Lecture 2

Artificial Intelligence
What is artificial intelligence?

 Attempt to “mimic” human intelligence?
o One approach: capture human expert intelligence so the machine
evaluates and responds as the human would.
 Make a machine act intelligently
o make rational decisions (within a limited problem domain)
o model human thought processes
o function using mathematical reasoning
 Learning–required for intelligence?
 Perceptions: vision is very difficult. Limited sensors are easy.
 Fuzzy definition: “We know it when we see it.”
Turing Test
 Artificial intelligence (AI)
o Explores techniques for incorporating aspects of intelligence into
computer systems
 Turing test
o A test for intelligent behavior of machines
o Allows a human being to interrogate two entities, both hidden from the
interrogator
 A human being
 A machine (a computer)
o If the interrogator is unable to determine which entity is the human
being and which is the computer, the computer has passed the test
 Artificial intelligence can be thought of as constructing computer models of
human intelligence
The Turing Test
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Intelligence
 If a human’s behavior can be perfectly modeled with an artificial device does
that mean that
o the device is intelligent? OR people are biomechanical machines after
all?
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A Division of Labor
 Categories of tasks
o Computational tasks
o Recognition tasks
o Reasoning tasks
 Computational tasks
o Tasks for which algorithmic solutions exist
o Computers are better (faster and more accurate) than human beings
 Recognition tasks
o Sensory/recognition/motor-skills tasks
o Human beings are better than computers
 Reasoning tasks
o Require a large amount of knowledge
o Human beings are far better than computers
Human and Computer Capabilities
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Problem Solving and Complex Algorithms
Classic Traveling Salesman Problem
 A salesman must travel to visit
clients in many cities, each
separated geographically.
 Objective: to find the best order
of cities to visit that minimizes
the number of miles traveled.
o Very difficult for large
numbers of cities.
o “Exponential Explosion”
 Problem is easy for small
numbers of cities.
 Note how fast the number of
routes grow as cities are added.
(This is complexity analysis.)
 The relationship between the
number of cities and the number
of routes is factorial.
 Review: 4! is 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
Problems with algorithms that contain factorials

 Any algorithm that needs all combinations need factorials
 This table shows how “bad” factorial problems get even with small numbers
of n.
 Imagine how large 1000! must be, or 1 million factorial.
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 These problems take too much time to be practical without intelligent
shortcuts.
Combinatorial Explosion
Game Playing
 Game playing is a useful environment for testing and experimenting
o Limited, controlled possibilities
o Finite number of states
o Fixed rules that govern play or actions in the artificial world
 Excellent testing/learning/teaching ground for AI concepts and ideas
 Chess, checkers, other games have been largely explored
 Note that the best computer chess programs still use the searching power of
the computer to find better moves than a human will find using our experience
and insight. They are modified with insights about how humans play.
Harder Games
 In “easy” games like chess and checkers, each player may move only one
piece per turn.
 The computer can “look ahead” many turns in advance to try to find the best
move.
 Imagine a game where:
o Each player can move not one, but two game pieces in each turn.
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o Each piece can move to any of three different locations on the board.
o The player’s first piece can move to any of three locations. The second
piece can move to any of three locations as well. For each first-piece
move, there are three second-piece moves: 9 combinations.
 moves_per_piece number_of_pieces
 32 = 9 possible moves in just one turn
An Even Harder Game

 Imagine a game where
o Each player can move 10 pieces in each turn.
o Each piece can move to any of 10 different locations on the board.
 moves_per_piece number_of_pieces
 1010 = possible moves in just one turn
 10,000,000,000 = 10 billion combinations of moves in for just the
first player.
o The second player can make the same number of moves in response to
the first player’s moves.
 1010 ×1010 moves = 1020
Actual “Hard” Games

 There are military/historical games/simulations where:
o Each commander may have 100-200 units to move in each turn.
o Each unit can move to any of 100 (or more) different locations on the
game map.
o There are on the order of 100100 ×100100 moves in one game turn (both
players move).
 Brute force methods “die” in this type of game/simulation.
 Artificial intelligence that at least mimics human intelligence is needed.
Modeling the World

 For many problems, the key insight is the decision about how to represent the
world–the data structure.
 The choice of data structure and the logic of operating on that structure will
determine the performance of the AI routines (measured by how long it takes
to make a decision, and by how effective it is at finding a solution).
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Machine Learning
 One definition of intelligence: the agent is able to learn
o from experience.
o to extrapolate and generalize rules about how the world works.
 Difficult problem, but limited success in a few areas:
o Expert systems
o Artificial neural networks
Applications of Machine Learning - Expert systems

 Capture human reasoning abstractly
 1970s-80s
 Computer runs a program that computes using captured human intelligence.
 Successful in a variety of applications
o predict jury verdicts
Neural Networks
 A network of nerve cells with many connections among cells
 Artificial networks order the nerve cells into a regular structure.
 When one cell fires (changes state), it sends a signal to other cells (which may
then also change state).
 “Knowledge” is stored in the aggregate connections between the cells and in
the internal requirements for each cell to fire.
 Time to allow cells to fire and feedback and cycle
Fuzzy Logic
 Humans have an innate ability to reason with probabilities.
 In our world, events and timing are uncertain, but have a chance of occurring
within a time window.
 Fuzzy logic allows reasoning with pieces of information that are not facts, but
rather probabilities of some event or situation.
 Logic rules are extended to allow conclusions to be drawn with some
“confidence” or likelihood (or probability).
 Humans are used to this type of thinking and do it naturally.
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Lecture 2

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Artificial Intelligence

What is artificial intelligence?

The Turing Test

Human and Computer Capabilities

Problems with algorithms that contain factorials

An Even Harder Game

Actual “Hard” Games

Modeling the World

Applications of Machine Learning - Expert systems

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