AGRI

CULTUREANDENVI
RONMENT
PHYSI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFTHESOI
L

Thesear
ethepr
oper
ti
esoft
hesoi
lthatcanbeseenoff
eltbet
weent
het
humbandf
inger
.

Soi
lText
ure

I
treferstotherel
ati
veamount
sofdi
ff
erent
lysi
zedsoi
lpar
ti
clesorf
ineness/coar
senessof
mineralpar
ticl
esi
nt hesoi
l
.

Text
ural
ClassesOfTheSoi
l

Howt
odet
ermi
net
ext
ural
classesofsoi
l

Soi
lTr
iangl
eMet
hod

1.Col
l
ectsoi
lsampl
eofabout15-
20gandgr
indi
tfi
nel
y

2.Separat
egr
avel
andsandf
rom si
l
tandcl
ayt
hroughsi
evi
ngandst
uckt
hesepar
atedsoi
l
part
icl
e

3.Wei
ghtt
heamountofgr
avel
andsandsepar
atel
yandexpr
esst
hemassandaper
cent
age

4.Separ
atesi
l
tandcl
aybysedi
ment
ati
onpr
ocessi
nwat
er.

5.Wei
ghtt
hemassofsandandsi
l
tandexpr
esst
heper
cent
ageusi
ngt
heamountofdr
ysoi
l
.

6.Uset
hesoi
ltr
iangl
etocl
assi
fyt
hesoi
l
.

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__Page1of1
Exampl
e:Fi
ndt
het
ypeoft
hesoi
lthati
scomposedoft
hef
oll
owi
ng20%si
l
t,30%cl
ayand
50%sand

Thenameofsoi
li
ssandycl
aysoi
l

Feel
met
hod

Col
l
ectf
reshgar
densoi
l

Addwat
ert
othesoi
lsot
hati
sitwet

Tr
ytof
eel
thesoi
lbet
weent
het
humbandf
ir
stf
inger
.

I
dent
if
ythesoi
lsampl
e

Resul
ts

Sandi
sgr
it
ty,
clayi
ssmoot
handsl
i
pper
ywhi
l
eloam i
sbet
weent
het
wo

Rol
l
ingt
hesoi
lont
heboar
d

Col
l
ectsoi
lsampl
esandt
ryt
orol
li
tont
heboar
dandobser
vewhathappens

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__Page2of2
 Resul
ts

Sandfai
l
edt omakeari
bbon,l
oam soi
lmaker i
bbonsthatbr
eakeasi
l
ywhi
l
ecl
aim makes
ri
bbonsthatcanbemadei
ntoshapewithoutbr
eakingeasi
ly

Compar
ingt
ext
ual
classesoft
hesoi
l

Exper
iment
:fi
ndoutwhi
chsoi
lhol
dmor
ewat
eranddr
ainwat
erbet
ter

Pr
ocedur
e

1.Sett
hemeasur
ingcy
li
nder
swi
thf
unnel
sont
opasshowbel
ow

2.Wei
ght20gr
amsofsandy
,cl
ayandl
oam soi
l
ssepar
atel
y

3.Addeachsoi
lsampl
eonsepar
atef
unnel
andl
abel
A,BandC

4.Put50ml
ofwat
eroneachf
unnel
ont
hesamet
ime

5.Obser
vet
hesoi
lwhi
chwi
l
ldr
ainal
otofwat
er

St
ruct
ural
classesofsoi
landt
hei
rpr
oper
ti
es

Char
act
eri
sti
csofCl
aysoi
l

1.I
thasf
inesoi
lpar
ti
clesandi
ssmoot
hwhenf
elt

2.I
tisst
ickywhenwet

3.I
tmakesgoodr
ibbon,
kitcanbemadei
ntoanyshapewi
thoutbr
eaki
ng

4.I
tdr
ainwat
erv
erysl
owl
ybecausei
thassmal
lsi
zeofsoi
lpar
ti
cle

5.I
thasdi
ff
icul
twor
kabi
l
ity

6.I
thasl
owaer
ati
on

7.I
thashi
ghwat
erhol
dingcapaci
ty

8.I
thashi
ghnut
ri
enthol
dingcapaci
ty

Char
act
eri
sti
csofLoam soi
l

1.I
thasmoder
atedr
ainage

2.Hav
emoder
ateaer
ati
on

3.Hav
emoder
atewat
erhol
dingcapaci
ty

4.Hav
emoder
atewor
kabi
l
ity

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__Page3of3
 5.I
thasmoder
atenut
ri
enthol
dingcapaci
ty

6.I
tfor
msshor
tri
bbont
hateasi
l
ybr
eak

Char
act
eri
sti
csofSandsoi
l

1.I
tisgr
it
tywhenf
eltbet
weent
humbandf
ir
stf
ingerduel
argepar
ti
clesi
ze

2.I
tisnotst
icky

3.Cannotf
orm ar
ibbon

4.I
thashi
ghdr
ainage

5.Hav
elownut
ri
enthol
dingcapaci
ty

6.Hav
egoodr
ootpenet
rat
ion

7.I
thasl
owwat
erhol
dingcapaci
ty

8.I
thaseasywor
kabi
l
ity

Theef
fect
sofsoi
ltext
ureofcr
oppr
oduct
ion

1.I
taf
fectwat
ercont
entandhol
dingcapaci
ty

2.I
taf
fecteasewi
thwhi
cht
hesoi
li
scul
ti
vat
ed

3.I
taf
fectt
hedr
ainageoft
hesoi
l

4.I
taf
fect
stheaer
ati
onoft
hesoi
l

5.I
taf
fect
stheeasewhi
cht
her
ootcanpenet
rat
ethesoi
l

6.I
taf
fectt
her
esi
stanceoft
hesoi
ltosoi
ler
osi
on

7.I
taf
fectnut
ri
enthol
dingcapaci
tyoft
hesoi
l

Char
act
eri
sti
cofgoodsoi
ltext
ure

1.I
tret
ainwat
erf
orpl
antgr
owt
h

2.I
tiswel
ldr
ainedandaer
ated

3.I
tisabl
etosuppl
ynut
ri
ent
stogr
owi
ngpl
ant
s

4.I
tal
l
owseasypenet
rat
ionofr
oot

5.I
tiseasyt
ocul
ti
vat
eatdi
ff
erentmoi
stur
econt
ent

6.I
tisdi
ff
icul
ttobeer
oded

Exampl
eofsoi
ltext
uresandt
hei
rsui
tabl
ecr
ops

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__Page4of4
Cr
op Text
ural
classofsoi
lthati
tdobet
ter

Tobacco Wel
ldr
ainedsandy
/cl
ayl
oam soi
l

Mai
ze Wel
ldr
ainedl
oam soi
l

Cassav
a Wel
lri
chdr
ainedsandyl
oam soi
l

Cot
ton Ri
chsandyl
oam soi
l

Gr
oundnut
s Sandyorl
i
ghtl
oam soi
l

Ri
ce Heav
ycl
aysoi
lwhi
chr
etai
nal
otofwat
er

Soi
lst
ruct
ure

I
tishowt
hesoi
li
ndi
vi
dual
soi
l[par
ti
clear
ear
rangedorpackedi
nthesoi
ltof
orm aggr
egat
es.

Ty
pesofsoi
lst
ruct
ure

1.Bl
ockyorcubi
cal
str
uct
ure

Par
ti
clei
sar
rangedl
i
kecubes.

Thear
ehexagonal
appear
anceandhav
eshar
pedges

2. Col
umnarst
ruct
ure

Aggr
egat
esf
orm col
umnl
i
kest
ruct
urewhi
char
e15cmm ormor
eindi
amet
er.

I
tiscommonl
yfoundi
nsemi
ari
dandar
idzones

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__Page5of5
3. Pl
atyorpl
atel
i
kest
ruct
ure

Soi
l
sar
elai
dingr
oupsoneabov
etheot
heri
nthi
nlay
ers

Plat
ystr
uct
urei
smostnot
iceabl
eint
hesur
facel
ayer
sofv
irgi
nsoi
l
sbutmaybepr
esenti
nthe
subsoi
l
.

4.Gr
anul
arst
ruct
ureandCr
umbst
ruct
ure

Thesoi
lpar
ti
clesar
oundatacent
ral
poi
nt

5.Pr
ism-st
ruct
ure

Thesoi
li
spr
ism l
i
keandar
ear
rangedv
ert
ical
l
y

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__Page6of6
 6.Si
ngl
egr
ained

Soi
l
sar
ebr
okeni
ntoi
ndi
vi
dual
par
ti
clest
hatdonotst
ickt
oget
her
.

