1 sets a variable before the loop starts (int i = 0). } if (i == 4) {
Statement 2 defines the condition for the loop to run (i must be less than 5). If } break;
the condition is true, the loop will start over again, if it is false, the loop will The foreach Loop }
end. There is also a "for-each loop" (introduced in C++ version 11 (2011), which is cout << i << "\n";
Statement 3 increases a value (i++) each time the code block in the loop has been used exclusively to loop through elements in an array (or other data sets): }
executed. Syntax C++ Continue
for (type variableName : arrayName) { The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified
Another Example // code block to be executed condition occurs, and continues with the next iteration in the loop.
This example will only print even values between 0 and 10: } This example skips the value of 4:
Example The following example outputs all elements in an array, using a "for-each loop": Example
for (int i = 0; i <= 10; i = i + 2) { Example for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
cout << i << "\n"; int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50}; if (i == 4) {
} for (int i : myNumbers) { continue;
Nested Loops cout << i << "\n"; }
It is also possible to place a loop inside another loop. This is called a nested } cout << i << "\n";
loop.
C++ Break and Continue
}
The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer Break and Continue in While Loop
loop": You can also use break and continue in while loops:
C++ Break
Example Break Example
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int i = 0; string cars[4]; // Now outputs Opel instead of Volvo
while (i < 10) { We have now declared a variable that holds an array of four strings. To insert
cout << i << "\n"; values to it, we can use an array literal - place the values in a comma-separated C++ Arrays and Loops
i++; list, inside curly braces:
Loop Through an Array
if (i == 4) { string cars[4] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};
You can loop through the array elements with the for loop.
break; To create an array of three integers, you could write:
The following example outputs all elements in the cars array:
} int myNum[3] = {10, 20, 30};
Example
} Access the Elements of an Array
string cars[5] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda", "Tesla"};
Continue Example You access an array element by referring to the index number inside square
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
int i = 0; brackets [].
cout << cars[i] << "\n";
while (i < 10) { This statement accesses the value of the first element in cars:
}
if (i == 4) { Example
This example outputs the index of each element together with its value:
i++; string cars[4] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};
Example
continue; cout << cars[0];
string cars[5] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda", "Tesla"};
} // Outputs Volvo
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
cout << i << "\n"; Note: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second
cout << i << " = " << cars[i] << "\n";
i++; element, etc.
}
}
And this example shows how to loop through an array of integers:
C++ Arrays
Change an Array Element
Example
To change the value of a specific element, refer to the index number:
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
cars[0] = "Opel";
C++ Arrays for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
Example
Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable, instead of declaring cout << myNumbers[i] << "\n";
string cars[4] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};
separate variables for each value. }
cars[0] = "Opel";
To declare an array, define the variable type, specify the name of the array The foreach Loop
cout << cars[0];
followed by square brackets and specify the number of elements it should store:
48 49 50
There is also a "for-each loop" (introduced in C++ version 11 (2011), which is It is also possible to declare an array without specifying the elements on Loop Through an Array with sizeof()
used exclusively to loop through elements in an array: declaration, and add them later: In the Arrays and Loops Chapter, we wrote the size of the array in the loop
Syntax Example condition (i < 5). This is not ideal, since it will only work for arrays of a specified
for (type variableName : arrayName) { string cars[5]; size.
// code block to be executed cars[0] = "Volvo"; However, by using the sizeof() approach from the example above, we can now
} cars[1] = "BMW"; make loops that work for arrays of any size, which is more sustainable.
The following example outputs all elements in an array, using a "for-each loop":
C++ Array Size
Instead of writing:
Example int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50}; for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
Get the Size of an Array
for (int i : myNumbers) { cout << myNumbers[i] << "\n";
To get the size of an array, you can use the sizeof() operator:
cout << i << "\n"; }
Example
} It is better to write:
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
C++ Omit Array Size
Example
cout << sizeof(myNumbers);
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
Result: 20
for (int i = 0; i < sizeof(myNumbers) / sizeof(int); i++) {
Omit Array Size Why did the result show 20 instead of 5, when the array contains 5 elements?
cout << myNumbers[i] << "\n";
In C++, you don't have to specify the size of the array. The compiler is smart It is because the sizeof() operator returns the size of a type in bytes.
}
enough to determine the size of the array based on the number of inserted You learned from the Data Types chapter that an int type is usually 4 bytes, so
Note that, in C++ version 11 (2011), you can also use the "for-each" loop:
values: from the example above, 4 x 5 (4 bytes x 5 elements) = 20 bytes.
Example
string cars[] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford"}; // Three array elements To find out how many elements an array has, you have to divide the size of the
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
The example above is equal to: array by the size of the data type it contains:
for (int i : myNumbers) {
string cars[3] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford"}; // Also three array elements Example
cout << i << "\n";
However, the last approach is considered as "good practice", because it will int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
}
reduce the chance of errors in your program. int getArrayLength = sizeof(myNumbers) / sizeof(int);
It is good to know the different ways to loop through an array, since you may
Omit Elements on Declaration cout << getArrayLength;
encounter them all in different programs.
Result: 5
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C++ Multi-Dimensional Arrays
{ { "E", "F", "G", "H" }
{ "E", "F" }, };
{ "G", "H" } letters[0][0] = "Z";
Multi-Dimensional Arrays
} cout << letters[0][0]; // Now outputs "Z" instead of "A"
A multi-dimensional array is an array of arrays.
}; Loop Through a Multi-Dimensional Array
To declare a multi-dimensional array, define the variable type, specify the name
Access the Elements of a Multi-Dimensional Array To loop through a multi-dimensional array, you need one loop for each of the
of the array followed by square brackets which specify how many elements the
To access an element of a multi-dimensional array, specify an index number in array's dimensions.
main array has, followed by another set of square brackets which indicates how
each of the array's dimensions. The following example outputs all elements in the letters array:
many elements the sub-arrays have:
This statement accesses the value of the element in the first row (0) and third Example
string letters[2][4];
column (2) of the letters array. string letters[2][4] = {
As with ordinary arrays, you can insert values with an array literal - a
Example { "A", "B", "C", "D" },
comma-separated list inside curly braces. In a multi-dimensional array, each
string letters[2][4] = { { "E", "F", "G", "H" }
element in an array literal is another array literal.
