GENERAL OBJECTIVES FOR STUDENTS

1. Understand research and research process

2. Understand scientific approach to research
3. Understand the research problem
4. Understand the variables in research work
5. Understand how to review literature
6. Conceptual and theoretical framework
7. Know how to design research (Methodology)
8. Know sample and sampling techniques
9. Understand the tools and techniques of data collection
10. Understand the tools and techniques use in data analysis
11. Know how to report research findings

NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH

When listening to the radio, watching the' television or reading a daily newspaper it is
difficult to avoid the term ‘research’. The results of ‘research’ are all around us. A debate
about the findings of a recent poll of people’s opinions inevitably includes a discussion of
‘research’, normally referring to the way in which the data were collected. Politicians often
justify their policy decisions on the basis of ‘research’. Newspaper report the findings of
research companies’ surveys. Documentary programs tell us about ‘research! findings’, and
advertisers may highlight the ‘results of research’ to encourage you to buy a particular!
product or brand. However, we believe that what these examples really emphasize is the wide
range of meanings given to the term ‘research’ in everyday speech.

Saunders - Lewis, and Thornhill (2009) argue that many of these everyday uses of the term
‘research’ are not research in the true meaning of the word. As part of this, he highlights
ways in which the term is used wrongly:
• Just collecting facts or information with no clear purpose;
• Reassembling and reordering facts or information without interpretation;
• As a term to get your product or idea noticed and respected.

NATURE OF RESEARCH IN MANAGEMENT AND BUSINESS

As a manager, you will have to make several decisions each day at work. What would help
you to make the right decisions? Will it be your experience on the job, your sixth sense or
hunch, or will you just hope for good luck? For sure, all of these will play a part after you
have thoroughly investigated or researched the problem situation and generated some
alternative solutions to choose from. Whether or not managers realize it, they are constantly
engaged in research as they try to find solutions to the day- to-day problems, big and small,
that confront them at work.

Creswell (2012) argue that four things combine to make business and management a
distinctive focus for research:
 ■ The fact that managers tend to be powerful and busy people. Therefore, they are
unlikely to allow research access unless they can see personal or commercial
advantages.
■ The fact that managers are educated. Many now have undergraduate and
postgraduate degrees and, as such, tend often to be as well educated as those conducting
research about them.,
■ The requirement for the research to have some practical consequence. This means it
either needs to contain the potential for taking some form of action or needs to take
account of the practical ' consequences of the findings.
■ The way in which managers (and researchers) draw on knowledge developed by
other disciplines;
MEANING OF RESEARCH
The modern technology has made research an exciting and a relatively smooth process.
Today a personal computer with a modem or any means to an Internet connection places one
within easy reach of knowledge of what is happening in the global markets and how the
world economy is impacting on business!

Business research can be described as a systematic and organized effort to investigate a

specific problem encountered in the work setting that needs a solution. It comprises a series
of steps designed and executed, with the goal of finding answers to the issues that are of
concern to the manager in the work environment. This means that the first step in research is
to know where the problem areas exist in the organization, and to identify as clearly and
specifically as possible the problems that need to be studied and resolved. Once the problem
that needs attention is clearly defined, and then steps can be taken to gather information,
analyze the data, and determine the factors that are associated with the problem and solve it
by taking the necessary corrective measures (U. Sekaran & Bougie, 2010).

This entire process by which we attempt to solve problems is called research. Thus, research
inyolves a series of well-thought-out and carefully executed activities' that will enable the
manager to know how organizational problems can be solved, or at least considerably
minimized. Research thus encompasses < the processes of inquiry, investigation, examination,
and experimentation. These processes have to be carried out systematically, diligently,
critically, objectively, and logically. The expected end results would bej the discovery that
will help the manager to deal with the problem situation.

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Research is defined as an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific
inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding
answers or solutions to it. In essence, research provides, the needed information that guides
managers to make informed decisions to successfully deal with problems. The information
provided could be the result of a careful analysis of data gathered firsthand or of data that are
already available (in the company, industry, archives, etc.). Data can be quantitative (as
generally gathered through structured questions) or qualitative (as generated from the inroad
answers to specific questions in interviews, or from responses to open-ended questions in a
questionnaire, or through observation, or from already available information gathered from
various sources) ( Sekaran & Bougie, 2013).

Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue. At a general level, research consists of three steps: '
1. Pose aj question. .
2. Collect data to answer the question.

