The Link Between

Violence to People
and Violence to
Animals
In recent years there has been
renewed interest in an idea
dating back centuries — that acts
of cruelty against animals can be a
sentinel indicator – and often a predictor
– of other forms of family and community
violence. Research has documented relationships
between childhood histories of animal cruelty and patterns of chronic interpersonal
aggression. Animals often become victims in the battles of power and control
that typically mark domestic violence. Animal abuse and neglect often indicate
situations of elders needing assistance. We call the areas where child maltreatment,
domestic violence, elder abuse and animal cruelty intersect “The Link.”

Today, knowledge of The Link informs many aspects of family and community
violence prevention. Research increasingly substantiates the interrelationships
of different forms of abuse, which are often committed by the same offenders.
Officials in child welfare, animal care and control, domestic violence and adult
protective services are coordinating their efforts. By transcending disciplinary
and institutional boundaries, collaborations ensure a more effective approach to
breaking the cycles of violence and protecting all vulnerable members of society.
 What Is The Link?
With a majority of homes having pets and with 98% of Americans considering pets
to be companions and family members, animal maltreatment does not occur in
isolation. Rather, animal abuse and neglect are often part of a complex constellation
of family dysfunction and a “red flag” for other violent behaviors.

Researchers in psychology, child “A growing body of evidence suggests

development, sociology, social work, that bonds formed or broken with
criminology, veterinary medicine, and
companion animals reverberate and
law are addressing the nature of violence
resonate across the lifespan.”
against two- and four-legged members
of the family. Key findings include: — Mary Renck Jalongo,
“The World’s Children and Their
• Where animal abuse or neglect has Companion Animals: Developmental
occurred, other forms of violence are and Educational Significance of the
often present, putting other family Child/Pet Bond.”
members at increased risk.

• Acts or threats of animal cruelty often coerce, control and intimidate women,
children and elders to be silent about their abuse, to prevent them from leaving,
and to force them to return.

• A child’s cruelty to animals may be an indicator that the child has suffered serious
neglect or abuse, and may lead to an increased likelihood of other violent behaviors
in childhood and adulthood.

• The presence of animal abuse in the home greatly increases the risk of adults and
children being bitten or attacked by pets.

Not all children who hurt animals become violent adults, and not all adult animal
abusers hurt their partners or children. However, including routine questions about
animals and their welfare in investigations and assessments can help social services,
law enforcement and court officials determine patterns of violence and risks to the
safety and well-being of all family members.
 Why is The Link Important?
Incorporating The Link into “He opened the car door and ordered my
policy and practice may enable daughter Christine to kick our dog Dusty out.
professionals to intervene earlier When she refused, he told her…she could watch
to detect and prevent abuse to
while he tortured and killed Dusty and dumped
children, animals and vulnerable
her off the side of the road, too. Then he said he
adults. To achieve this, it is
essential that communication and would come home and kill me and Christine
cooperation between humane would be left alone with him. He raped Christine
and human services agencies be her first night alone in our new home while I was
developed and enhanced. at work. She had just turned eight.”
— Marsha Millikin
Rather than compartmentalizing
“Life and Death Inside the Cycles of Violence”
these services, a collaborative,
interagency approach is more
effective when addressing victims
experiencing overlapping forms of
maltreatment.
 What Are the Implications
of The Link?
S o cial scientists and law When animals are abused, people are at risk;
enforcement agencies have when people are abused, animals are at risk.
begun to examine cruelty to Animal maltreatment must be viewed as a
form of family violence. Animal neglect,
animals as a serious human
abuse, cruelty, fighting, and hoarding:
problem closely linked to
domestic violence, child abuse, 1. Promote desensitization to violence.
elder abuse, and other violent 2. Damage a child’s development of
crimes. [These efforts] cannot empathy.
undo generations of abuse, but 3. Foster the idea that victims are
they can be an effective means expendable.
4. Harm the sense of safety of children,
of breaking the cycle of family
pets, and vulnerable adults.
violence from one generation to
5. Damage children’s sense of safety and
the next.” confidence in the ability of adults to
— International Association of protect them from harm.
Chiefs of Police 6. Lead to acceptance of physical harm
in supposedly loving relationships.
7. Foster a dynamic of inflicting pain,
suffering and humiliation to achieve
power and control.
8. Lead to imitation of abusive
behaviors.
9. Prevent survivors from leaving
abusive situations fearing what may
happen to their pets.
 Research Summary
Criminal penalties and prosecutions for animal cruelty, and interagency partnerships
addressing The Link, have dramatically increased. These changes have been motivated by
an emerging body of research in social science. Among the more significant findings:

The Link and Violent Crimes...