{ "A", "B", "C", "D" }, };
string letters[2][4] = {
{ "E", "F", "G", "H" } for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
{ "A", "B", "C", "D" },
}; for (int j = 0; j < 4; j++) {
{ "E", "F", "G", "H" }
cout << letters[0][2]; // Outputs "C" cout << letters[i][j] << "\n";
};
Remember that: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the }
Each set of square brackets in an array declaration adds another dimension to
second element, etc. }
an array. An array like the one above is said to have two dimensions.
This example shows how to loop through a three-dimensional array:
Arrays can have any number of dimensions. The more dimensions an array has,
Change Elements in a Multi-Dimensional Array Example
the more complex the code becomes. The following array has three dimensions:
To change the value of an element, refer to the index number of the element in string letters[2][2][2] = {
string letters[2][2][2] = {
each of the dimensions: {
{
Example { "A", "B" },
{ "A", "B" },
string letters[2][4] = { { "C", "D" }
{ "C", "D" }
{ "A", "B", "C", "D" }, },
},
54 55 56
{ // Keep track of how many hits the player has and how many turns they }
{ "E", "F" }, have played in these variables // Count how many turns the player has taken
{ "G", "H" } int hits = 0; numberOfTurns++;
} int numberOfTurns = 0; }
}; // Allow the player to keep going until they have hit all four ships cout << "Victory!\n";
for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) { while (hits < 4) { cout << "You won in " << numberOfTurns << " turns";
for (int j = 0; j < 2; j++) { int row, column;
for (int k = 0; k < 2; k++) { cout << "Selecting coordinates\n"; C++ Structures (struct)
cout << letters[i][j][k] << "\n"; // Ask the player for a row
C++ Structures
} cout << "Choose a row number between 0 and 3: ";
Structures (also called structs) are a way to group several related variables into
} cin >> row;
one place. Each variable in the structure is known as a member of the structure.
} // Ask the player for a column
Unlike an array, a structure can contain many different data types (int, string,
Why Multi-Dimensional Arrays? cout << "Choose a column number between 0 and 3: ";
bool, etc.).
Multi-dimensional arrays are great at representing grids. This example shows a cin >> column;
Create a Structure
practical use for them. In the following example we use a multi-dimensional // Check if a ship exists in those coordinates
To create a structure, use the struct keyword and declare each of its members
array to represent a small game of Battleship: if (ships[row][column]) {
inside curly braces.
Example // If the player hit a ship, remove it by setting the value to zero.
After the declaration, specify the name of the structure variable (myStructure in
// We put "1" to indicate there is a ship. ships[row][column] = 0;
the example below):
bool ships[4][4] = { // Increase the hit counter
struct { // Structure declaration
{ 0, 1, 1, 0 }, hits++;
int myNum; // Member (int variable)
{ 0, 0, 0, 0 }, // Tell the player that they have hit a ship and how many ships are left
string myString; // Member (string variable)
{ 0, 0, 1, 0 }, cout << "Hit! " << (4-hits) << " left.\n\n";
} myStructure; // Structure variable
{ 0, 0, 1, 0 } } else {
Access Structure Members
}; // Tell the player that they missed
To access members of a structure, use the dot syntax (.):
cout << "Miss\n\n";
Example
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Assign data to members of a structure and print it: string model; string myString;
// Create a structure variable called myStructure int year; };
struct { } myCar1, myCar2; // We can add variables by separating them with a To declare a variable that uses the structure, use the name of the structure as the
int myNum; comma here data type of the variable:
string myString; // Put data into the first structure myDataType myVar;
} myStructure; myCar1.brand = "BMW"; Example
// Assign values to members of myStructure myCar1.model = "X5"; Use one structure to represent two cars:
myStructure.myNum = 1; myCar1.year = 1999; // Declare a structure named "car"
myStructure.myString = "Hello World!"; // Put data into the second structure struct car {
// Print members of myStructure myCar2.brand = "Ford"; string brand;
cout << myStructure.myNum << "\n"; myCar2.model = "Mustang"; string model;
cout << myStructure.myString << "\n"; myCar2.year = 1969; int year;
One Structure in Multiple Variables // Print the structure members };
You can use a comma (,) to use one structure in many variables: cout << myCar1.brand << " " << myCar1.model << " " << myCar1.year << int main() {
struct { "\n"; // Create a car structure and store it in myCar1;
int myNum; cout << myCar2.brand << " " << myCar2.model << " " << myCar2.year << car myCar1;
string myString; "\n"; myCar1.brand = "BMW";
} myStruct1, myStruct2, myStruct3; // Multiple structure variables Named Structures myCar1.model = "X5";
separated with By giving a name to the structure, you can treat it as a data type. This means myCar1.year = 1999;
commas that you can create variables with this structure anywhere in the program at any
This example shows how to use a structure in two different variables: time. // Create another car structure and store it in myCar2;
Example To create a named structure, put the name of the structure right after the struct car myCar2;
Use one structure to represent two cars: keyword: myCar2.brand = "Ford";
struct { struct myDataType { // This structure is named "myDataType" myCar2.model = "Mustang";
string brand; int myNum; myCar2.year = 1969;
60 61 62
// Print the structure members Memory Address string food = "Pizza"; // A food variable of type string
cout << myCar1.brand << " " << myCar1.model << " " << myCar1.year << In the example from the previous page, the & operator was used to create a cout << food; // Outputs the value of food (Pizza)
"\n"; reference variable. But it can also be used to get the memory address of a cout << &food; // Outputs the memory address of food (0x6dfed4)
cout << myCar2.brand << " " << myCar2.model << " " << myCar2.year << variable; which is the location of where the variable is stored on the computer. A pointer however, is a variable that stores the memory address as its value.