3. Present an answer to the question.

SIX STEPS OF RESEARCH

Today, these steps provide the foundation for research. Although not all studies include
predictions, you engage in these steps whenever you undertake a research study, the process
of research consists of six steps:
1. Identifying a research problem
2. Reviewing the literature
3. Specifying a purpose for research
4. Collecting data
5. Analyzing and interpreting the data
6. Reporting and evaluating research

PROBLEM DEFINITION

After the interviews and the literature review, the researcher is in a position to narrow down
the problem from its original broad base and define the issues of concern more clearly. It is
critical that the focus of further research, or in other words, the problem, be unambiguously
identified and defined. No amount of good research can find solutions to the situation, if the
critical issue or the problem to be studied is not clearly pinpointed.

A problem does not necessarily mean that something is seriously wrong with a current
situation that needs to be rectified immediately. A “problem” could simply indicate an
interest in an issue where finding the right answers might help to improve an existing
situation. Thus, it is fruitful to define a problem as any situation where a gap exists
between the actual and the desired ideal states.

Problem definition or problem statement, as it is also often referred to, is a clear, precise,
and brief statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding
an answer or solution. As mentioned-earlier, problem definitions could pertain to; (1) existing
business problems where /a manager is looking for a solution, (2) situations that may not pose
any current problems but which the manager feels have scope for improvement, (3) areas
where some conceptual clarity" is needed for better theory building, or (4) situations in which
a researcher is trying to answer a research question empirically because of interest in the
topic. The first two fall within the realm of applied research, and the latter two under basic
research (Saunders et al., 2009).
COMMON RESEARCHED AREAS IN BUSINESS & MARKETING

1. Employee attitudes such as job satisfaction, loyalty, and organizational commitment.

2. Supervisory performance, managerial leadership style, and performance appraisal
systems.
3. Employee selection, recruitment, training, and retention.
4. Strategy formulation and implementation.
5. Just-in-time systems, continuous-improvement strategies, and production
efficiencies.

6. Organizational outcomes such as increased sales, market share, profits, growth, and
effectiveness.
7. Brand loyalty, product life cycle, and product innovation.
8. Consumer complaints.
9. Competitive strategies such as cost leadership, differentiation, focus
10. Growth strategy such as market penetration, market development, product
development and diversification.
11. Employee behaviors such as performance, absenteeism, and turnover.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
There are two main type of research; these are;
1. Applied research
2. Basic research

Applied Research is to solve a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting,
demanding a timely solution. For example, a particular product may not be selling well and
the manager might want to find the reasons for this in order to take corrective action.

Basic Research is to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain

problems that occur in Organizations can be solved.
The differences between purpose of types of research
Applied Research Basic Research
Purposes Purposes
Improve understanding of specific Expand knowledge of processes of business and
organizational problems marketing
Create solution to organizational problems Develop universal principles relating to
processes and outcomes
Develop findings of practical relevance to Produce findings of significance value to
organizational stakeholders society in general
Undertake by people based in a settings Undertaken by people based in universities
including variety of university and
organization
Flexible time scale Tight time scale
Adopted from Sunders et al. (2009)
Organizational research is not easy option, there is no single subject called organizational
research. It draws upon fields of inquiry such as sociology, anthropology, philosophy,
communication, economics and statistics. This often means having to adopt an inter-
disciplinary approach, incorporating ideas and approaches from a diverse range of subject
backgrounds. Secondly, organizations are complex and the people working within them very
busy, making it often difficult for the researcher to gain access to the people that can provide
information.

WHY IS RESEARCH VERY IMPORTANT TO MANAGERS AND

PROFESSIONALS?
1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.
2. Know how to discriminate good from bad research.
3. Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple influences and multiple effects of
factors impinging on a situation.
4. Take calculated risks in decision making, knowing full well the probabilities
associated with the different possible outcomes.
5. Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence in a situation.
6. Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.
7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions
Variable
A variable is anything that can take on differing varying values. The values can differ at
various times for the same object or person, or at the same time different objects or persons.
Example of variables are production units, absenteeism and motivation.
For Example; Production units: One worker in the manufacturing department may produce
one widget per minute, a second might produce two per minute, a third might produce five
per minute. It is also possible that the same member could produce one widget the first
minute, and five the next minute. In both cases, the number of widgets produced has taken on
different values, and is therefore a variable.