Ef
fect
sofsoi
lst
ruct
ureoncr
oppr
oduct
ion

1.I
taff
ect
sthef
lowofwat
erandai
rint
hesoi
lwhi
chi
ntur
naf
fectt
he,
micr
obi
alandr
oot
gr
owthi
nthesoi
l

2.I
taf
fectwaterret
aini
ngcapabi
l
ityoft
hesoi
ll
ikesoi
l
swi
thsmal
lpor
esspacer
etai
nmor
e
wat
erthanothers

3.I
taf
fectheatt
ransf
eri
nthesoi
lwi
thaf
fectseedger
minat
ionandr
ootdev
elopment

4.I
taf
fect
sthesoi
lconsi
stencywhi
chi
ntur
naf
fectt
hesoi
lwor
kabi
l
ity

5.I
taf
fect
snut
ri
enthol
dingcapaci
tyoft
hesoi
l
.

Howt
omai
ntai
nandi
mpr
ovesoi
lst
ruct
ure

1.Cult
ivati
ngthesoi
latr
ightmoi
stur
econt
entorconsi
stencyt
oav
oidbr
okent
hesoi
l
aggregate

2.Pr
otect
ingt
hesoi
lfr
om r
aindr
opi
mpactbypl
ant
ingv
eget
ati
vecov
er

3.Usi
ngmachi
ner
ypr
oper
ly

4.Addi
ngmanur
eandot
heror
gani
cmat
terwhi
chcanpr
oducebi
ndi
ngef
fectont
hesoi
l

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__Page7of7
 5.Av
oidi
ngov
ergr
azi
ng

6.Pr
act
ici
ngcr
opr
otat
ion

Soi
lcol
our

Fact
ort
hataf
fectsoi
lcol
our

1.Par
entmat
eri
al

Soi
lst
hatarefr
om r
ockst
hatcont
aini
rontendtoberedbecausewheni
ronr
eact
s
wit
hoxygenitf
ormsir
onoxi
dewit
hisreddi
shincol
our.

Soi
lthatcont
ainmi
cahasgl
i
tter
ingappear
ance

Soi
l
sthatcont
ainsi
l
ica(
quar
tz)ar
ewhi
ti
shi
ncol
our

2.Or
gani
cmat
tercont
ent

Soi
l
sthathav
ealotofor
ganicmatt
erar
ebl
acki
shi
ncol
ourwhi
l
ewi
thnoor
gani
c
matt
erar
ereddi
shi
ncolourduet
ohumus

3.Dr
ainageoft
hesoi
l

Soi
lst
hataref
oundinwaterloggedareaisgr
eyishi
ncol
ourduetoaccumul
ati
on
ofundecomposedmater
ial
s.Wel l
drai
nedsoil
sareredi
ncolourwhi
l
ewith
moderat
edrai
nagehasyell
owishincolour
.

4.Ageoft
hesoi
l(mat
uri
ty)

Youngsoiltendt
obereddi
shi
ncol
ourbecauset
heyhav
eli
tt
lehumscompar
edt
o
well
-dev
elopedsoil
s

Howsoi
lcol
ouraf
fectcr
oppr
oduct
ion

i I
taf
fectt
hesoi
ltemper
atur
ethesoi
lwhi
chi
ntur
naf
fectr
ootdev
elopment

Soi
ltemper
atur
e

I
tist
hehot
nessorcol
dnessoft
hesoi
l

Fact
orst
hataf
fectsoi
ltemper
atur
e

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__Page8of8
 1.Sl
opeoft
hel
and

Landthatfacethenorthi
nthesout
hernhemi
spher
et endtohavehi
ght
emperat
ure
becausethereisdir
ectheat
ingf
rom t
hesuncomparedlandfaci
ngt
hesout
hinthe
souther
nhemi sphere

2.Soi
lcol
our

Bl
acksoi
ltendt
ohav
ehi
ght
emper
atur
est
hatot
hercol
ourbecausebl
ackcol
ourabsor
b
al
otofheat

3.Veget
ati
vecov
er

Soil
undervegetat
ivecov
eritt
emper
atur
edoesnotf
luct
uat
ethansoi
lthatar
ebar
eand
thetemper
aturealwaysf
luct
uate

4.Dr
ainageoft
hesoi
l

Soil
whicht
endt
ohav
eal
otofwat
ert
endt
ohav
elowt
emper
atur
ethatsoi
lwhi
chi
swel
l
drai
ned

Howsoi
ltemper
atur
eaf
fectcr
oppr
oduct
ion

1.I
taf
fectseedger
minat
ion

2.I
taf
fectt
ranspi
rat
ionandev
apor
ati
onofpl
ant
s

3.I
taf
fectr
ootdev
elopmentandgr
owt
h

4. I
taff
ect
smicrobi
alact
ivi
ti
esi
nthesoi
ll
ikel
owandhi
ght
emper
atur
eaf
fect
decomposi
ti
onoforgani
cmatterbymi
crobi
al

5.I
taf
fectchemi
cal
react
ioni
nthesoi
lwhi
chaf
fectpl
antgr
owt
h

Howt
omai
ntai
nandi
mpr
ovesoi
ltemper
atur
e

1.Pl
ant
ingv
eget
ati
vecov
er

2.M mul
chi
ng

3.Dr
aini
ngexcesswat
er

4.I
rr
igat
ion

5.Addi
ngor
gani
cmat
ure

Soi
lconsi
stency

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__Page9of9
I
tist
hest
ateoft
hesoi
lunderdi
ff
erentmoi
stur
econdi
ti
on

Howsoi
lconsi
stencyaf
fectcr
oppr
oduct
ion

1.I
taf
fect
swor
kabi
l
ityoft
hesoi
lwhi
chaf
fectcr
oppr
oduct
ion

2.I
taf
fect
ssoi
lst
ruct
ure.

Howt
omodi
fysoi
lst
ruct
ure

1.Dr
aini
ngt
hesoi
l

2.Addi
ngor
gani
cmanur
e

3.Usi
ngappr
opr
iat
efar
mingequi
pment
s.

Soi
ldept
h

Fact
orst
hataf
fectsoi
ldept
h

i
. Mat
uri
tyoft
hesoi
l

Wel
lmat
uredsoi
l
sar
ebedeepenought
hatsoi
lthansoi
lthatunderdev
elopment

i
i
. Par
entmat
eri
al

Soil
sthatarefor
mfrom sof
trockthatar
eeasilybrokendowntendt
obedeepenough
thatsoi
lthatar
efor
medf r
om hardrockthatr
esistweather
ing

i
i
i. Veget
ati
vecov
er

Soil
sthatareunderveget
ati
vecovertendt
obedeepenoughbecauseof
decomposingandreducedsoil
erosionwhi
lebeargr
oundt
endtohaveshal
l
owsoi
l
s
becauseofhighsoil
erosi
on

i
v. Sl
opeoft
hel
and

Soi
ldept
hincr
easesaswegodownt
hesoi
lbecauseofr
educt
ioni
nsoi
ler
osi
onand
i
ncr
easeinsoi
ldeposi
ti
on

Howdoessoi
ldept
haf
fectcr
opdev
elopment
?

1.I
taf
fect
sther
ootdev
elopmenti
nthesoi
l

2.I
taf
fectwat
erhol
dingcapaci
tyoft
hesoi
l

Soi
lPor
osi
ty

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__Page10of10
 Soi
lPor
osi
tyi
sabi
l
ityoft
hesoi
ltoal
l
owwat
erandai
rtopasst
hroughi
t

Soi
lpor
osi
tyi
saf
fect
edbysoi
ltext
ureandsoi
lst
ruct
ure

Por
osi
tyi
sthepr
opor
ti
onoft
hev
olumeoft
hesoi
lthati
stakenupt
hepor
espaces.

Bul
kdensi
ty

I
tist
het
otal
sum oft
hepor
espacesandsol
i
dpar
ti
cles

Bul
kdensi
ty=wei
ghtofwov
edr
iedsoi
l/Vol
umeofwov
endr
iedsoi
l

I
.e.
BD=W/
V

Ther
efor
e

%por
osi
ty=100-bul
kdensi
tyx100

Par
ti
cledensi
ty

Howi
taf
fectcr
oppr
oduct
ion

I
taf
fect
sai
randwat
ermov
ementi
nthesoi
l

Howt
omai
ntai
nandi
mpr
ovesoi
lpor
osi
ty

Addi
ngor
gani
cmat
eri
al

Cul
ti
vat
ingt
hesoi
l

CHEMI
CALPROPERTYOFTHESOI
L

Soi
lpH

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__Page11of11
I
tthedegr
eeaci
dit
yofal
kal
i
nit
yoft
hesoi
l
.