"\n"; When a variable is created in C++, a memory address is assigned to the variable. A pointer variable points to a data type (like int or string) of the same type, and
return 0; And when we assign a value to the variable, it is stored in this memory address. is created with the * operator. The address of the variable you're working with is
} To access it, use the & operator, and the result will represent where the variable assigned to the pointer:
C++ References
is stored: Example
Example string food = "Pizza"; // A food variable of type string
string food = "Pizza"; string* ptr = &food; // A pointer variable, with the name ptr, that stores
Creating References
cout << &food; // Outputs 0x6dfed4 the address of food
A reference variable is a "reference" to an existing variable, and it is created
Note: The memory address is in hexadecimal form (0x..). Note that you may not // Output the value of food (Pizza)
with the & operator:
get the same result in your program. cout << food << "\n";
string food = "Pizza"; // food variable
And why is it useful to know the memory address? // Output the memory address of food (0x6dfed4)
string &meal = food; // reference to food
References and Pointers (which you will learn about in the next chapter) are cout << &food << "\n";
Now, we can use either the variable name food or the reference name meal to
important in C++, because they give you the ability to manipulate the data in the // Output the memory address of food with the pointer (0x6dfed4)
refer to the food variable:
computer's memory - which can reduce the code and improve the performance. cout << ptr << "\n";
Example
These two features are one of the things that make C++ stand out from other Example explained
string food = "Pizza";
programming languages, like Python and Java. Create a pointer variable with the name ptr, that points to a string variable, by
string &meal = food;
C++ Pointers
using the asterisk sign * (string* ptr). Note that the type of the pointer has to
cout << food << "\n"; // Outputs Pizza
match the type of the variable you're working with.
cout << meal << "\n"; // Outputs Pizza
Use the & operator to store the memory address of the variable called food, and
Creating Pointers
assign it to the pointer.
You learned from the previous chapter, that we can get the memory address of a
Now, ptr holds the value of food's memory address.
C++ Memory Address
variable by using the & operator:
Example
63 64 65
Tip: There are three ways to declare pointer variables, but the first way is
C++ Modify Pointers
Functions are used to perform certain actions, and they are important for
preferred: reusing code: Define the code once, and use it many times.
Create a Function
Modify the Pointer Value
string* mystring; // Preferred C++ provides some pre-defined functions, such as main(), which is used to
You can also change the pointer's value. But note that this will also change the
string *mystring; execute code. But you can also create your own functions to perform certain
value of the original variable:
string * mystring; actions.
Example
C++ Dereference
To create (often referred to as declare) a function, specify the name of the
string food = "Pizza";
function, followed by parentheses ():
string* ptr = &food;
Syntax
Get Memory Address and Value // Output the value of food (Pizza)
void myFunction() {
In the example from the previous page, we used the pointer variable to get the cout << food << "\n";
// code to be executed
memory address of a variable (used together with the & reference operator). // Output the memory address of food (0x6dfed4)
}
However, you can also use the pointer to get the value of the variable, by using cout << &food << "\n";
Example Explained
the * operator (the dereference operator): // Access the memory address of food and output its value (Pizza)
myFunction() is the name of the function
Example cout << *ptr << "\n";
void means that the function does not have a return value. You will learn more
string food = "Pizza"; // Variable declaration // Change the value of the pointer
about return values later in the next chapter
string* ptr = &food; // Pointer declaration *ptr = "Hamburger";
inside the function (the body), add code that defines what the function should do
// Reference: Output the memory address of food with the pointer // Output the new value of the pointer (Hamburger)
Call a Function
(0x6dfed4) cout << *ptr << "\n";
Declared functions are not executed immediately. They are "saved for later use",
cout << ptr << "\n"; // Output the new value of the food variable (Hamburger)
and will be executed later, when they are called.
// Dereference: Output the value of food with the pointer (Pizza) cout << food << "\n";
To call a function, write the function's name followed by two parentheses () and
cout << *ptr << "\n";
Note that the * sign can be confusing here, as it does two different things in our C++ Functions a semicolon ;
In the following example, myFunction() is used to print a text (the action), when
code:
A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called. it is called:
When used in declaration (string* ptr), it creates a pointer variable.
You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function. Example
When not used in declaration, it act as a dereference operator.
66 67 68
Inside main, call myFunction(): A C++ function consist of two parts:
// Create a function Declaration: the return type, the name of the function, and parameters (if any) // The main method
void myFunction() { Definition: the body of the function (code to be executed) int main() {
cout << "I just got executed!"; void myFunction() { // declaration myFunction(); // call the function
} // the body of the function (definition) return 0;
int main() { } }
myFunction(); // call the function Note: If a user-defined function, such as myFunction() is declared after the
return 0; main() function, an error will occur: // Function definition
} Example void myFunction() {
// Outputs "I just got executed!" int main() { cout << "I just got executed!";
A function can be called multiple times: myFunction(); }
Example return 0;
void myFunction() { } C++ Function Parameters
cout << "I just got executed!\n"; void myFunction() {
Parameters and Arguments
} cout << "I just got executed!";
Information can be passed to functions as a parameter. Parameters act as
int main() { }
variables inside the function.
myFunction(); // Error
Parameters are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You
myFunction(); However, it is possible to separate the declaration and the definition of the
can add as many parameters as you want, just separate them with a comma:
myFunction(); function - for code optimization.
Syntax
return 0; You will often see C++ programs that have function declaration above main(),
void functionName(parameter1, parameter2, parameter3) {
} and function definition below main(). This will make the code better organized
// code to be executed
// I just got executed! and easier to read:
}
// I just got executed! Example
The following example has a function that takes a string called fname as
// I just got executed! // Function declaration
parameter. When the function is called, we pass along a first name, which is
Function Declaration and Definition void myFunction();
used inside the function to print the full name:
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Example int main() { myFunction("Anja", 30);
void myFunction(string fname) { myFunction("Sweden"); return 0;
cout << fname << " Refsnes\n"; myFunction("India"); }
} myFunction(); // Liam Refsnes. 3 years old.
int main() { myFunction("USA"); // Jenny Refsnes. 14 years old.
myFunction("Liam"); return 0; // Anja Refsnes. 30 years old.
myFunction("Jenny"); } Note that when you are working with multiple parameters, the function call
myFunction("Anja"); // Sweden must have the same number of arguments as there are parameters, and the
return 0; // India arguments must be passed in the same order.