. .
TYPES OF VARIABLES
There are four main types of variables;
1. The dependent variable (also known as the criterion variable).
2. The independent variable (also known as the predictor' variable).
3. The moderating variable.
4. The intervening variable.

For the purpose of this course we will only focus on the first two

Dependent variable

The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher’s
goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or
predict it. In order words, it is the main variable that lends itself for investigation as a viable
factor. Though the analysis of the dependent variable (i.e. findings what variables influence
it), it is possible to find answers or solutions to the problem. For this purpose, the
researcher will be interested in quantifying and measuring the dependent variable, as well as
the other variables that influence this variable (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010).

Example; A manager is concerned that the sales of a new product introduced after test
marketing it do not meet with his expectations. The dependent 1 variable here is sales. Since
the sales of the product can vary: can be low, medium, or high it is a variable; since sales is
the main focus of interest to the manager, it is the dependent variable.

Independent Variable
An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or-
fnegative way. That is, when the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is

also present, and with each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or
decrease in the dependent variable also. In other words, the variance in the dependent
variable is accounted for by the independent variable.

Example; Research studies indicate that successful sales promotion has an influence on the
increase market share of the company. That is, the more successful the sales promotion turns
out to be, the higher will be the increase market share of that firm. Therefore,, the success of
the sales promotion is the independent variable, and increase market share the dependent
variable. The degree of perceived success of the sale promotion developed will explain the
variance in the increase market share of the company.

The diagram below showed the relationship between the independent variable (sales
promotion success) and dependent variable (increase market share).

SALES INCREASE
PROMOTION MARKET
SUCCESS SHARE

Independent variable Dependent variable

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Background of Study:
1.1 Problem Statement
1.2 Research Questions
1.3ResearCh Objectives
1.4 Significant of the Study
1.5 Scope of the Study
1.6 Definition of terms

1.0 Background of Study:

1. Start with a broad theme or topic of the study
2. Then explain the practical and/or academic importance of the topic
3. Next explain ‘what has been done? - support your discussions.
4. Then discuss ‘what has been found/understood?

1.1 Problem Statements

1. Often confused with background of the study or research problem...
2. To me the keyword is ‘statement’.... .
3. Therefore, PS should be stated either in the form of a concise problem statement or in a
form of a core research question

 Based on the previous discussions...

The main ‘purpose of this study was to investigate the factors that influence the alignment
between AIS. Requirements and AIS capacity and the impact of AIS alignment on the
performance of SMEs OR
 The core research question that guided this study can be stated as follows:
This study is attempted to answer the following ‘core research question:
“What are the factors that influence the alignment between AIS requirements and AIS
capacity and the impact of; AIS alignment on the performance of SMEs?
1.2 Research Questions
Based on- the potential factors identified from previous studies, which are deemed important
in the specific context of your study, you may also provide specific research questions.
Examples:
- What is the relationship between B and A?
- What is the factor that most influence A?
- What is the impact of A on Y?
RQs help formulate research objectives.

1.3 Research Objectives

Phrase in the form “to determine…” “to investigate..” to evaluate…”, to compare…”, and to
study.”
Should logically flow from the problem statement or core research
questions (...tome paving stated clearly RQs is already sufficient
without ROs). Examples:
- To determine the relationship between B and A.
- To identify factor that most influence A.
- To examine the impact of A on Y.

1.4 Significance of the Study

 Highlights the current study’s main contribution
 Often start with a clear, but concise statement of the core research problem to be
investigated and - research objectives
  Then explain the academic (theoretical) and/or practical importance of the possible
research findings.. .relate to the issues/problems discussed earlier. f

Example;
This study seeks to extend.............................by addressing the gaps in ........The study will
investigate the
impact of four '..............................(1) .........., (2)............., (3) ................, and (4) .................
In addition,
Interrelationships among ....................................are examined. Findings' from this study are
hoped...................(theoretical)......(practical).....

1.5 Scope of the Study

Clearly state the context- (e.g. industry, market,' geographic area) in which the study will
be conducted.
CHAPTER TWO—LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 The concept or definition of Dependent Variable
2.2 The Role/ important of the DV Toward Organizational development
2.3 Tire measurements of the DV
2.4 The Concept/ definition, of the Independent Variable
..
2.5 The Role of the IV
2.6 The Measurements of the IV
2.-7 Theory Development; Resource Based View (RBV) or Dynamic Capabilities View
(DCV)
2.8 The Relationship between IV and DV--------and 2.8.1 Develop Hypothesis.
2.9 Summary

LITERATURE SURVEY
Literature: survey is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and
unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the
researcher. The library is a rich storage base for secondary data, and researchers used' to
spend several weeks and sometimes months going through books, journals, newspapers,
magazines, conference proceedings, doctoral dissertations, master’s theses, government
publications, and financial, marketing, and other reports, to find information on their research
topic. With computerized databases now readily available and accessible, the literature search
is much speedier and easier, and can be done without entering the portals of a library building
(David,2004).