• Children’s acts of animal abuse are some of the strongest and earliest diagnostic
indicators of conduct disorder, often beginning as young as 6-1/2 years of age
(Ascione, 2001).
• 70% of animal abusers had criminal records including crimes of violence,
property, drugs, or disorderly behavior (Arluke & Luke, 1997).
• 50% of schoolyard shooters have histories of animal cruelty (Verlinden, Herson, &
Thomas, 2000).
• 35% of search warrants executed for animal abuse or dog fighting investiga-
tions resulted in seizures of narcotics or guns. 82% of offenders arrested for
animal abuse violations had prior arrests for battery, weapons or drug charges:
23% had subsequent arrests for felony offenses (Chicago Crime Commission, 2004).
• 31% of inner-city teens have attended a dog fight (Cleveland, 2006).
• Adults who keep vicious dogs are more likely to have been arrested for violent
crimes and drug- and property-related offenses (Barnes et al., 2006).
• 70% of people charged with cruelty to animals were known by police for other
violent behavior – including homicide (Boat & Knight, 2000).
• 61.5% of animal abuse offenders had also committed an assault; 17% had
committed sexual abuse; 8% had arson convictions. Animal abuse was a better
predictor of sexual assault than were previous convictions for homicide, arson
or firearms offenses. Animal cruelty offenders committed an average of four
different types of criminal offenses. All sexual homicide offenders reported
having been cruel to animals. Sexual assault, domestic violence and firearms of-
fenses featured prominently in cruelty offenders’ criminal histories (Clarke, 2002).
• 63% of aggressive criminals had deliberately inflicted harm on animals in
childhood (Schiff, Louw, & Ascione, 1999).
• Including a screening question about animal cruelty on a domestic violence
crisis line resulted in an 80% decrease in domestic violence homicides (Boat &
Knight, 2000).
• 48% of rapists and 30% of child molesters committed animal abuse in child-
hood or adolescence (Tingle, Barnard et al., 1986).
 Research Summary
The Link and Domestic Violence...
• A history of pet abuse is one of the four most significant indicators of who is at
greatest risk of becoming a batterer (Walton-Moss et al., 2005).
• Twelve studies have reported that 18% to 48% of battered women delay leav-
ing abusive situations out of fear for the safety of their animals (Ascione, 2007).
• 71% of battered women said their partners harmed, killed or threatened pets.
75% of these incidents occurred in the presence of the women to control them.
13% said their children had hurt pets. (Ascione, Weber & Wood, 1997).
• 32% of battered women reported that their children had hurt or killed animals
(Ascione, 1998).
• 68% of battered women reported violence to their animals. 87% of these
incidents occurred in the presence of women to control them; 75% occurred in
presence of children (Quinlisk, 1999).
• Batterers who also abuse pets are more dangerous, more controlling, and use
more forms of violence than batterers who do not (Simmons & Lehmann, 2007).
• Children exposed to domestic violence were three times more likely to be cruel
to animals (Currie, 2006).
• 48% of battered women reported that animal abuse had occurred “often” dur-
ing the past year. (Carlisle-Frank & Flanagan, 2006).

The Link and Elder Abuse...