} // Norway
// Liam Refsnes // USA
// Jenny Refsnes A parameter with a default value, is often known as an "optional parameter". C++ The Return Keyword
// Anja Refsnes From the example above, country is an optional parameter and "Norway" is the
Return Values
When a parameter is passed to the function, it is called an argument. So, from default value.
The void keyword, used in the previous examples, indicates that the function
the example above: fname is a parameter, while Liam, Jenny and Anja are
arguments. C++ Multiple Parameters should not return a value. If you want the function to return a value, you can use
a data type (such as int, string, etc.) instead of void, and use the return keyword
C++ Default Parameters Multiple Parameters
Inside the function, you can add as many parameters as you want:
inside the function:
Example
Default Parameter Value Example int myFunction(int x) {
You can also use a default parameter value, by using the equals sign (=). void myFunction(string fname, int age) { return 5 + x;
If we call the function without an argument, it uses the default value ("Norway"): cout << fname << " Refsnes. " << age << " years old. \n"; }
Example } int main() {
void myFunction(string country = "Norway") { int main() { cout << myFunction(3);
cout << country << "\n"; myFunction("Liam", 3); return 0;
} myFunction("Jenny", 14); }
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// Outputs 8 (5 + 3) Pass By Reference Pass Arrays as Function Parameters
This example returns the sum of a function with two parameters: In the examples from the previous page, we used normal variables when we You can also pass arrays to a function:
Example passed parameters to a function. You can also pass a reference to the function. Example
int myFunction(int x, int y) { This can be useful when you need to change the value of the arguments: void myFunction(int myNumbers[5]) {
return x + y; Example for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
} void swapNums(int &x, int &y) { cout << myNumbers[i] << "\n";
int main() { int z = x; }
cout << myFunction(5, 3); x = y; }
return 0; y = z; int main() {
} } int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3) int main() { myFunction(myNumbers);
You can also store the result in a variable: int firstNum = 10; return 0;
Example int secondNum = 20; }
int myFunction(int x, int y) { cout << "Before swap: " << "\n"; Example Explained
return x + y; cout << firstNum << secondNum << "\n"; The function (myFunction) takes an array as its parameter (int myNumbers[5]),
} // Call the function, which will change the values of firstNum and and loops through the array elements with the for loop.
int main() { secondNum
int z = myFunction(5, 3); swapNums(firstNum, secondNum); When the function is called inside main(), we pass along the myNumbers array,
cout << z; cout << "After swap: " << "\n"; which outputs the array elements.
return 0; cout << firstNum << secondNum << "\n";
} return 0; Note that when you call the function, you only need to use the name of the array
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3) } when passing it as an argument myFunction(myNumbers). However, the full
declaration of the array is needed in the function parameter (int myNumbers[5]).
C++ Functions - Pass By Reference C++ Pass Array to a Function
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C++ Function Overloading
Instead of defining two functions that should do the same thing, it is better to Recursion is the technique of making a function call itself. This technique
overload one. provides a way to break complicated problems down into simple problems
In the example below, we overload the plusFunc function to work for both int which are easier to solve.
Function Overloading
and double: Recursion may be a bit difficult to understand. The best way to figure out how it
With function overloading, multiple functions can have the same name with
Example works is to experiment with it.
different parameters:
int plusFunc(int x, int y) { Recursion Example
Example
return x + y; Adding two numbers together is easy to do, but adding a range of numbers is
int myFunction(int x)
} more complicated. In the following example, recursion is used to add a range of
float myFunction(float x)
double plusFunc(double x, double y) { numbers together by breaking it down into the simple task of adding two
double myFunction(double x, double y)
return x + y; numbers:
Consider the following example, which have two functions that add
} Example
numbers of different type:
int main() { int sum(int k) {
Example
int myNum1 = plusFunc(8, 5); if (k > 0) {
int plusFuncInt(int x, int y) {
double myNum2 = plusFunc(4.3, 6.26); return k + sum(k - 1);
return x + y;
cout << "Int: " << myNum1 << "\n"; } else {
}
cout << "Double: " << myNum2; return 0;
double plusFuncDouble(double x, double y) {
return 0; }
return x + y;
} }
}
Note: Multiple functions can have the same name as long as the number and/or int main() {
int main() {
type of parameters are different. int result = sum(10);
int myNum1 = plusFuncInt(8, 5);
cout << result;
double myNum2 = plusFuncDouble(4.3, 6.26);
C++ Recursion
return 0;
cout << "Int: " << myNum1 << "\n";
}
cout << "Double: " << myNum2;
Example Explained
return 0; Recursion
}
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When the sum() function is called, it adds parameter k to the sum of all numbers Procedural programming is about writing procedures or functions that perform Objects
smaller than k and returns the result. When k becomes 0, the function just operations on the data, while object-oriented programming is about creating Apple
returns 0. When running, the program follows these steps: objects that contain both data and functions. Banana
Mango
10 + sum(9) Object-oriented programming has several advantages over procedural
10 + ( 9 + sum(8) ) programming: Another example:
10 + ( 9 + ( 8 + sum(7) ) )
... OOP is faster and easier to execute Class
10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + sum(0) OOP provides a clear structure for the programs Car
10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 0 OOP helps to keep the C++ code DRY "Don't Repeat Yourself", and makes the Objects
Since the function does not call itself when k is 0, the program stops there and code easier to maintain, modify and debug Volvo
returns the result. OOP makes it possible to create full reusable applications with less code and Audi
The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to shorter development time Toyota
slip into writing a function which never terminates, or one that uses excess Tip: The "Don't Repeat Yourself" (DRY) principle is about reducing the
amounts of memory or processor power. However, when written correctly repetition of code. You should extract out the codes that are common for the So, a class is a template for objects, and an object is an instance of a class.
recursion can be a very efficient and mathematically-elegant approach to application, and place them at a single place and reuse them instead of When the individual objects are created, they inherit all the variables and
programming. repeating it. functions from the class.