A good literature survey thus ensures that:

1. Important variables that are likely to influence the problem situation are not left out of the
study.
2. A clearer idea emerges as to what variables would be most important to consider
(parsimony), they would be considered important, and how, they should be investigated to
solve the problem. Thus, the literature survey helps the development of the theoretical
framework and hypotheses for testing.
3. The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity.
4. Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced.
5. One does not run the risk of “reinventing the, wheel” that is, wasting efforts on trying to
rediscover something that is already known.
6. The problem investigated is perceived by the scientific community as relevant and
significant.

What is Contribution to the Knowledge?

Different types of contribution/gap:
-Conceptual contribution/gap
--Empirical contribution/gap
-Methodological contribution/gap.

 Conceptual Gap; Improved conceptual-definitions of the original construct

“Identification and conceptual definition of additional’ construct(s) to be added to the
conceptual framework (e.g. additional dependent, independent, mediating/moderating
variables)
 Development of additional theoretical linkages (i.e. Research hypotheses) with their
accompanying rationale
 Development of improved theoretical rationale for existing linkages

o Empirical Gap; Testing a theoretical linkage between two constructs that has not been
previously tested
o Examining the effects of a potential moderator variable on the nature of the relationship
between two constructs
o Determining the degree to which a variable mediates the relationship between two
constructs
o Investigating the psychometric properties of an important scale.

 Methodological Gap; Reduce the potential problems with shared method variance
through the insightful use of multiple methods of measurements
 Increase the generalize ability of the research through more appropriate sampling
procedures
 Enhance the construct validity of key measures through the use of refined multiple-item
measures and/or use of measurement approaches that do not rely on self-reports.
Finding appropriate literature
Start with the leading journals

Go backward by reviving the citations for the articles identified in step 1 to determine prior
articles to consider.

Go forward by using the citation index (e.g. Scopus citation index www.scopus.com) to
identify articles citing the key articles identified in the previous steps.

Synthesizing definitions
Are there distinguishable “school of thought” on the topic? If so, what do they have in
common and how do they differ?'
'
Have there been changes over time in the way in which a particular construct is defined?
What are the main communities and differences between the existing definitions of a
construct?

Synthesizing List of Attributes, Factors or Criteria

■ You can provide a comparative summary in table format to show which aspects in
the different lists are the same and which aspects differ, or
■ You can also try to group the individual attributes, factors, or criteria into higher-
level dimensions to form groups of individual elements that together measure some
underlying higher- level construct.
Opposing Viewpoints on Specific Issue
■ Where appropriate one1 should also indicate which specific perspective you support
and motivate why.

■ Thus, it is important to clearly explain the nature of and differences between the
opposing perspectives, and
■ Different authors often have different points of view on the same issue
CHAPTER THREE-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1. Introduction
1.1 Theoretical Framework/Conceptual Model
1.2 Research Design
1.2.1 Qualitative or Quantitative (Exploratory or Descriptive)
1.3 Population and Sampling
1.3.1 Sampling Techniques
1.4 Data Collection Processes
1.4.1 Cross Sectional or Longitudinal
1.5 Unit bf Analysis (Individual, Group or Organization)
1.6 Operationalization/ Measurement of Variables
1.7 Data Analysis
1.7.1 Techniques of Data Analysis (SPSS, PLS, Econo-matrix, etc.)
1.8 Summary

THE NEED FOR THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

After conducting the interviews, completing a literature survey, and defining the problem,
one is ready to develop a theoretical framework. A theoretical frame- work is a conceptual
model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among the several
factors that have been identified as important to the problem. This theory flows logically
from, the documentation of previous research in the problem area. Integrating one’s logical
beliefs with published research, taking into consideration the boundaries and constraints
governing the situation, is pivotal in developing a scientific basis for investigating the
research problem. In sum, the theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among
the variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being
investigated. Developing such a conceptual framework helps us to postulate or hypothesize
and test certain relationships and thus to improve our understanding of the dynamics of the
situation (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013).