Whenthesoi
lhashighconcentr
ati
onofhydr
ogeni
onsthesoi
ltendt
oaci
dicandi
fitcont
ain
hi
ghconcent
rat
ionofhydroxy
lionthesoi
li
ssai
dtobebasi
c

Howt
omeasur
esoi
lpH

1.Col
l
ectabout5t
o10goff
reshsoi
lsampl
e

2.Gr
indt
hesoi
lfi
nel
y

3.Pl
acet
hegr
oundsoi
lsampl
einat
estt
ube

4.Addbar
ium sul
phat
etobr
eakt
hesoi
lpar
ti
clef
urt
her

5.Adddi
sti
l
ledwat
ert
othesampl
efol
l
owedbyf
ewdr
opofuni
ver
sal
indi
cat
or

6.Cl
oset
het
estt
ubeandshakev
igor
ousl
y

7.Leav
ethecont
entt
oset
tl
eforhal
ftoanhour

8.Compar
ethecol
ouroft
hesol
uti
onwi
thuni
ver
sal
col
ourchatt
ofi
ndt
hepHoft
hesoi
l
.

Fact
orsThatAf
fectSoi
lpH

1.Leachi
ng

Somesoi
lnutr
ient
sli
kemagnesi
um,sodi
um,cal
cium andpot
assium t
heyeasi
l
yleach
i
nheavyr
ainf
allar
eaandar
erepl
acedbyhydr
ogenionwhichincr
easesoil
pH

2.Useofaci
dfor
mingf
ert
il
iser

Somefert
ili
ser
slikesulphateofammoniatendtofor
m aci
dinthesoi
l.The
componentofsulphateinthefer
ti
li
serwhenreactwi
thwatert
oform sul
phur
icaci
d
whichi
ncreasesoilpH

3.Mi
crobi
alact
ivi
ti
es

Micr
obi
alrel
easescar
bondi
oxidewhi
chwhenr
eact
edwi
thwat
eri
tfor
m car
boni
c
aci
dwhichincr
easest
heaci
dit
yofthesoi
l

4.Weat
her
ingofpar
entmat
eri
als

Soil
thatcomef r
om rockthatcontai
nsulphat
etobeacidbecausethesulphat
ereact
wit
hwat erandform sul
phuri
cacidwhichincr
easessoi
lpHwhilesoil
sthatcome
fr
om rocksthatcont
ainli
mestoneofcalcium t
endtobebasi
c

5.Nut
ri
entupt
akebypl
ant
s

Thenutr
ientabsor
bedar
eharv
estedt
oget
herwi
thpl
ant
sandar
erepl
acedby
hydr
ogenionswhichi
ncr
easesoi
lpH

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 6.Poordr
ainage

Soi
lthatdr
ainal
otofwat
erl
i
kesandt
endt
obeaci
dbecauseofhi
ghr
ateofl
eachi
ng

7.Ty
pesofv
eget
ati
ont

Soi
lunderf
orestt
endacidi
cbecauseofhi
ghleachingt
hatsoi
lundergr
assl
andt
end
tobebasi
cbecausether
eisminimalr
ateofl
eaching.

HowSoi
lpHAf
fectCr
opPr
oduct
ion

1.Itaff
ectavail
abil
i
t yofpl
antnut
ri
enti
nthesoill
i
ke:
zinc,i
ron, manganese,copperand
cobaltbecomesl essavail
abl
e abovepHof5.5whileni
trogen,
phosphorus,sulphur
becauseav ai
labl
eabov epH5.5.Cal
cium andmagnesi
um isavail
abl
ebetweent hepHof
6t o8.5.

2.Itaf
fect
smicr
obi
alact
ivi
ti
esi
nthesoi
lforexampl
eni
tr
if
yingbact
eri
afi
xbet
terni
tr
ogen
atpHof5.5

Modi
fi
cat
ionofsoi
lPH

1.Addi
ngl
i
meorf
ert
il
iserl
i
keCANt
oneut
ral
i
seaci
dit
y

2. Addi
ngaci
dfor
mingf
ert
il
iser
stoi
ncr
easesoi
laci
dit
y

Fact
orst
hataf
fectchemi
cal
proper
ti
esoft
hesoi
l

1.Thecomposi
ti
onoft
hesoi
l

I
taf
fect
showt
hesoi
lcanr
etai
nandr
eleasesoi
lnut
ri
ent
s

2.Soi
lst
ruct
ureandt
ext
ure

I
taffectnutr
ientcapaci
tyoft
hesoi
lbyi
nfl
uenci
ngt
hechemi
cal
,phy
sical
and
bi
ological
properti
esofthesoi
l.

3.Far
mingpr
act
ices

Useofbushfir
esdestr
oysorgani
ccont
entoft
hesoi
lwhi
chi
ntur
naf
fect
snut
ri
ent
hol
dingcapaci
tyoft
hesoil

Monocr
oppi
ngexhaust
scer
tai
nel
ement
sfr
om t
hesoi
l

Useofheav
ymachi
ner
ydest
roy
ssoi
lst
ruct
ureandov
ergr
azi
ng

4.Soi
laci
dit
y

I
taf
fect
srel
easeandmi
crobi
alact
ivi
ti
esi
nthesoi
l

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__Page13of13
 5.Cr
opr
emov
al

I
tcont
ri
but
etol
ossofpl
antnnut
ri
ent
sast
heyhar
vest
ed

6.Leachi
ng

Sol
ubl
esal
tli
keni
tr
atesar
ewasheddownt
hesoi
lpr
ofi
l
e

7.Soi
ler
osi
on

I
tcont
ri
but
etol
ossofsoi
lnut
ri
ent
sthr
oughl
ossoft
opsoi
l

8.Theuseofchemi
cal
fer
ti
li
ser

I
tincr
easethefer
ti
li
tyoft
hesoi
lbutuseofaci
dfor
mingf
ert
il
iseraf
fectav
ail
abi
l
ityof
ot
hernutr
ient
s

Cati
onExchangeCapaci
ty(
CEC)

I
tref
erst
heabi
l
ityoft
hesoi
ltoexchangecati
ons.

Thei
mpor
tanceofcati
onexchangecapaci
tyt
opl
antgr
owt
h

I
taf
fect
sther
eleaseandav
ail
abi
l
ityofpl
antel
ement
svi
tal
forpl
antgr
owt
h

Soi
lsal
i
nit
y

Sali
nit
yist
hecondi
ti
onoft
hesoi
ltoassoci
atewi
tht
heaccumul
ati
onofsol
ubl
esal
tsi
n
thesoil

Sal
i
nesoi
l
s

I
tissoi
lthathav
ehi
ghconcent
rat
ionofsol
ubl
esal
ts

Causeofsoi
lsal
i
nit
y

1.Ir
ri
gati
ngv
irgi
nlandwi
thpoorqual
i
tyi
rr
igat
ionwat
erl
i
kewi
thhi
ghconcent
rat
ionof
salt
s

2.Excessuseandappl
i
cat
ionf
ert
il
iserwhi
chl
eadt
osal
tbui
l
dup

3.Par
entmat
eri
alwhi
chr
eleasesomesal
ttot
hesoi
lbecausei
tcont
ainal
otofsal
t

4.Lowrai
nandhighevapor
ati
on, saltr
iseduet
ocapi
l
lar
yact
ionandbecome
accumul
atedduet
olimit
edleaching

5.Poordr
ainagewhi
chl
eadt
obui
l
dupofsal
ts

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__Page14of14
 Sodi
csoi
l
s

Ar
esoi
l
sthathav
ehi
ghconcent
rat
ionofsodi
um?