You will learn much more about classes and objects in the next chapter.
C++ OOP
C++ What are Classes and Objects?
Classes and objects are the two main aspects of object-oriented programming.
C++ What is OOP?
Look at the following illustration to see the difference between class and C++ Classes and Objects
objects:
OOP stands for Object-Oriented Programming. C++ Classes/Objects
class
C++ is an object-oriented programming language.
Fruit
81 82 83
Everything in C++ is associated with classes and objects, along with its Inside the class, there is an integer variable myNum and a string variable myObj.myString = "Some text";
attributes and methods. For example: in real life, a car is an object. The car has myString. When variables are declared within a class, they are called attributes. // Print attribute values
attributes, such as weight and color, and methods, such as drive and brake. At last, end the class definition with a semicolon ;. cout << myObj.myNum << "\n";
Create an Object cout << myObj.myString;
Attributes and methods are basically variables and functions that belongs to the In C++, an object is created from a class. We have already created the class return 0;
class. These are often referred to as "class members". named MyClass, so now we can use this to create objects. }
Multiple Objects
A class is a user-defined data type that we can use in our program, and it works To create an object of MyClass, specify the class name, followed by the object You can create multiple objects of one class:
as an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects. name.
Example
Create a Class To access the class attributes (myNum and myString), use the dot syntax (.) on // Create a Car class with some attributes
To create a class, use the class keyword: the object: class Car {
Example public:
Create a class called "MyClass": Example string brand;
Create an object called "myObj" and access the attributes: string model;
class MyClass { // The class int year;
public: // Access specifier class MyClass { // The class };
int myNum; // Attribute (int variable) public: // Access specifier int main() {
string myString; // Attribute (string variable) int myNum; // Attribute (int variable) // Create an object of Car
}; string myString; // Attribute (string variable) Car carObj1;
Example explained }; carObj1.brand = "BMW";
The class keyword is used to create a class called MyClass. int main() { carObj1.model = "X5";
The public keyword is an access specifier, which specifies that members MyClass myObj; // Create an object of MyClass carObj1.year = 1999;
(attributes and methods) of the class are accessible from outside the class. You // Access attributes and set values // Create another object of Car
will learn more about access specifiers later. myObj.myNum = 15; Car carObj2;
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carObj2.brand = "Ford"; void myMethod() { // Method/function defined inside the class myObj.myMethod(); // Call the method
carObj2.model = "Mustang"; cout << "Hello World!"; return 0;
carObj2.year = 1969; } }
// Print attribute values }; Parameters
cout << carObj1.brand << " " << carObj1.model << " " << carObj1.year << int main() { You can also add parameters:
"\n"; MyClass myObj; // Create an object of MyClass Example
cout << carObj2.brand << " " << carObj2.model << " " << carObj2.year << myObj.myMethod(); // Call the method #include <iostream>
"\n"; return 0; using namespace std;
return 0; } class Car {
} To define a function outside the class definition, you have to declare it inside public:
the class and then define it outside of the class. This is done by specifiying the int speed(int maxSpeed);
C++ Class Methods
name of the class, followed the scope resolution :: operator, followed by the };
name of the function: int Car::speed(int maxSpeed) {
return maxSpeed;
Class Methods
Outside Example }
Methods are functions that belongs to the class.
class MyClass { // The class int main() {
There are two ways to define functions that belongs to a class:
public: // Access specifier Car myObj; // Create an object of Car
Inside class definition
void myMethod(); // Method/function declaration cout << myObj.speed(200); // Call the method with an argument
Outside class definition
}; return 0;
In the following example, we define a function inside the class, and we name it
// Method/function definition outside the class }
"myMethod".
void MyClass::myMethod() {
Note: You access methods just like you access attributes; by creating an object
cout << "Hello World!";
of the class and using the dot syntax (.):
Inside Example
} C++ Constructors
int main() {
class MyClass { // The class Constructors
MyClass myObj; // Create an object of MyClass
public: // Access specifier
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A constructor in C++ is a special method that is automatically called when an The following class have brand, model and year attributes, and a constructor cout << carObj2.brand << " " << carObj2.model << " " << carObj2.year <<
object of a class is created. with different parameters. Inside the constructor we set the attributes equal to "\n";
To create a constructor, use the same name as the class, followed by parentheses the constructor parameters (brand=x, etc). When we call the constructor (by return 0;
(): creating an object of the class), we pass parameters to the constructor, which }
Example will set the value of the corresponding attributes to the same: Just like functions, constructors can also be defined outside the class. First,
class MyClass { // The class declare the constructor inside the class, and then define it outside of the class by
public: // Access specifier Example specifying the name of the class, followed by the scope resolution :: operator,
MyClass() { // Constructor class Car { // The class followed by the name of the constructor (which is the same as the class):
cout << "Hello World!"; public: // Access specifier
} string brand; // Attribute Example
}; string model; // Attribute class Car { // The class
int main() { int year; // Attribute public: // Access specifier
MyClass myObj; // Create an object of MyClass (this will call the Car(string x, string y, int z) { // Constructor with parameters string brand; // Attribute
constructor) brand = x; string model; // Attribute
return 0; model = y; int year; // Attribute
} year = z; Car(string x, string y, int z); // Constructor declaration
Note: The constructor has the same name as the class, it is always public, and it } };
does not have any return value. }; // Constructor definition outside the class
int main() { Car::Car(string x, string y, int z) {
Constructor Parameters
// Create Car objects and call the constructor with different values brand = x;
Car carObj1("BMW", "X5", 1999); model = y;
Car carObj2("Ford", "Mustang", 1969); year = z;
Constructors can also take parameters (just like regular functions), which can be
// Print values }
useful for setting initial values for attributes.
cout << carObj1.brand << " " << carObj1.model << " " << carObj1.year << int main() {
"\n"; // Create Car objects and call the constructor with different values
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Car carObj1("BMW", "X5", 1999); However, what if we want members to be private and hidden from the outside
Car carObj2("Ford", "Mustang", 1969); world? error: y is private
// Print values Note: It is possible to access private members of a class using a public method
cout << carObj1.brand << " " << carObj1.model << " " << carObj1.year << In C++, there are three access specifiers: inside the same class. See the next chapter (Encapsulation) on how to do this.