From the; theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can be developed to examine
whether the theory formulated is valid or not. The hypothesized relationships can thereafter
be tested through appropriate statistical analyses. By being able to test and replicate the
findings, we will also have stronger conviction in the rigor of our research. Thus, the entire
research rests on the basis of the theoretical framework. Even if testable hypotheses are not
necessarily generated (as in some, applied research projects), developing a good theoretical
framework is central to examining the problem under investigation.
.
j.

Since the theoretical framework offers the conceptual foundation to proceed with the
research, and since a theoretical framework is none other than identifying the network of
relationships among the variables considered important to the study of any given problem
situation, it is essential to understand what a variable means and what the different types of
variables are.

THE RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design, which involves a series of rational decision-making choices, with
regards to issues relating to decisions on the purpose of, the study (exploratory, descriptive,
hypothesis testing), its location (i.e., the study setting) the type it should conform to (type of
investigation), the level at which data will be analyzed (unit of analysis), type of sample to
used (sampling design), how data will be collected (data collection method), how variables
will be measured (measurement), and how they will be analyzed to test the hypotheses (data
analysis). All these processes should be discussed in this chapter (three)

Exploratory Study
An exploratory study is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand, or
no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in
the past. In such cases," extensive preliminary work needs to be done to gain familiarity with
the phenomena in the situation, and understand what is occurring, before we develop a model
and set up a rigorous design for comprehensive investigation.

Some qualitative studies (as opposed to quantitative data gathered through questionnaires,
etc.) where, data are collected through observation or interviews are exploratory in nature.
When the data reveal some pattern regarding the phenomena of interest, theories are
developed and hypotheses formulated for subsequent testing. For example, Henry, Mintzberg
interviewed managers to explore the nature of managerial work. Based on the analysis of his
interview data, he formulated theories of managerial roles, the nature and types of managerial
activities, and so on.

Descriptive Study
A descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the
characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation. For instance, a study of a class in
terms of the percentage of members who are in their senior and junior years, sex composition,
age groupings, number of semesters left until graduation, and number of business courses
taken, can be. considered as descriptive in nature. Quite frequently, descriptive studies are
undertaken in organizations to learn about and describe the characteristics of a group of
employees, as for example, the age, educational level, job status, and length of serviced
The goal; of a descriptive study, hence, is to offer to the researcher a profile or to describe
relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from an individual, organizational, industry-
oriented, or other perspective. In many cases, such information 1 may be vital before even
considering certain corrective steps, as for example: Should the organization consider
changing its practices?

Data Collection
Cross Section studies
A study can be done in which data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or
weeks or months, in order to answer a research question. Such studies are called one-shot or
cross-sectional studies.

Longitudinal Studies
In some cases, however, the researcher might want to study people or phenomena at more
than one point in time in order to answer the research question. For instance, the researcher
might want to study employees’ behavior before and after a change in the top management,
so as to know what effects the change accomplished. Here, because data are gathered at two
different points in time, the study is not cross-sectional or of the one-shot kind, but is carried
longitudinally across a period of time
POPULATION
Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or, things of interest that the
researcher wishes to investigate. For instance, if the CEO of a computer firm wants to know
the kinds of advertising strategies adopted by computer firms in the Silicon Valley, then all
computer firms situated there will be the population. If an organizational consultant is
interested in studying the effects of a 4 day workweek on the white-collar workers in a
telephone company in Southern Illinois, then all white-collar workers in that company will
make up the population.

Sample
A is a subset of the population. It comprises some members selected from it. In other words,
some, but not all, elements of the population would form the sample. If 200 members are
drawn from a population of 1,000 blue-collar workers, these 200 members form the sample
for the study. A sample is thus a subgroup or subset of the population. By studying the
sample, the researcher should be able to draw conclusions that would be generalizable to the
population of interest.

SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the 1 population, so
that a study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or characteristics would
make it possible for us to generalize such properties, or characteristics to the population
elements. The characteristics of the population such as p (the population mean), a (the
population standard deviation), and o2 (the population variance) are referred to as its
parameters.

Reasons for Sampling

The reasons for using a sample, rather than collecting data from the entire population, are
self-evident. In research investigations involving' several hundreds and even thousands of
elements, it would be practically impossible to collect data from, or test, or examine every
element. Even if it were possible, "it would be prohibitive in terms of time, cost, and other
human resources. Study of a sample rather than the entire population is also sometimes likely
to produce more reliable results.