Sal
i
nesodi
csoi
l
s

Ar
esoil
sthatcont
ainbot
hsol
ubl
esal
tsandsodi
um sal
tsandt
hel
evel
sar
etoxi
cto
pl
ant
s

Theef
fectofsal
taccumul
ati
on

1.I
tincr
easesoi
lpHwhi
chaf
fectav
ail
abi
l
ityofsomepl
antnut
ri
ent
s

2.Itaff
ectseedgerminati
onandplantgrowthbecauseofhi
ghosmoti
cpressurewhi
ch
reducesabil
it
yofplanttosucki
nwat erandalsobrokendownofaggr
egatesduet
o
excesssodium i
nthesoil

3.I
tmaket
hesoi
ltobet
oxi
ctopl
ant
s

Managi
ngsal
i
nesoi
l
s

1.I
rr
igat
ingt
hesoi
lbyf
loodi
ngt
oremov
eexcesssal
ts

2.Dr
aini
ngexcesswat
ersi
ncet
her
emov
edwat
ercar
ryt
oget
hersomesal
ts

3.Appl
yi
nggypsum t
oconver
tinsol
ublesal
tsl
i
kecar
bonat
edandsul
phat
eto
sol
ubl
efor
m sothatt
heycaneasil
yleach

4.Pr
event
ingorr
educi
ngev
apor
ati
ont
oreducecapi
l
lar
yact
ion

5.Growthsal
ttol
erantcr
opsl
i
kecot
ton,
spi
nach,
rapebar
leyandsugarbeet
s
t
or emoveexcesssalt
s

Howt
omai
ntai
nandi
mpr
ovechemi
cal
proper
ti
esoft
hesoi
l

1.Li
mingt
oreduceaci
dit
y

2.Appl
yi
ngor
gani
cmat
tert
oimpr
ovesoi
lst
ruct
ure

3.Appl
yi
ngf
ert
il
isercor
rect
ly

4.Pr
act
isi
ngcr
opr
otat
ion

5.Pl
ant
ingcl
osegr
owi
ngcr
opst
oreducer
aindr
opi
mpact

6.Mul
chi
ngcr
opst
oreducer
aindr
opi
mpact

7.I
rr
igat
ingl
andbyf
loodi
ngt
oremov
eexcesssal
ts

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etbel
ongst
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 8.Pr
act
isi
ngmi
xedcr
oppi
ng

9.I
rr
igat
ingl
andbyf
loodi
ngt
oremov
eexcesssal
ts

SOI
LDEGRADATI
ON

SOI
LDEGRADATI
ON

I
tisl
ossi
nval
ueorqual
i
tyofsoi
l

For
m ofsoi
ldegr
adat
ion

Ther
ear
efi
vef
ormsofsoi
ldegr
adat
ionsandt
hosear
e

1.Phy
sicaldegr
adat
ion

Thi
sist
het
ypeofsoi
ldegr
adat
iont
hathappensduet
ophy
sical
for
ce.Thi
shappent
hrough:

a.Wat
erer
osi
on

Runni
ngwat
ercar
ri
edt
opsoi
lcausi
ngsomegul
l
iesanddeposi
titsomewher
eel
se

b.Wi
nder
osi
on

Wi
ndbl
owof
fsoi
lfr
om unpr
otect
eddr
ylandcausi
ngadamaget
osoi
l

c.Phy
sical
erosi
on

I
tisthedest
ruct
ionofsoi
lstr
uct
ureduet
oact
ionofwat
erorheav
ymachi
neandmaki
ng
i
tpronetobeerodedbyei
therwi
ndorrai
nwat
er.

2.Chemi
cal
degr
adat
ion

I
thappenswhent
her
eisexcessusei
ffer
ti
li
ser
sandpest
ici
de.

3.Bi
ologi
cal
degr
adat
ion

I
tthesoi
ldegr
adat
iont
hati
scausebyact
ionofl
i
vingor
gani
sm.

Peopl
eandani
mal
sbr
eakdownt
hesoi
lmaki
ngi
teasi
l
yer
odedmywi
ndorwat
er

Microbi
all
ikeear
thwor
m andt
ermi
tesdest
roy
sthesoi
lst
ruct
uremaki
ngt
hesoi
l
suscept
ibl
etoerosi
on

4.Lossofsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty

Ithappenwhenthesoi
lnut
ri
ent
shav
ebeenl
ostei
therbyact
ionofsoi
ler
osi
onor
conti
nuouscroppi
ng

5.Accumul
ati
onofsal
t(excesssal
ts)

I
tthebui
l
dupofsol
ubl
esal
tint
hesoi
lthatmakest
hesoi
lobet
oxi
c

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Causeofsoi
ldegr
adat
ion

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ecauseofsoi
ldegr
adat
ion

a.Cul
ti
vat
ingal
ongst
eepsl
opeandal
ongr
iverbankswhi
chencour
agesoi
ler
osi
on

b.Const
ruct
ingr
idgesal
ongt
hesl
ope

c.Usi
ngheav
ymachi
newhi
chdest
roysoi
lst
ruct
ure

d.Cont
inuouscr
oppi
ngwhi
chexhaustsoi
lnut
ri
ent
s

e.Cul
ti
vat
ingsoi
lwhett
oodr
yort
oowetwhi
chdamagessoi
lst
ruct
ure

f
. Def
orest
ati
onwhi
chl
eav
est
hel
andbar
e

g.Uncont
rol
l
edf
ir
eswhencl
ear
ingt
hebushwhi
chencour
agesoi
ler
osi
onanddest
roy
s
humus

h.Ov
ergr
azi
ngandov
erst
ocki
ng

i
. Hi
ghhumanpopul
ati
onwhi
chputhi
ghpr
essur
eonnat
ural
resour
ces

Ef
fect
sofsoi
ldegr
adat
ion

1.Lossofsoi
lfer
ti
li
tywhi
chev
ent
ual
l
yreducedy
iel
d

2.Ther
eisr
educt
ioni
ninf
il
tr
ati
onandi
ncr
easesi
nrunof
f

3.Si
l
tingofwat
err
eser
voi
rsduet
osedi
ment
ati
on

4.Pol
l
uti
onofwat
err
esour
ces

5.Scar
cit
yofwat
erduet
odr
yingofwat
err
eser
voi
rs

6.I
ncr
easei
ninci
denceoff
loodi
ng

7.Lossofar
abl
elandduet
ogul
l
ies

8.Lossofar
abl
eland

9.Lowgr
oundwat
erduet
oincr
easer
unof
f

Howt
ocont
rol
soi
ldegr
adat
ion

1.Af
orest
ati
on

2.Mul
chi
ng

3. Cont
rol
l
ingbushf
ir
e

4.Av
oidov
ergr
azi
ngandov
erst
ocki
ng

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ongst
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__Page17of17
5.Pr
act
isi
ngf
ami
l
ypl
anni
ngmet
hodt
oreducehumanpopul
ati
on

6.Pr
act
isi
ngst
ri
pcr
oppi
ngt
oreducer
unof
f

7.Mai
ntai
nsoi
lcov
ert
oreducesoi
ler
osi
on

Exer
cise
2003(
ii
)

3.Thetabl
ebel
owshowther
esultsfrom soi
lsci
encel
abor
ator
yfr
om met
eor
igi
cal
obser
vati
onoft
heext
ensi
onplanningarea

Char
act
eri
sti
cs Soi
lA Soi
lB Soi
lC

Per
cent
agesand 40 42 20

Per
cent
agesi
l
t 8 6 10

Per
cent
agecl
ay 50 47 60

Soi
lcol
our Red Br
own Bl
ack

Ef
fect
ivedept
h(met
res) 4 1 1.
5

Per
cent
ageor
gani
cmat
ter 2 5 10

Rai
nfal
l(mm pery
ear
) 2000 1500 1000

Annual
rai
nfal
ldi
str
ibut
ion Moreeven Uneven Uneven
di
str
ibut
ion di
str
ibut
ion di
str
ibut
ion

Temper
atur
e Medi
um Medi
um hi
gh

Soi
lpH 5.
1 6.
2 7.
4

a.(
i)
.Whi
chsoi
li
sli
kel
ytohav
ehi
ghestwat
erhol
dingcapaci
ty

i
i
.Expl
aint
wor
easonsf
ory
ouranswert
oquest
ionai
.

b.Whi
chsoi
lwoul
dbegoodf
ort
reecr
ops?

c.Gi
vear
easonf
ory
ouranswert
oquest
ion3cabov
e

d.Expl
ainanyt
wopossi
bler
easonsf
oraci
dit
yinSoi
lA

e.Fr
om whi
chsoi
lther
esul
tsshowt
hehi
ghestpopul
ati
oncountofmi
croor
gani
sms

f
. Expl
ainoner
easonf
ory
ouanswert
oquest
iond(
i)

g.St
ateanyt
hreeway
sofi
mpr
ovi
ngsoi
lA

9e.Descr
ibeanyt
woway
sinwhi
chgoodsoi
lst
ruct
urecont
ri
but
etoi
ncr
easesi
ncr
op

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etbel
ongst
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__Page18of18
 pr
oduct
ion.