• 92% of Adult Protective Services caseworkers found animal neglect co-existing
with clients who were unable to care for themselves. 75% noted their clients’
concern for their pets’ welfare affected decisions about accepting interventions
or other services. (HSUS & National Center on Elder Abuse, 2003).
• The inability of animal hoarders, a significant number of whom are older
women, to adequately care for large numbers of animals puts them at risk of
self-neglect, eviction, and health issues, and often indicates a need for mental
health and social services interventions (Patronek, Loar, & Nathanson, 2006).
• In the absence of children or other loved ones, pets may be particularly signifi-
cant others for isolated seniors: the loss of these animals when a senior moves
to subsidized housing or assisted living facilities can be traumatic. Abusive
children may intimidate elders, retaliate against them, or control their assets by
threatening or removing their pets (Arkow, 2007).
• 35% of Adult Protective Services caseworkers reported their clients talk about
pets being threatened, injured, killed, or denied care (Boat & Knight, 2000).
The Link and Child Abuse and Neglect...
• Animal abuse was reported in 60% of child-abusing families and in 88% of
families investigated for physical child abuse. In one-third of the families, the
children had abused animals, using them as scapegoats for their anger. There
were 11 times more dog bites and attacks in these homes (DeViney, Dickert &
Lockwood, 1983).
• Children who were sexually abused were five times more likely to abuse ani-
mals (Ascione, Friedrich, Heath, & Hayashi, 2003).
• 20% of children who sexually abused other children also had histories of sexu-
ally abusing animals. In most cases the acts were carefully planned with pets
targeted, isolated, groomed and abused -- much like their child victim counter-
parts (Duffield, Hassiotis, & Vizard, 1998).
• 91% of abused children institutionalized for delinquency and emotional
disturbances said they had had special pets, and 99% showed very positive
feelings toward these pets. However, abusive adults had frequently punished or
intimidated them by killing, harming, or removing their pets (Robin, ten Bensel,
Quigley & Anderson, 1984).
• 82% of families investigated for animal abuse were also known to social
services departments, and 61% to probation departments. These families were
largely described as having children at risk (Hutton, 1983).
• Children’s witnessing animal cruelty was the largest predictor of future vio-
lence, with the witness eight times more likely to become a perpetrator. Animal
abuse perpetration was associated with higher rates of child neglect (DeGue &
DiLillo, 2009).
• 62% to 76% of animal cruelty in the home occurs in front of children (Faver &
Strand, 2003).
• Significant research has documented relationships between childhood histo-
ries of animal cruelty and patterns of chronic interpersonal aggression (Kellert
& Felthous, 1985; Hensley & Tallichet, 2005; Merz-Perez, Heide & Silverman, 2001; Becker &
French, 2004).

References for these and hundreds of writings on The Link can

be found at www.animaltherapy.net/Bibliography-Link.html
 Using The Link to Overcome
Disconnects in the Systems
Historically, cruelty to animals has been viewed as an issue separate from other
forms of violence and ignored by the human services and criminal justice fields.
There are many reasons for these disconnects:

• Separate systems are involved. Child maltreatment is handled by county child

protective services, and may be prosecuted in civil, criminal or family courts.
Police and sheriffs investigate domestic violence reports. Animal abuse is
investigated by humane societies and SPCAs with quasi-legal authorities; by
municipal animal control agencies (who may be within police, health, code
enforcement, public works or other departments); and by law enforcement
officers for whom animal cases are rarely a priority.
• A patchwork of statutes leads to a lack of uniformity in enforcement.
• Confidentiality constraints preclude sharing information among agencies.
• Animal cruelty cases are notoriously difficult, costly and time-consuming. Ani-
mal law has only recently become a specialized discipline and attorneys have
had little training in it. Archaic statutes, the inability of victims to testify, and
evidence that is lacking in forensic detail further complicate matters.

The Link is changing this. Officials who once dismissed animal

cruelty as “it was only a cat” or “boys will be boys” are gaining
new respect for the significance of these acts, recognizing that
they are human health and safety issues. Animal abusers
invariably have histories of multiple forms of aggression.
Animal abuse rarely occurs in isolation – it’s usually the “tip of
the iceberg” and frequently the first opportunity for social
services or law enforcement intervention.

Neighbors who are traditionally reluctant to get involved in domestic violence or

child abuse cases may be moved to file an animal cruelty report. Thus, animal abuse
is an early sentinel for interpersonal aggression and family dysfunction.