PROBABILITY AND NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

There are two major types of sampling designs: probability and non probability sampling. In
probability sampling, the elements in the population have some known chance or probability
of being selected as sample subjects. In non probability sampling, the elements do not have a
known or predetermined chance, of being selected as subjects. Probability sampling designs
are used when the representativeness of the sample is of importance in the interests of wider
generalizability. When time or other factors, rather than generalizability, become critical, non
probability sampling is generally used.

There are five most common complex probability-sampling designs

1. Systematic sampling (involves drawing every nth element starting chosen btw 1
and n)
 2. Stratified random sampling, (Proportionate & Disproportionate Strata. Sampling)
3. Cluster sampling (Groups or chunks of elements that are heterogeneity btw
members) p
4. Area sampling (Constitutes geographical clusters, e.g. countries, city or locality)
5. Doable sampling ■(sample is used and later subsample of the same sample is used
to examine, the matter in more details)

Proportionate and Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling. Once the population

has been stratified in some meaningful way, a sample of members from each stratum can be
drawn using either a simple random sampling or a systematic sampling procedure. The
subjects drawn from each stratum can be either proportionate or disproportionate to the
number of elements in the stratum. For instance, if an organization employs 10 top managers,
30 middle managers, 50 lower-level managers, 100 supervisors, 500 clerks, and 20
secretaries, and a stratified sample of about 140 people is needed for some specific survey,
the researcher might decide to include in the sample 20% of members from each stratum.
That is, members presented in the sample from each stratum will be proportionate to the total
number of elements it the respective strata. This would mean that 2 from the top, 6 from the
middle, and 10 from the lower levels of management would be included in the sample. In
addition, 20 supervisors, 100 clerks, and 4 secretaries will be represented in the sample,

SOURCES OF DATA
Data can be obtained from primary or secondary sources. Primary data refer to information
obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the
study. Secondary data refer to information gathered from sources-already existing, as
discussed in the literature survey. Some examples of sources of primary data are individuals,
focus groups, panels of respondents specifically set up by the researcher and from whom
opinions may be sought on specific issues from time to time, or some discreet sources such as
a trash can. The Internet could also serve as a primary data source when questionnaires are
administered over it.
Data can; also, be obtained from secondary sources, as for example, company records or
archives, government publications, industry analyses offered by the media, web sites, the
Internet, and so on. In some cases, the environment or particular settings and events may
themselves be sources of data, as for example, studying the layout of a plant.

Global business information, published articles in newspapers and periodicals, and

conference proceedings, among other sources, are all now available on databases.
Computerized databases include bibliographies, abstracts, and full texts of articles on various
business topics. Statistical and financial databases are also easily accessible. Computer
hardware and software enable the storage, updating, and display of information on global
activities. Economic indicators and other data for various countries can be tracked easily.

INTERVIEWING
One method of collecting data is to interview respondents to obtain information on the issues
of interest. Interviews could be unstructured or structured, and conducted either face to face
or by telephone or online.

Unstructured interviews are so labeled because the interviewer does not enter the interview
setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the respondent. The objective of
the unstructured interview is to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the
researcher can determine what variables need further in-depth investigation

Structured interviews are those conducted when it is known at the outset what information
is needed. The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be asked of the
respondents either personally, through the telephone, or through the medium of a PC. The
questions are likely to focus on factors that had surfaced during the unstructured interviews
and are considered relevant to the problem.

QUESTIONNAIRES
A questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents record their
answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives. Questionnaires are an efficient
data collection mechanism when the researcher knows exactly what is required and how to
measure the variables of interest. Questionnaires can be administered personally, mailed to
the respondents, or electronically distributed
Type and Form of Questions
Type of question refers to whether the question will be open-ended or closed.
Form refers to positively and negatively worded questions.

Open-Ended versus Closed Questions

Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer them in any way they choose. An
example of an open-ended question is asking the respondent to state five things that are
interesting and challenging in the job. Another example is asking what the respondents like
about their supervisors or their work environment. A third example is to invite their
comments on the investment portfolio of the firm.