2004.

2005

1.(
a).Def
inet
het
erm soi
ldegr
adat
ion

b.St
ateanyt
woway
sinwhi
chpeopl
econt
ri
but
etosoi
ldegr
adat
ion

c.explai
nanyonebi
ologi
cal
wayi
nwhi
chaf
armercancont
rol
soi
ldegr
adat
ioni
na
vegetabl
egarden

3(a).Whatdoeseachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngsoi
lcol
our
sindi
cat
esi
nter
m oft
hecomposi
ti
onoft
he
parentmateri
als

i
. Gr
eyi
shcol
our

i
i
. Reddi
shcol
our

b.Expl
ainhowsoi
lcol
ouraf
fect
ssoi
ltemper
atur
e

c.St
ateanyt
woway
sinwhi
chsoi
ltemper
atur
ecanbemodi
fi
ed.

2006

11(
a)Descr
ibeanyf
ivet
ypesofsoi
lst
ruct
ure

b.Expl
ainanyf
ivechar
act
eri
sti
csofsoi
lthatmakei
tsui
tabl
eforcr
oppr
oduct
ion

2007

1(
a)Def
inesoi
laci
dit
y

b.Expl
ainonewayi
nwhi
chi
rr
igat
ioncancausesoi
lsal
i
nit
y

3b.Expl
ainhowl
eachi
ngaf
fectt
henut
ri
ent
sst
atusoft
hesoi
l

2009

6.(
a).Namet
het
ext
ural
classesoft
hesoi
l

b.)Cl
assi
fymol
ybdenum ,
sul
phur
,bor
oni
ntomi
croandmi
cronut
ri
ent
s

2010

6a.
Expl
ainanyonewayi
nwhi
shSoi
lpHcanbemodi
fi
ed

b.Expl
ainanyonewayi
nwhi
chsoi
lpHaf
fect
spl
antgr
owt
h

13.At
eacherbr
oughtasampl
eofsoi
ltoaf
ormf
ourcl
ass.Usi
ngsi
evemet
hoddescr
ibeshow

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etbel
ongst
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__Page19of19
t
heper
cent
ageofgr
ave,
sand,
sil
tandcl
aycoul
dbedet
ermi
ned.

2011.

7c.Gi
veanyt
woadv
ant
agesofsoi
lst
ruct
ure

9.Expl
ainonewayi
nwhi
cheachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
act
icescanhel
ptopr
eventl
anddegr
adat
ion

a.st
ri
pcr
oppi
ng

b.t
ier
idgi
ng

13.Expl
ainanyf
ivef
act
orst
hataf
fectt
henut
ri
entst
atusoft
hesoi
l

2012.

1.(
a).Gi
veanyonef
armi
ngact
ivi
tyt
hatcandest
roysoi
lst
ruct
ure

b.St
ateanyt
woef
fect
sofgoodsoi
lst
ruct
ureoncr
oppr
oduct
ion

12.Descr
ibeanexper
imentt
odet
ermi
net
het
ext
ureoft
hesoi
lsampl
eusi
ngsedi
ment
ati
on
method

2013

1.Youar
epr
ovi
dewi
thgr
oundnut
sfl
our
(Nsi
nji
ro)l
abel
l
edZandf
ert
il
iserl
abel
l
edZ

a.Whi
choft
het
wospeci
meni
sacr
oppr
oduct

b.Giveanyt
womar ket
ingf
unct
iont
hathav
ebeent
akenpl
acei
nor
dert
oobt
aint
he
speci
menlabel
l
edY

c.Explai
nanyonewayinwhi
cheachoft
hespeci
menl
abel
l
edyandZcansuppor
tthe
growingpopul
ati
on

d.Wri
tedownanyt
hreel
i
mit
ati
onofusi
ngt
hespeci
menl
abel
l
edYt
othesmal
l
hol
der
f
armers

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__Page20of20
 CROPPRODUCTI
ON
SEEDANDPLATI
NGMATERI
ALS

Pant
ingpr
opagat
ioni
sthewayi
nwhi
cht
henewpl
ant
sar
isef
rom t
heexi
sti
ngones

Ty
peofpl
antpr
opagat
ion

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofpl
antpr
opagat
ionandt
hesear
e

1.Sexual
propagat
ion

Theproducti
onofyoungonei
sdonet
hroughseedswher
ethef
emal
eandmal
egamet
es
fuset
opr oduceay
oungone

2.Asexual
propagat
ion(v
eget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion

Thisi
sthet
ypeofpr
opagat
ionwher
ebypar
toft
hepar
enti
susedt
opr
oducesay
oung
ones

Seed

I
tisf
ert
il
isedov
ules

Thest
ruct
ureofal
egumeseed

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__Page21of21
 Par
tsandf
unct
ionofbeanseed

Fi
nical

I
tist
heshor
tsl
ackwhi
chat
tachest
hebeanseedt
oinsi
depod

Funct
ion

I
twher
efoodpassesdur
ingembr
yodev
elopment

Hi
l
um:

I
tabl
ackscarwher
ethef
ini
cal
att
achest
heseed

Test
er

I
tist
heet
ernal
cov
eri
ngofaseed

Funct
ion

1.I
tpr
otectt
heembr
yof
rom ext
ernal
mechani
cal
inj
uri
es

2.I
tpr
eventt
heent
ryofpat
hogens

Mi
croPy
le

I
tisat
inyhol
eont
heseed

Funct
ion

I
tal
l
owsai
rtopasst
hroughf
orr
espi
rat
ionoft
heembr
yo

Cot
yledons

I
tist
heseedl
eav
es

Funct
ion

I
tst
oret
hef
oodf
orembr
yodev
elopment

Radi
cle

I
tist
hepar
toft
heembr
yowhi
chf
ormst
hepr
imar
yroot
s

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__Page22of22
Pl
umes

I
tthepar
toft
heembr
yot
hatdev
elopsi
ntoy
oungshoot

Hy
pocot
yls

Themi
ddl
epar
toft
heembr
yot
hatf
ormst
hest
em

Thest
ruct
ureofacer
eal
seed

Funct
ionoft
hepar
tsofcer
eal
seed

1.Fusedt
est
aandper
icar
p

I
tist
heuni
tedf
rui
twal
landt
heseedcoat

Funct
ion

I
tpr
otect
sthedel
i
cat
eint
ernal
par
tsoft
hegr
ain.

2.Si
l
kscar

I
tisacr
easedordepr
essi
onshowi
ngt
hepoi
ntofat
tachmentt
osi
l
k

3.Poi
ntofat
tachmentoft
hecob

I
tist
her
emai
ningst
alkatt
hebaseoft
hegr
ainsur
roundi
ngt
heembr
yo

Funct
ion

I
tat
tachest
hegr
aint
othecob

4.Endosper
m

I
tist
hef
lour
ypar
toft
hegr
ain

Funct
ion

I
tsuppl
i
esf
oodf
orener
gyf
orger
minat
ionseedanddev
elopi
ngembr
yo

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__Page23of23
 5.Radi
cle

I
tdev
elopsi
ntopr
imar
yroot
s

6.Hy
pocot
yls

I
tdev
elopsi
ntost
em

7.Pl
umul
e

I
tdev
elopsi
ntot
hef
ir
stl
eav
es

8.Col
eor
hizae

I
ffor
mst
hepr
otect
ivesheat
h

Funct
ion

I
tfi
tpr
otectt
her
oot
sdur
ingdev
elopment

9.Col
eopt
il
es

I
tasheat
hthatsur
roundst
hepl
umul
eint
hegr
ain

Funct
ion

Itpr
otectt
heshootasi
tpushest
hrought
hesoi
ldur
ingseedger
minat
ionandseed
emergency

10.
Scut
ell
um

I
tisaf
lat
ten,
flashyshi
eldshapedwhi
chf
ormt
heout
err
im oft
heembr
yo.