"\n"; public - members are accessible from outside the class
cout << carObj2.brand << " " << carObj2.model << " " << carObj2.year << private - members cannot be accessed (or viewed) from outside the class Tip: It is considered good practice to declare your class attributes as private (as
"\n"; protected - members cannot be accessed from outside the class, however, they often as you can). This will reduce the possibility of yourself (or others) to mess
return 0; can be accessed in inherited classes. You will learn more about Inheritance later. up the code. This is also the main ingredient of the Encapsulation concept,
} In the following example, we demonstrate the differences between public and which you will learn more about in the next chapter.
private members: Note: By default, all members of a class are private if you don't specify an access
C++ Access Specifiers
specifier:
Example
class MyClass { Example
Access Specifiers
public: // Public access specifier class MyClass {
By now, you are quite familiar with the public keyword that appears in all of our
int x; // Public attribute int x; // Private attribute
class examples:
private: // Private access specifier int y; // Private attribute
Example
int y; // Private attribute };
class MyClass { // The class
};
public: // Access specifier
int main() {
};
// class members goes here
MyClass myObj; C++ Encapsulation
myObj.x = 25; // Allowed (public)
The public keyword is an access specifier. Access specifiers define how the Encapsulation
myObj.y = 50; // Not allowed (private)
members (attributes and methods) of a class can be accessed. In the example The meaning of Encapsulation, is to make sure that "sensitive" data is hidden
return 0;
above, the members are public - which means that they can be accessed and from users. To achieve this, you must declare class variables/attributes as private
}
modified from outside the code. (cannot be accessed from outside the class). If you want others to read or modify
If you try to access a private member, an error occurs:
the value of a private member, you can provide public get and set methods.
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}
Access Private Members Example explained In the example below, the Car class (child) inherits the attributes and methods
To access a private attribute, use public "get" and "set" methods: The salary attribute is private, which have restricted access. from the Vehicle class (parent):
Example The public setSalary() method takes a parameter (s) and assigns it to the salary Example
#include <iostream> attribute (salary = s). // Base class
using namespace std; The public getSalary() method returns the value of the private salary attribute. class Vehicle {
class Employee { Inside main(), we create an object of the Employee class. Now we can use the public:
private: setSalary() method to set the value of the private attribute to 50000. Then we call string brand = "Ford";
// Private attribute the getSalary() method on the object to return the value. void honk() {
int salary; cout << "Tuut, tuut! \n" ;
public: Why Encapsulation? }
// Setter It is considered good practice to declare your class attributes as private (as often };
void setSalary(int s) { as you can). Encapsulation ensures better control of your data, because you (or // Derived class
salary = s; others) can change one part of the code without affecting other parts class Car: public Vehicle {
} Increased security of data public:
// Getter string model = "Mustang";
int getSalary() {
C++ Inheritance
};
return salary; int main() {
} Car myCar;
Inheritance
}; myCar.honk();
In C++, it is possible to inherit attributes and methods from one class to
int main() { cout << myCar.brand + " " + myCar.model;
another. We group the "inheritance concept" into two categories:
Employee myObj; return 0;
myObj.setSalary(50000); }
derived class (child) - the class that inherits from another class
cout << myObj.getSalary(); Why And When To Use "Inheritance"?
base class (parent) - the class being inherited from
return 0;
To inherit from a class, use the : symbol.
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- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing int main() { };
class when you create a new class. MyGrandChild myObj; // Derived class
myObj.myFunction(); class MyChildClass: public MyClass, public MyOtherClass {
C++ Multilevel Inheritance
return 0; };
} int main() {
MyChildClass myObj;
Multilevel Inheritance
C++ Multiple Inheritance
myObj.myFunction();
A class can also be derived from one class, which is already derived from
myObj.myOtherFunction();
another class.
return 0;
Multiple Inheritance
}
In the following example, MyGrandChild is derived from class MyChild (which A class can also be derived from more than one base class, using a
is derived from MyClass). comma-separated list:
Example
// Base class (parent)
Example
// Base class
C++ Inheritance Access
class MyClass { class MyClass { Access Specifiers
public: public: You learned from the Access Specifiers chapter that there are three specifiers
void myFunction() { void myFunction() { available in C++. Until now, we have only used public (members of a class are
cout << "Some content in parent class." ; cout << "Some content in parent class." ; accessible from outside the class) and private (members can only be accessed
} } within the class). The third specifier, protected, is similar to private, but it can
}; }; also be accessed in the inherited class:
// Derived class (child) // Another base class Example
class MyChild: public MyClass { class MyOtherClass { // Base class
}; public: class Employee {
// Derived class (grandchild) void myOtherFunction() { protected: // Protected access specifier
class MyGrandChild: public MyChild { cout << "Some content in another class." ; int salary;
}; } };
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// Derived class class Dog : public Animal {
class Programmer: public Employee { Like we specified in the previous chapter; Inheritance lets us inherit attributes public:
public: and methods from another class. Polymorphism uses those methods to perform void animalSound() {
int bonus; different tasks. This allows us to perform a single action in different ways. cout << "The dog says: bow wow \n";
void setSalary(int s) { }
salary = s; For example, think of a base class called Animal that has a method called };
} animalSound(). Derived classes of Animals could be Pigs, Cats, Dogs, Birds - Remember from the Inheritance chapter that we use the : symbol to inherit from
int getSalary() { And they also have their own implementation of an animal sound (the pig oinks, a class.