A closed question, in contrast, would ask the respondents to make choices among a set of
alternatives given by the researcher. For instance, instead of asking the respondent to state
any five aspects of the job that she finds interesting and challenging, the researcher might list
10 or 15 aspects that might seem' interesting or challenging in jobs and ask the respondents to
rank the first five among these in th6e order of their preference. All items in a questionnaire
using a nominal, ordinal, or Likert or ratio scale are considered closed.
Closed questions help the respondents to make quick decisions to choose among the several
alternatives before them. They also help the researcher to code the information easily for
subsequent analysis.

Positively and Negatively Worded Questions

Instead of phrasing all questions positively, it is advisable to include some negatively worded
questions as well, sp the tendency in respondents to mechanically circle the points toward one
end of the scale is minimized. For example, let us say that a set of six questions is used to tap
the variable “perceived success” on a 5-point scale, with 1 being “very low” and 5 being
“very high” on the scale.

OPERATIONALIZATION OF VARIABLES
Operationalizing, or operationally defining a concept to render it measurable, is done by
looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the concept. These are
then translated into observable and measurable elements so as to develop an index of
measurement of the concept.
Operationally defining a concept involves a series of steps.

An example; Let us try to operationally define achievement motivation, a concept of interest

to educators, managers, and students alike. What behavioral dimensions or facets or
characteristics would we expect to find in people with high achievement motivation? It is
possible to describe the behavior of a person who is driven by work. Such a person will (1) be
at work all the time, (2) be reluctant to take time off from work, and (3) persevere even in the
face of some setbacks. These types of behavior would lend themselves to measurement.
The degree of unwillingness to relax can be measured by asking persons such questions as (1)
how often do you think about work while you are away from the workplace? (2) what are
your hobbies? and (3) how do you spend your time when you are away from the workplace?

DATA ANALYSIS and TECHNIQUES OF DATA ANALYSIS

If data has been collected from a representative sample of the population, the next step is to
propose the techniques that will be use to analyze and test the research hypotheses.
j
Therefore; data analysis is now usually done with software programs such as SPSS, PLS,
ECONOMATRIX, E-VIEWS, SYSTAT, Excel, and the like. All are user-friendly and
interactive and have the capability to seamlessly interface with different databases. Excellent
graphs and charts can also be produced through most of these software programs (Hair,
Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010).

However, before analyzing the data to test hypotheses, some preliminary steps need to be
completed (Pallant, 21010). These help to ensure that the data are reasonably good and of
assured quality for further analysis. There are four steps in data analysis:
(1) Getting data ready for analysis
(2) Getting a feel for the data
(3) Testing the goodness of data '
(4) Testing the hypotheses.

REFERENCE AND CITATION

There are' several accepted methods of citing references in the literature survey section and
using quotations! The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association 6 th
edition offers detailed information regarding citations, quotations, references and so on, and
is one of the accepted styles of referencing in 'the management area. Other formats include
The Chicago Manual of Style (1993), and Turabian’s Manual for Writers (1996).

OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Online database such as;
Business and Industry Database
Guide to
Dissertation
Abstracts Guide
to Newspaper
Abstracts
Conference
Papers
Conference
Proceedings
Type and Form of Questions
Type of question refers to whether the question will be open-ended or closed.
Form refers to positively and negatively worded questions.

Open-Ended versus Closed Questions

Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer them in any way they choose. An
example of an open-ended question is asking the respondent to state five things that are
interesting and challenging in the job. Another example is asking what the respondents like
about their supervisors or their work
environment. A third example is to invite their comments on the investment portfolio of the
firm.

A closed question, in contrast, would ask the respondents to make choices among a set of
alternatives given by the researcher. For instance, instead of asking the respondent to state
any five aspects of the job that she finds interesting and challenging, the researcher might list
10 or 15 aspects that might seem' interesting or challenging in jobs and ask the respondents to
rank the first five among these in the order of their preference. All items in a questionnaire
using a nominal, ordinal, or Likert or ratio scale are considered closed. -
Closed questions help the respondents to make quick decisions to choose among the several
alternatives before them. They also help the researcher to code the information easily for
subsequent analysis.

Positively! and Negatively Worded Questions

Instead of phrasing all questions positively, it is advisable to include some negatively worded
questions as well, sp the tendency in respondents to mechanically circle the points toward one
end of the scale is minimized. For example, let us say that a set of six questions is used to tap
the variable “perceived success” on a 5-point scale, with 1 being “very low” and 5 being
“very high” on the scale.
OPERATIONALIZATION OF VARIABLES
Operationalizing, or operationally defining a concept to render it measurable, is done by
looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the concept. These are
then translated into observable and measurable elements so as to develop an index of
measurement of the concept.
Operationally defining a concept involves a series of steps.