Funct
ion

I
tsepar
atest
heembr
yof
rom endosper
m

Adv
ant
agesofsexual
propagat
ion

a.Seedsar
erel
ati
vel
ycheap

b.Seedi
seasyt
osowandpr
epar
eforpl
ant
ing

c.Seedar
eeasyt
ost
orewi
thoutsi
gni
fi
canti
nlossofqual
i
tyandquant
it
y

d.Seedcanr
emai
nvi
abl
eforl
ongper
iodoft
ime

e.Seedcanbesownmechani
cal
l
y

f
.Itmi
nimi
sest
her
iskoft
ransf
err
ingdi
seaseandpestf
rom par
entt
oof
fspr
ing

g.i
tcanpr
oducenewpl
antt
hatdi
ff
erf
rom t
hei
rpar
ent

Di
sadv
ant
agesofsexual
propagat
ion

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__Page24of24
 a.I
tpr
oducesser
iousv
ari
ati
onandof
f–t
ypesamongt
heof
fspr
ing

b.I
trequi
resal
ongj
uveni
l
eper
iodbef
oref
rui
tsorseed

c.I
trequi
resel
abor
atedseedbed

Veget
ati
vepl
ant
ingmat
eri
al

Cut
ti
ngs

Stem cut
ti
ng(set
ts)ar
eusedforpropagati
on.Thestem thati
susedf
orpr
opagat
ionshoul
d
havebudsateachnodeandthatdevelopadvent
it
iousroots.

Thecutt
ingcanbesomet
imepl
ant
edi
nnur
ser
iesandl
atert
ranspl
ant
edt
ofi
eldori
tispl
ant
ed
di
rect
lyt
ot hef
iel
d

Exampl
eofcr
opst
hatar
epr
opagat
edbyuseofcut
ti
ng

Sugarcane,
nippi
ergr
ass,
cassav
a

Runner
s

I
tisastem whichgrowshori
zont
alal
ongt
hegr
ound.Ther
unei
scuti
ntopi
ecest
hathav
enodes
f
rom whichrootscandev
elop.

Exampl
eofcr
opst
hatar
epr
opagat
edusi
ngr
unner

St
rawber
ri
es,
sweetpot
atoes

St
em t
uber
s

I
tist
heundergr
oundswoll
enport
ionofthepl
antwhi
chact
sasst
orageor
ganandhasbud
wher
erootsy
stem andnewshootdevel
ops

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__Page25of25
Exampl
esofcr
opst
hatpr
opagat
edi
nthi
sway

I
ri
shpot
atoes

Sucker
s

I
tisashoott
hatr
isesfr
om auxi
l
iar
ybudatt
hebaseoft
hepar
entpl
antt
hesuckeri
scutand
pl
ant
edsomewhereelse.

Exampl
eofcr
ops

Bananasandpi
neappl
es

Bul
bs

I
tisast
orageor
ganwhi chismadeupofmodif
iedf
leshyl
eaves.Youngshootdev
elopsf
rom
t
hebudsonthesidesofthepar
entfl
eshyl
eav
esothebulb.

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ongst
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__Page26of26
Exampl
eofcr
ops

Oni
on,
gar
li
c,t
uli
p

Cor
ns

I
tisenlar
gedbaseoft
heunder
groundst
em i
nwhi
chf
oodi
sst
ored.Thenewsshootdev
elops
f
rom thebudsonsi
deofpar
ents

Exampl
eofcr
op

Yam

Rhi
zomes

I
tisahor
izont
alunder
groundst
em.Theshootdev
elopf
rom budsont
her
hizome

Exampl
esofcr
ops

Banana,
bamboo

Lay
eri
ng

Abranchoft
hefrui
ttr
eeorashrubispeggeddownthegroundsot
hati
tgr
owsr
oot
swhi
l
e
at
tachedt
oparentpl
antsandl
ateri
sdetachedandpl
antedsomeel
sewher
e

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__Page27of27
Buddi
ng

I
tisal
socal
l
edbudgr
aft
ing.

I
tist
hepropagat
ionmethodwhereaveget
ati
vebudf
rom onepl
anti
str
ansf
err
edandj
oinedt
o
t
hestem ofot
herpl
ant
swhereitdevel
opsint
oanewshoot.

Pr
ocessofbuddi
ng

1.Abudshi
eldi
sremov
edf
rom apl
ant

2.ATcuti
smadeonast
ockpl
ant

3.Thebudshi
eldi
scar
eful
l
yinser
tedi
ntot
hecuti
nthest
ockpl
ant

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__Page28of28
 4.Thewoundi
stapedar
oundt
hest
ockpl
ant

5.Thebudshi
eldger
minat
est
hest
ockpl
anti
scutabov
ethebudandal
lsucker
sar
e
removed

Gr
aft
ing

I
tist
hejoini
ngofapar
tofonepl
antt
oanot
herpl
antsot
hatonecanhav
ethegoodqual
i
tyof
t
wodiff
erentpar
ent
s

Thetwopar
entscomef r
om thesamespeci
esandmusthav
ethesamet
hicknessf
oreasy
matchi
ngofcambium l
ayer
sismatched.

Thecutmustbesl
antorVshapedandt
heuni
onmustbeneat
lyf
it
tedandr
aped

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ongst
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__Page29of29
 v

Adv
ant
ageofasexual
propagat
ion

1.Itr
educest
hejuv
eni
leper
iodoft
hepl
antbecausev
eget
ati
vepr
opagat
edmat
eri
al
assumetheageoft
heparent

2.I
tel
i
minat
est
hepr
obl
em ofseeddor
mancywhi
chneedseedt
reat
ment
sli
kescar
if
icat
ion

3.Itensur
eunif
ormi
tyamongthepl
ant
swhi
chr
educet
heneedf
orgr
adi
ngsi
nceal
lof
f
springr
esemblet
hepar
ents

4.I
tist
heonl
ywayofpr
opagat
ingpl
ant
swi
thnov
iabl
eseeds

5.Theyhav
ehi
ghf
oodr
eser
vest
hathel
pthey
oungshoott
obecomeest
abl
i
shed

6.I
treadi
l
yav
ail
abl
efr
om pr
evi
ousst
ockandr
educest
her
iskofbuy
ingexpensi
veseed

Di
sadv
ant
ages

1.Theyi
shi
ghr
iskoft
ransf
err
ingdi
seasest
onewpl
ant
sift
hemat
eri
alusedar
edi
seased

2.I
tisdi
ff
icul
ttobr
ingv
ari
ati
onamongpl
ant
s

3.Theyar
ebul
kycompar
edt
oseed

4.Somepr
ocedur
erequi
resspeci
alski
l
lsandexper
ti
seunl
i
kei
nseed

PLANTSPARTANDTHEI
RFUNCTI
ONS

Rootsy
stem

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__Page30of30
Ther
etwot
ypesofr
ootsy
stem andt
hesear
etapr
oot
sandf
ibr
ousr
oot
s.

Tapr
oot
s

I
thaswell
def
inedmainrootandotherr
ootsdev
elopf
rom i
t.Theroott
hatdevel
opfrom mai
n
r
ootrecal
l
edsecondar
yrootandthatdevel
opfr
osecondar
yrootsarecal
lter
ti
aryr
oots

Exampl
eofcr
opswi
tht
apr
ootsy
stem

Tobacco,
cot
ton,
tomat
ocabbage,
car
rot
sandl
egumes

Fi
brousr
oot
s

I
thasnodef
inedr
ootsy
stem andal
lroot
sdev
elopsf
rom t
hebaseoft
hest
em

Al
lgr
assesandcer
eal
cropshav
efi
brousr
ootsy
stem

Thei
nter
nal
str
uct
ureoft
her
oot

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ongst
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__Page31of31
Ther
ootcap

I
tist
het
hinl
ayerofcel
lont
het
ipoft
her
oot

Funct
ion

I
tpr
otectt
heapi
cal
mer
ist
em

Api
cal
mer
ist
em

I
tisbundl
eofmer
ist
em t
ict
issuesi
nther
oott
ip

Funct
ion

I
tist
hegr
owi
ngpar
toft
her
oott
hatgi
vesr
aisesi
ntoot
herpar
tsoft
her
oot
s

Epi
der
mis

I
tist
heout
erl
ayerofcel
l
s

Funct
ion

I
tpr
otectt
hei
nter
nal
par
tsr
oot

Root
shai
rs

Thear
ehai
rli
kest
ruct
uref
oundont
het
ipoft
her
oot
sandar
eel
ongat
ionofepi
der
mal
cel
l
s

Funct
ion

Theyabsor
bwat
erandmi
ner
alsal
tfr
om t
hesoi
l

Cor
tex

I
tisagr
oupofcel
lforf
oodst
orage

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etbel
ongst
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Endoder
mis

I
tisi
nlay
erofcel
l
s

Funct
ion

I
tsepar
atescor
texf
rom t
hev
ascul
arbundl
es

Phl
oem

Ar
ecell
sort
ubeswhi
cht
ranspor
tpr
oduct
sofphot
osy
nthesi
sfr
om r
oot
srespi
rat
ionand
st
orage

Xy
lem

Ar
ecel
lort
ubest
hati
sresponsi
blet
ranspor
tat
ionofmi
ner
alsal
tsandwat
erabsor
pti
onbyr
oot
ai
r

Funct
ionofr
oot
s

1.Theanchorpl
ant
spr
event
ingt
hepl
antf
rom l
odgi
ng

2.Theyabsor
bmi
ner
alssal
tsf
rom t
hesoi
lneededf
orgr
owt
handr
epr
oduct
ion

3.Theyst
oref
oodt
hatar
emadef
rom l
eav
es

St
em

St
ruct
ureoft
hest
em

Ast
em cont
aini
nter
nodesandnode

Anodei
saswol
l
enar
eal
ongt
hest
em

I
nter
nodesar
edi
stancebet
weent
wosuccessf
ulnodes

I
nter
nal
str
uct
ureoft
hest
em

Thi
sbookl
etbel
ongst
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 Epi
der
mis.