In short, animal cruelty needs to be taken as seriously as any human violence. The
old attitude of, “It’s just an animal!” is being replaced with a new awareness: “If he’s
hurting animals, someone else in the home is next!”
 How Can Professionals
Use The Link?
For Domestic Violence Agencies
o Recognize that survivors’ strong emotional attachments to pets can be used as a
weapon by batterers.
o Add three questions about pets to your crisis line, intake interviews, and risk
assessments:
• Are there pets in the home?
• How does each family member treat the pet?
• Do you worry about something bad happening to the pet?
These questions are effective ways to assess
risk and lethality and to get survivors to speak “I wouldn’t go to a shelter because
freely. Survivors who may blame themselves they wouldn’t take my dog. I’ve had
can be shown that the fault really lies with the this dog for 13 years and I wasn’t
batterer who is taking out aggression against
going to leave her, so I felt that I had
an innocent animal.
nowhere to go. I felt trapped.”
o Help battered women prove ownership
of their pets in custody disputes: licenses, — Linda

vaccinations, veterinary and food bills, adoption and pedigree papers and related
documents should be issued in her name.
o Include provisions for the care of animals removed from abusive households in
safety plans.
o Develop relationships with animal care and control agencies to make referrals,
display each other’s materials, remove dangerous animals that threaten the safety of
families, and provide resources to families needing support services.
o Invite representatives from these agencies to conduct in-service training for
your staff and volunteers. Reciprocate by training them about your work in the
community.
o Establish foster care programs, or on-site kennels at the
women’s shelter to keep families together with their pets.
o Support legislation that includes pets in domestic
violence protection-from-abuse orders.
o Work with animal shelters to identify pet-friendly
transitional housing in your community.
o Include Link training in state, regional and national conferences.
 How Can Professionals
Use The Link?
For Animal Care and Control Agencies
o Establish relationships with child protection, domestic violence and adult
protection services so you are prepared to share information, make a report or
referral, or ask for assistance when a case uncovers suspected human abuse or
neglect. This may be particularly necessary in hoarding situations.
o Invite these agencies to provide in-service education for your staff and
volunteers. Reciprocate by training them about your role and responsibilities.
o Routinely observe the condition of vulnerable children and adults when making
inspections and inquire about any health or welfare problems.
o Have materials from human services agencies available in your shelter and
vehicles and on your website. These referrals position your agency as a community
resource addressing family issues.
o Help women’s shelters to include animals in safety plans and pet safekeeping
programs.
o Advocate for legislation that allows judges to include animals in domestic
violence protection-from-abuse orders, and for mandated cross-reporting of
different types of abuse.
o Include Link training in state, regional and national conferences and animal
control academies.

“Social welfare officials and animal officials sometimes are

working on the same case and don’t even know it.”

— Randall Lockwood
American Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals
 How Can Professionals
Use The Link?
For Professionals Working With Children
o Recognize that children’s powerful emotional
attachments to pets can be used as a weapon against
them in sexual abuse.
o Incorporate questions about pets and their care,
and the behavior of family members toward animals,
in intake forms, referrals, assessments and interviews.
Such inquiries provide useful information about family
functioning and identify patterns of violence and others
who may be at risk.
o Routinely observe the condition of animals, and the
presence of dangerous pets that might hurt a child, when
making home visits. Inquire about any pet health or
welfare problems; if problems are found advise them of
animal services and humane resources.
o Consider the possibility that children who repeatedly
harm animals may have been abused or are living in a
climate of violence.
o Establish relationships with animal care and control
agencies to make referrals and reports, ask for assistance,
display each other’s materials, remove dangerous animals
that threaten the safety of children and case workers, and
“If you’re a committed
provide resources and support services.
social worker, you need
o Invite animal care and control agencies to provide
in-service training for your staff. Reciprocate by training to find out about the
them about your community services. animals in the home
o Consider using therapy animals with children who because it will help you
have experienced abuse or loss. Witnesses and victims in your work. It’s not
of violence are often more comfortable talking in the extraneous: it’s central.”
comforting presence of a therapy pet.
— Susan Urban, MSW,
o Include Link training in state, regional and national
New York City
conferences, pre- and post-licensure continuing
education, and schools of social work.
 How Can Professionals
Use The Link?
For Veterinarians
o Consider the possibility of animal abuse “The veterinarian is not only a public
as a differential diagnosis when clinical health authority, but also a type of
conditions, patient histories, and client family practitioner with the potential
disclosures, profiles and behaviors lead to for ultimately preventing family
a raised index of suspicion.
violence.”
— Phil Arkow
o Undertake training in veterinary
forensics to become proficient with Coordinator, National Link Coalition
investigation, record keeping, evidence preservation, and courtroom testimony
techniques in cases of suspected animal cruelty.

o Attempt to educate clients when animal husbandry practices are sub-optimal.