An example; Let us try to operationally define achievement motivation, a concept of interest

to educators, managers, and students alike. What behavioral dimensions or facets or
characteristics would we expect to find in people with high achievement motivation? It is
possible to describe the behavior of a person who is driven by work. Such a person will (1) be
at work all the time, (2) be reluctant to take time off from work, and (3) persevere even in the
face of some setbacks. These types of behavior would lend themselves to measurement.
The degree of unwillingness to relax can be measured by asking persons such questions as (1)
how often do you think about work while you are away from the workplace? (2) what are
your hobbies? and (3) how do you spend your time when you are away from the workplace?

DATA ANALYSIS and TECHNIQUES OF DATA ANALYSIS

If data has been collected from a representative sample of the population, the next step is to
propose the techniques that will be use to analyze and test the research hypotheses.

Therefore; data analysis is now usually done with software programs such as SPSS, PLS,
ECONOMATRIX, E-VIEWS, SYSTAT, Excel, and the like. All are user-friendly and
interactive and have the capability to seamlessly interface with different databases. Excellent
graphs and charts can also be produced through most of these software programs (Hair,
Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010).

However, before analyzing the data to test hypotheses, some preliminary steps need to be
completed (Pallant, 21010). These help to ensure that the data are reasonably good and of
assured quality for further analysis. There are four steps in data analysis:
(1) Getting data ready for analysis
(2) Getting a feel for the data
(3) Testing the goodness of data '
(4) Testing the hypotheses.

REFERENCE AND CITATION

There are' several accepted methods of citing references in the literature survey section and
using quotations!. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association 6th
edition offers detailed information regarding citations, quotations, references and so on, and
is one of the accepted styles of referencing in 'the management area. Other formats include
The Chicago Manual of Style (1993), and Turabian’s Manual for Writers (1996).

OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Online database such as;
Business and Industry Database
Guide to Dissertation Abstracts
Guide to Newspaper Abstracts
Conference Papers
Conference Proceeding
Company Annual Reports www.reportgallery.com/bigaz.htm
CNN Financial Network http://cnnfn.com/index.html
Dow Jones Business Directory wvvw.Bus.inessdirectory.dowiones.com
Entrepreneur Forum http ://upside .master, com/forum
Entrepreneur’s Resources Center www.herring.com/erc
Harvard Business School Publishing wwwvhbsp.harvard.edu
Human Resources Management on the Internet

APA FORMAT FOR REFERENCING

A distinction has to be made between bibliography and references. A bibliography is the
listing of the work that is relevant to the main topic of research interest arranged in the
alphabetical order of the last names of the authors. A reference list is a subset of the
bibliography, which includes details of all the citations used in the literature survey and
elsewhere in the paper, arranged again, in the alphabetical, order of the last names of the
authors.
A distinction has to be made between bibliography and references. A bibliography is the
listing of the work that is relevant to the main topic of research interest arranged in
the .alphabetical order of the last names of the authors. A reference list is a subset of the
bibliography, which includes details of all the citations used in the literature survey and
elsewhere in the paper, arranged again, in the alphabetical order of the last names of the
authors.

Specimen Format for Referencing

Book by a single author
Leshin, C. B. (1997). Management on the World Wide Wef). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Flail.
Book by more than one author
Cornett, hf., Wiley, B.J., & Sankar, S. (1998). The pleasures of nurturing. London:
McMunster Publishing.
More than one book by the same author in the same year
Roy, A. (1998a) Chaos theory. New York: McMillian Publishing Enterprises.
Roy, A. (1998b). Classic chaos. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bamar.
Edited Book

Pennathurj A., Leong, F.T., & Schuster, K. (Eds). (1998). Style and substance of thinking.
New York Publishers Paradise.
Chapter in an Edited Book
Riley, T., &, Brecht, M.L. (1998). The success of the mentoring process. In R. Williams (Ed.)
Mentoring and career success, pp. 129-150. New York: Wilson Press.
Book ReView
Nichols, P (1998). A new look at Home Services [Review of the book Providing Home
Services to the Elderly by. Girch, S. Family Review Bulletin, 45, 12-13.
Journal Article
Jeanquart, S., & Peluchette, J. (1997). Diversity in the workforce and management
models. Journal of Social Work Studies, 43 (3), 72-85.