I
tist
heoutl
ayert
hatsur
faceofst
em

Funct
ion

I
tsur
roundst
hev
ascul
art
issue,
phl
oem andxy
lem t
issue

Phl
oem

Ar
ecell
sort
ubeswhi
cht
ranspor
tpr
oduct
sofphot
osy
nthesi
sfr
om r
oot
srespi
rat
ionand
st
orage

Xy
lem

Ar
ecel
lort
ubest
hati
sresponsi
blet
ranspor
tat
ionofmi
ner
alsal
tsandwat
erabsor
pti
onbyr
oot
ai
r

Funct
ionoft
hest
em

1.Theconductf
oodandwat
ermi
ner
alsal
tsf
rom r
oot
s

2.Thesuppor
tandpr
otectt
heupperpl
ant
spar
ts

3.Thedisplayl eavesandf
lower
ssot
hatt
heyar
ewel
lexposedt
osunl
i
ghtf
or
phot
osy nthesis

4.Tost
oref
ood

5.Tomanuf
act
urepl
antf
oodi
tcont
ainchl
orophy
llmai
nlyy
oungst
ems

Leav
es

Atypi
cal
leavehasabladeorlamina,astal
korpet
iol
ewhichhol
dst
hebl
adesandt
hebasal
sheat
hwhichconnect
stheleaftothestem i
nthecer
eal
plant
s

I
ndi
cot
spl
ant
sthel
eav
eshasnetv
einswhi
l
eincer
eal
haspar
all
elv
eins

I
nter
nal
str
uct
ureofal
eav
e

Thi
sbookl
etbel
ongst
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__Page34of34
Upperandl
owerepi
der
mis

I
tist
hel
owerpar
tort
hel
eav
ewhi
chaf
fectt
hepal
atabi
l
ityoff
eedofani
mal
s

Guar
dcel
l
:

I
tist
hepai
rofspeci
alcel
l
sthatcont
rol
theopeni
ngandcl
osi
ngofst
omat
a

St
omat
a

I
tistheopeningonthel
eavewhichairent
ryofwat
er,
car
bondi
oxideneededi
nthepr
ocessof
phot
osynthesis.I
tal
sorel
easewaterandoxygent
otheat
mosphere

Pal
i
sadecel
l

Theyar
eel
ongat
edcel
landcl
osel
ypackedandcont
ainchl
orophy
llf
orphot
osy
nthesi
s.

Spongycel
l

Theyloosel
ycel
landhav
eir
regul
arshapeandi
tiswher
ethepr
oduct
sofphot
osy
nthesi
sar
e
fi
rstst
ored.

Vascul
arbundl
e

I
tconsi
stofmidri
bandvei
nst hatt
ranspor
tmanuf
act
uref
oodt
oal
lpar
tofpl
ant
sandt
ranspor
t
wat
er,miner
alssal
tst
otherestoft
heleave.

Funct
ionoft
hel
eav
es

1.Theycont
ainchl
orophy
llwhi
chabsor
bli
ghtener
gyt
obeusedf
orphot
osy
nthesi
s

2.Theyrel
easesexcesswat
eri
ntot
heat
mospher
ethr
ought
hest
omat
athr
ough
tr
anspir
ati
on

3.Theyar
eforr
espi
rat
iont
hroughst
omat
awhi
chal
l
owsgasexchange

Fl
ower
s

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__Page35of35
 I
tist
her
epr
oduct
ivepar
toft
hepl
ant

Thest
ruct
ureoff
lower

I
tist
hegr
eeni
shl
eav
esatt
hebot
tom off
lower
.Itpr
otectupperpar
toft
hef
lower

Recept
acl
es

I
tthepar
tthatcar
ri
esal
ltheot
herupperpar
toft
hef
lower

Cor
oll
a

I
tismadeupofpet
alswhi
chat
tracti
nsectf
orpol
l
inat
ion

St
amen

I
tisar
ingt
hatf
ormst
hemal
epar
toft
hef
lower
.

Pi
sti
l

I
tist
hef
emal
epar
toft
hef
lower

ESSENTI
ALPLANTNUTRI
ENTS
Ni
tr
ogen

I
tisabsor
bedi
nfor
m ofni
tr
atei
onsandammoni
um i
ons

Funct
ions

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__Page36of36
 1.I
tusedi
nfor
mat
ionofpr
otei
ninpl
ant
s

2.I
tispar
tofchl
orophy
llmol
ecul
e

3.I
tencour
agesr
api
dveget
ati
vegr
owt
h

4.I
tregul
ateav
ail
abi
l
ityofphosphor
usandpot
assi
um,

5.I
tmakespl
ant
ssuccul
entwi
thdeepgr
eencol
our

6.I
tincr
easest
hesi
zesandy
iel
dofcer
eal
seed

Sour
ceofni
tr
ogen

1.Far
myar
dmanur
e

2.I
nor
gani
cfer
ti
li
serl
i
keCan,
urea

3.Fi
xat
ionbyni
tr
if
icat
ionbact
eri
a

4.Fi
xat
ionbyl
i
ght
ing

Howi
slostf
rom t
hesoi
l

1.Soi
ler
osi
on

2.Dr
ainage(
leachi
ng)

3.Vol
ati
l
isat
ion

4.Pl
antabsor
pti
on

5.Usebymi
croor
gani
sm t
obui
l
dthei
rbodi
es

Def
ici
encysi
gns

1.Leav
eloseschl
orophy
llandbecomey
ell
ow

2.Sl
owpl
antgr
owt
h

3.Pr
emat
urel
eaff
all
insev
erecases

4.Pr
oduct
ionofot
herpi
gment

Si
gnandsy
mpt
omsExcessni
tr
ogen

1.Excesssuccul
ence

2.Weakeni
ngofst
emsandf
rui
ts

3.Scor
chi
ngofl
eav
es

4.Del
ayedpl
antmat
uri
ty

Phosphor
us

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ongst
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I
tisabsorbedi
nfor
m ofpri
maryor
thophosphat
ei H2PO4-)i
on( nlowpHandsecondar
y
-
2
or
thophosphat
eioninhi
gherpH(H2PO4 )

Funct
ionofphosphor
ous

1. I
tencour
agest
hef
ormat
ionoft
hesecondar
yroot
s

2.I
timport
anti
nvar
iousmet
abol
i
cpr
ocesssuchasphot
osy
nthesi
s,cel
ldi
vi
sionami
noaci
d
metabol
i
sm.