return salary; and the cat meows, etc.): Now we can create Pig and Dog objects and override the animalSound() method:
} Example Example
}; // Base class // Base class
int main() { class Animal { class Animal {
Programmer myObj; public: public:
myObj.setSalary(50000); void animalSound() { void animalSound() {
myObj.bonus = 15000; cout << "The animal makes a sound \n"; cout << "The animal makes a sound \n";
cout << "Salary: " << myObj.getSalary() << "\n"; } }
cout << "Bonus: " << myObj.bonus << "\n"; }; };
return 0; // Derived class // Derived class
} class Pig : public Animal { class Pig : public Animal {
public: public:
C++ Polymorphism
void animalSound() { void animalSound() {
cout << "The pig says: wee wee \n"; cout << "The pig says: wee wee \n";
} }
Polymorphism
}; };
Polymorphism means "many forms", and it occurs when we have many classes
// Derived class // Derived class
that are related to each other by inheritance.
102 103 104
class Dog : public Animal { Example MyFile.close();
public: #include <iostream> }
void animalSound() { #include <fstream> Why do we close the file?
cout << "The dog says: bow wow \n"; There are three classes included in the fstream library, which are used to create, It is considered good practice, and it can clean up unnecessary memory space.
} write or read files:
}; Class Description Read a File
int main() { ofstream Creates and writes to files To read from a file, use either the ifstream or fstream class, and the name of the
Animal myAnimal; ifstream Reads from files file.
Pig myPig; fstream A combination of ofstream and ifstream: creates, reads, and
Dog myDog; writes to files Note that we also use a while loop together with the getline() function (which
myAnimal.animalSound(); Create and Write To a File belongs to the ifstream class) to read the file line by line, and to print the
myPig.animalSound(); To create a file, use either the ofstream or fstream class, and specify the name of content of the file:
myDog.animalSound(); the file. Example
return 0; // Create a text string, which is used to output the text file
} To write to the file, use the insertion operator (<<). string myText;
Why And When To Use "Inheritance" and "Polymorphism"? Example // Read from the text file
- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing #include <iostream> ifstream MyReadFile("filename.txt");
class when you create a new class. #include <fstream> // Use a while loop together with the getline() function to read the file
using namespace std; line by line
C++ Files
int main() { while (getline (MyReadFile, myText)) {
// Create and open a text file // Output the text from the file
ofstream MyFile("filename.txt"); cout << myText;
C++ Files
// Write to the file }
The fstream library allows us to work with files.
MyFile << "Files can be tricky, but it is fun enough!"; // Close the file
To use the fstream library, include both the standard <iostream> AND the
// Close the file MyReadFile.close();
<fstream> header file:
105 106 107
// Block of code to handle errors
C++ Exceptions
} If no error occurs (e.g. if age is 20 instead of 15, meaning it will be be greater
Consider the following example: than 18), the catch block is skipped:
C++ Exceptions
Example Example
When executing C++ code, different errors can occur: coding errors made by the
try { int age = 20;
programmer, errors due to wrong input, or other unforeseeable things.
int age = 15; You can also use the throw keyword to output a reference number, like a custom
When an error occurs, C++ will normally stop and generate an error message.
if (age >= 18) { error number/code for organizing purposes:
The technical term for this is: C++ will throw an exception (throw an error).
cout << "Access granted - you are old enough.";
} else { Example
C++ try and catch
throw (age); try {
Exception handling in C++ consist of three keywords: try, throw and catch:
} int age = 15;
The try statement allows you to define a block of code to be tested for errors
} if (age >= 18) {
while it is being executed.
catch (int myNum) { cout << "Access granted - you are old enough.";
The throw keyword throws an exception when a problem is detected, which lets
cout << "Access denied - You must be at least 18 years old.\n"; } else {
us create a custom error.
cout << "Age is: " << myNum; throw 505;
The catch statement allows you to define a block of code to be executed, if an
} }
error occurs in the try block.
Example explained }
The try and catch keywords come in pairs:
We use the try block to test some code: If the age variable is less than 18, we will catch (int myNum) {
throw an exception, and handle it in our catch block. cout << "Access denied - You must be at least 18 years old.\n";
Example
cout << "Error number: " << myNum;
try {
In the catch block, we catch the error and do something about it. The catch }
// Block of code to try
statement takes a parameter: in our example we use an int variable (myNum) Handle Any Type of Exceptions (...)
throw exception; // Throw an exception when a problem arise
(because we are throwing an exception of int type in the try block (age)), to If you do not know the throw type used in the try block, you can use the "three
}
output the value of age. dots" syntax (...) inside the catch block, which will handle any type of exception:
catch () {
108 109 110
Example Const Defines a variable or parameter as a constant (unchangeable) or
Example int x, y; specifies that a class method does not modify attributes of the class
try { int sum; continue Continues to the next iteration of a loop
int age = 15; cout << "Type a number: "; default Specifies the default block of code in a switch statement
if (age >= 18) { cin >> x; delete Frees dynamic memory
cout << "Access granted - you are old enough."; cout << "Type another number: "; do Used together with while to create a do/while loop
} else { cin >> y; double A data type that is usually 64 bits long which can store fractional
throw 505; sum = x + y; numbers
} cout << "Sum is: " << sum; else Used in conditional statements
}
C++ Keywords
enum Declares an enumerated type
catch (...) { false A boolean value equivalent to 0
cout << "Access denied - You must be at least 18 years old.\n"; float A data type that is usually 32 bits long which can store fractional
C++ Keywords
} numbers
A list of useful keywords in C++ can be found in the table below.