3.I
tspeeduppl
antmat
uri
ty

4.I
timpar
tsdi
seaser
esi
stancet
ocer
tai
ncr
ops

5.I
timpr
ovespl
antqual
i
tyespeci
ali
nfor
ageandcer
eal
s

6.I
tpr
eventpl
antl
odgi
ngbyst
rengt
heni
ngt
hest
rawi
ncer
eal
scr
ops

7.I
tisacomponentofnucl
eicaci
dwhi
chst
imul
atebl
oomi
ngandseedf
ormat
ion

Sour
ces

1.Soi
lor
gani
cmat
ter

2.Commer
cial
fer
ti
li
ser
sli
kesi
ngl
ephosphat
e,doubl
ephosphat
e

3.Or
gani
cmanur
e

4.Weat
her
ingofphosphat
erocks

Def
ici
encysi
gns

1.Lackofbr
anchi
ngi
nroot
s

2.Lat
eral
budr
emai
ndomi
nant

3.Tuber
sofcr
opsar
esmal
landf
ew

4.St
unt
edgr
owt
h

5.Deadar
easonf
rui
tsandl
eav
es

6.Leav
eshav
epur
pli
shcol
our

7.Del
ayedmat
uri
tyofcr
ops

Fat
e

1.Soi
ler
osi
on

2.Leachi
ng

3.Cr
opr
emov
alFi
xat
ionbyi
ronandal
umi
nium oxi
de

Pot
assi
um

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I
tisabsor
bedi
nfor
m ofpot
assi
um i
on

Uses

1.i
tusei
nmet
abol
i
sm ofni
tr
ogenandsy
nthesi
sofpr
otei
n

2.i
treducesl
odgi
ngofpl
ant
sbr
oughtbyexcessni
tr
ogeni
nthesoi
lbyst
rengt
hent
he
cel
lul
ose

3.I
tnecessar
yfort
hef
ormat
ionofbot
hchl
orophy
llandst
arch

4.I
tregul
atet
heuseofot
heressent
ial
pantnut
ri
ent
s

5.I
thel
ppl
antt
oresi
stdi
seasesl
i
kepowder
ymi
l
dewandr
ootr
ot

6.I
tregul
atet
heopeni
ngandcl
osi
ngofst
omat
a

7.Pr
omot
ethegr
owt
hofmer
ist
em t
ict
issues

8.I
timpr
ovet
hequal
i
tyofcr
opsespeci
all
yfr
uit
sandv
eget
abl
essoi
l

Sour
ces

1.I
nor
gani
cfer
ti
li
ser
sli
kemur
iat
eofpot
ash,
pot
assi
um sul
phat
eandpot
assi
um ni
tr
ate

2.Or
gani
cmanur
e

3.Pot
ashr
ock

Fact
ort
hataf
fectav
ail
abi
l
ityofpot
assi
um i
nthesoi
l

1.Temper
atur
e.i
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
eincr
easet
heexchangeofpot
assi
um

2.Soi
lmoi
stur
e:i
ncr
easesi
nmoi
stur
econt
entaf
fectt
heexchangeofpot
assi
um

3.Soi
lpH:
incr
easei
nsoi
lPHmakepot
assi
um t
obef
ixed

4.Ty
peofsoi
lcol
l
oids:
itf
ixedi
ncl
ayssoi
l
s

Fat
e

1.Leachi
ng

2.Adsor
pti
on

3.Soi
ler
osi
on

4.Absor
pti
onbypl
ant
ssoi
ler
osi
on

Def
ici
encysi
gn

1.Scor
chi
ng(
bur
nt)ofl
eav
emar
gin

2.Thel
eav
ehav
esmal
ldot
s

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etbel
ongst
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 3.Weakst
alkr
esul
ti
ngi
nhi
ghpl
antl
odgi
ng

4.Leav
esmaycur
l

5.Smal
lfr
uit
sandt
uber
s

6.Pr
emat
urel
eav
efal
l

7.Leav
esmayt
urny
ell
owandl
osechl
orophy
ll

Cal
ci
um

I
tisabsor
bedi
nfor
m ofcal
cium i
ons

Uses

1.I
tisnecessar
yint
hesy
nthesi
sofpr
otei
n

2.I
tisacomponentof t
hecel
lwal
l

3.I
tmakepot
assi
um andphosphor
ust
obeav
ail
abl
eint
hesoi
lsi
ncei
trai
sessoi
lpH

4.Necessar
yforcel
ldi
vi
sionandel
ongat
ionofapi
cal
tipsandshootsy
stem

5.I
tisusedinfor
mat
ionofmi
ddl
elamel
l
aeandi
ncr
easet
hepr
otei
ncont
enti
n
mit
ochondri
a

Sour
ces

1.I
nor
gani
cfer
ti
li
serl
i
keCAN

2.Agr
icul
tur
eli
me

3.Weat
her
ingofcal
cium r
ock

4.Or
gani
cmanur
e

5.Cr
opr
esi
dues

Fat
e

1.Cr
opr
emov
al

2.Leachi
ng

3.Soi
ler
osi
on

4.Leachi
ng

Def
ici
encysi
gn

1.Ter
minal
budandr
oott
ipsf
ail
togr
ow

2.I
nmai
zet
hef
unnel
fai
ltounf
old

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etbel
ongst
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 3.Ter
minal
buddi
e

4.Pr
emat
uresheddi
ngoff
lowerandbuds

Magnesi
um

I
tisabsor
bedi
nfor
m ofmagnesi
um i
on

Uses

1.I
tisacomponentofchl
orophy
ll

2.Act
ivat
eenzy
mei
nthemet
abol
i
sm ofcar
bohy
drat
esandni
tr
ogen

3.I
ncr
easeoi
lcont
entngr
oundnut
sandsoy
abeans

Sour
ces

1.I
nor
gani
cfer
ti
li
ser
s

2.Or
gani
cmanur
e

3.Dol
omi
ti
cli
me

4.Weat
her
ingofmagnesi
um r
ock

Fat
e

1.Pl
antabsor
pti
on

2.Soi
ler
osi
on

3.Leachi
ng

Def
ici
encysi
gn

1.I
nter
venechl
orosi
sofl
eav
es

2.Lat
erl
eav
ebecomepal
eyel
l
owandev
ent
ual
l
ydi
e

3. I
nsomecr
opsl
i
kecot
tonl
eav
edev
elopsar
eddi
shpur
plecol
our

Sul
phur

I
tisabsor
bedi
nfor
m ofsul
phat
eions

Uses

1.I
ncr
easest
heoi
lcont
entofoi
lcr
op

2.I
tconst
it
uentofami
noaci
dorni
tr
ogenf
ixat
ion

3.I
tact
ivat
ephot
oly
ticenzy
mese.
g.papai
n

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etbel
ongst
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 4.Usedi
nnodul
efor
mat
ioni
nlegumesr
oot
sfi
xat
ion

5.I
tusei
npr
otei
nsy
nthesi
s

Sour
ces

1.I
nor
gani
cfer
ti
li
ser

2.Oxi
dat
ionofsul
phi
dei
nsoi
lmi
ner
al

3.Rai
nwat
er

4.At
mospher
icsul
phurf
rom i
ndust
ri
es

Fat
e

1.Pl
antabsor
pti
on

2.Soi
ler
osi
on

3.Vi
tal
i
sat
ionsi
nfor
m ofhy
drogensul
phi
degas

4.Leachi
ng

Def
ici
encysi
gns

1.Leav
est
urnl
i
ghtgr
eenst
art
ingwi
thy
oungl
eav
es

2.Smal
landshor
tpl
antwi
tht
hinst
ems

3.Reducednodul
ati
oni
nlegumes

I
ron

I
tisabsor
bedbypl
ant
srootasf
err
ousi
onsorasf
err
ici
on

Funct
ion

1.Necessar
yforf
ormat
ionofchl
orophy
ll

2.Act
ivat
evar
iousr
espi
rat
oryenzy
mes

Sour
ces

1.I
nor
gani
cfer
ti
li
ser

2.Or
gani
cmat
ter

Fat
e

1.Soi
ler
osi
on

2.Leachi
ngi
naci
dicsoi
l

3.Fi
xat
ioni
ntoi
nsol
ubl
efor
m

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ongst
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Def
ici
encysi
gn

1.I
nter
vei
nal
chl
ori
sis

2.Youngl
eav
escant
urncompl
etel
ywhi
tei
nsev
erecases

3.Twi
gsst
opgr
owi
ng

Bor
on

I
tisabsor
bedasbor
atei
ons

Funct
ion

1.Essent
ial
forcel
ldi
vi
sioni
nmer
ist
em t
ict
issues

2.Regul
atescar
bohy
drat
esmet
abol
i
sm

3.I
mpor
tanti
ntr
ansf
erofsugarwi
thi
npl
ant
s

Sour
ces

I
nor
gani
cfer
ti
li
serl
i
keNPK

Or
gani
cmanur
e

Fat
e

Soi
ler
osi
on

Leachi
ng

Def
ici
encysi
gns

1.Poorgr
owt
handsomet
imest
ermi
nal
buddi
e

2.Shor
teni
ngofi
nter
nodes

3.Poorgr
ainf
il
li
ngonmai
zecobs

4.Sof
tornecr
oti
cspotonf
rui
tsort
uber
s

Manganese

I
tisabsor
bedi
nfor
m ofmanganbesi
on

Funct
ion

Act
ivat
eandact
sasacat
aly
stsi
nfor
mat
ionofchl
orophy
ll