C++ How To Add Two Numbers
for Creates a for loop
Keyword Description
friend Specifies classes and functions which haveaccess to private and
and An alternative way to write the logical && operator
protected members
Add Two Numbers and_eq An alternative way to write the &= assignment operator
goto Jumps to a line of code specified by a label
Learn how to add two numbers in C++: bitand An alternative way to write the & bitwise operator
if Makes a conditional statement
Example bitor An alternative way to write the | bitwise operator
int A data type that is usually 32 bits long which can store whole
int x = 5; bool A data type that can only store true or false values
numbers
int y = 6; break Breaks out of a loop or a switch block
long Ensures that an integer is at least 32 bits long (use long long to
int sum = x + y; case Marks a block of code in switch statements
ensure 64 bits)
cout << sum; catch Catches exceptions generated by try statements
namespace Declares a namespace
Add Two Numbers with User Input char A data type that can store a single character
new Reserves dynamic memory
In this example, the user must input two numbers. Then we print the sum by class Defines a class
not An alternative way to write the logical ! operator
calculating (adding) the two numbers: compl An alternative way to write the ~ bitwise operator
111 112 113
not_eq An alternative way to write the != comparison operator true A boolean value equivalent to 1 acosh(x) Returns the hyperbolic arccosine of x
or An alternative way to write the logical || operator try Creates a try...catch statement asin(x) Returns the arcsine of x, in radians
or_eq An alternative way to write the |= assignment operator typedef Defines a custom data type asinh(x) Returns the hyperbolic arcsine of x
private An access modifier which makes a member onlyaccessible unsigned Specifies that an int or char should onlyrepresent positive values atan(x) Returns the arctangent of x as a numericvalue between
within the declared class which allows for storing numbers up to twice as large -PI/2 and PI/2 radians
protected An access modifier which makes a memberonly accessible using Allows variables and functions from a namespaceto be used atan2(y, x) Returns the angle theta from the conversionof
within the declared class and its children without the namespace's prefix rectangular coordinates (x, y) to polar coordinates (r, theta)
public An access modifier which makes a member accessible from virtual Specifies that a class method is virtual atanh(x) Returns the hyperbolic arctangent of x
anywhere void Indicates a function that does not return avalue or specifies a cbrt(x) Returns the cube root of x
return Used to return a value from a function pointer to a data with an unspecified type ceil(x) Returns the value of x rounded up to its nearest integer
short Reduces the size of an integer to 16 bits while Creates a while loop copysign(x, y) Returns the first floating point xwith the sign of the
signed Specifies that an int or char can representpositive and negative xor An alternative way to write the ^ bitwise operator second floating point y
values (this is the default so the keyword is not usually necessary) xor_eq An alternative way to write the ^= assignment operator cos(x) Returns the cosine of x (x is in radians)
sizeof An operator that returns the amount of memory occupied by a cosh(x) Returns the hyperbolic cosine of x
variable or data type
C++ Math Functions
exp(x) Returns the value of Ex
static Specifies that an attribute or method belongsto the class itself exp2(x) Returns the value of 2x
instead of instances of the classSpecifies that a variable in a function keeps its expm1(x) Returns ex-1
C++ Math Functions
value after the function ends erf(x) Returns the value of the error function at x
The <cmath> library has many functions that allow you to perform mathematical
struct Defines a structure erfc(x) Returns the value of the complementary error function at
tasks on numbers.
switch Selects one of many code blocks to be executed x
template Declares a template class or template function fabs(x) Returns the absolute value of a floating x
A list of all math functions can be found in the table below:
this A variable that is available inside class methodsand constructors fdim(x) Returns the positive difference between x and y
which contians a pointer to a class instance floor(x) Returns the value of x rounded down to its nearest integer
Function Description
throw Creates a custom error which can be caughtby a try...catch fma(x, y, z) Returns x*y+z without losing precision
abs(x) Returns the absolute value of x
statement fmax(x, y) Returns the highest value of a floating x and y
acos(x) Returns the arccosine of x, in radians
114 115 116
fmin(x, y) Returns the lowest value of a floating x and y modf(x, y) Returns the decimal part of x and writes the integer part
fmod(x, y) Returns the floating point remainder of x/y to the memory at the pointer y
frexp(x, y) With x expressed as m*2n, returns thevalue of m (a value between nan(s) Returns a NaN (Not a Number) value
0.5 and 1.0) and writes the value of n to the memory at the pointer y nearbyint(x) Returns x rounded to a nearby integer
hypot(x, y) Returns sqrt(x2 +y2) without intermediate overflow or nextafter(x, y) Returns the closest floating pointnumber to x in the
underflow direction of y
ilogb(x) Returns the integer part of the floating-pointbase nexttoward(x, y) Returns the closest floating pointnumber to x in the
logarithm of x direction of y
ldexp(x, y) Returns x*2y pow(x, y) Returns the value of x to the power of y
lgamma(x) Returns the logarithm of the absolute valueof the gamma remainder(x, y) Return the remainder of x/y rounded to the nearest
function at x integer
llrint(x) Rounds x to a nearby integer and returnsthe result as a remquo(x, y, z) Calculates x/y rounded to the nearestinteger, writes the
long long integer result to the memory at the pointer z and returns the remainder.
llround(x) Rounds x to the nearest integer and returns the result as a rint(x) Returns x rounded to a nearby integer
long long integer round(x) Returns x rounded to the nearest integer
log(x) Returns the natural logarithm of x scalbln(x, y) Returns x*Ry (R is usually 2)
log10(x) Returns the base 10 logarithm of x scalbn(x, y) Returns x*Ry (R is usually 2)
log1p(x) Returns the natural logarithm of x+1 sin(x) Returns the sine of x (x is in radians)
log2(x) Returns the base 2 logarithm of the absolute value of x sinh(x) Returns the hyperbolic sine of x
logb(x) Returns the floating-point base logarithmof the absolute sqrt(x) Returns the square root of x
value of x tan(x) Returns the tangent of x (x is in radians)
lrint(x) Rounds x to a nearby integer and returnsthe result as a tanh(x) Returns the hyperbolic tangent of x
long integer tgamma(x) Returns the value of the gamma function at x
lround(x) Rounds x to the nearest integer and returnsthe result as a trunc(x) Returns the integer part of x
long integer
117 118
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