When these efforts fail or increase the risk to others, report your suspicions to
outside agencies according to state laws, codes of professional conduct and with
protection from civil and criminal liability, to have them investigate. Establish risk
assessment and decision-making procedures for your staff in these situations.

o Be sensitive to situations which suggest that clients may be victims of child

abuse and neglect, domestic violence or elder abuse. Be prepared to refer clients to
community agencies that might help them. Report suspected abuse to appropriate
authorities as required by state laws and codes of professional conduct with
immunity from civil and criminal liability.

o Include Link training in

state, regional and national
conferences, continuing
education, and schools of
veterinary medicine.

o Help women’s shelters by

providing veterinary services
and foster care for animals
displaced by family violence.
 How Can Professionals
Use The Link?
For Adult Protective Services
o Recognize that seniors may have powerful emotional attachments to their pets.
o Elders may neglect themselves to care for their pets. They may be financially or
physically unable to provide proper care for animal companions. They may become
overwhelmed with the responsibilities of too many animals and hoarding situations
may develop.
o Include questions about pets and “The shared environment between a pet and
their care in intakes and assessments a pet owner is important to consider when
to open channels of communication, providing adult protective services. The
build trust with clients, and identify welfare of the pet often is closely related to
others who may be at risk. the welfare of the pet owner.”
o Routinely observe the condition
— Barbara W. Boat & Juliette C. Knight
of animals when making home visits
and inquire about any pet health or welfare problems.
o Establish relationships with animal care and control agencies to make referrals,
ask for help, remove dangerous animals that threaten the safety of family members
and case workers, and provide resources to seniors needing support services.
o Invite representatives from these agencies to conduct in-service training for your
staff. Reciprocate by training them about your community services.
o Include Link training in state, regional and national training conferences.
o Work with animal shelters to identify pet-friendly
subsidized or senior housing in the community.
o Suggest that capable clients acquire a pet for social
outreach, companionship, daily routines, and exercise.
o Find volunteer opportunities for seniors at animal
shelter and rescue organizations.
 How Can Professionals
Use The Link?
For Law Enforcement, Prosecutors and Judges
o Recognize that people may have strong emotional
attachments to pets that they consider members of their
family.
o It is no longer acceptable to trivialize animal cruelty cases.
Become familiar with animal law and prosecute aggressively
as early intervention can prevent violence from escalating.
o Animal cruelty investigations and prosecutions can be
highly complex, costly and time-consuming. Utilize
national resources, including veterinary forensics, training programs, and
psychological assessment and treatment of offenders, to help overcome challenging
situations.
o Recognize the evidentiary importance of animal cruelty and the presence of
dangerous animals in pre-sentence investigation reports, trial testimony, custody
and visitation agreements, child removal orders, and psychological evaluations.
o Order appropriate psychological assessment and treatment programs for
convicted juvenile and adult animal abuse offenders.
o Include pets in domestic violence protection-from-abuse orders.
o Include Link training in state, regional and national training conferences,
judicial institutes, and law schools.

“Animal cruelty prosecutors understand the

importance of pursuing animal cruelty cases with
the same drive and passion as human violence
cases. Prosecutors must take seriously all cases
that involve charges or allegations of animal abuse
because abusing an animal may be contemporary
with, or a precursor to, more serious future abusive
conduct.”
— Allie Phillips, J.D., Director, National Center for
Prosecution of Animal Abuse,
National District Attorneys Association
 How Can Professionals
Use The Link?
The Question of Confidentiality
For many human service professionals, reporting suspected abuse
is perceived as an ethical dilemma. This dilemma can be removed
by statutorily mandating such reports, as has been widely done
with suspected child abuse and, more recently, domestic violence,
elder abuse and animal cruelty.

Professionals in one field need not be experts in other forms of abuse: they should,
however, be sensitive to the possibility that such abuse may be occurring and willing
to report such cases in good faith to authorities who can investigate further to
determine what action, if any, may be warranted.

Staff should be familiar with their professional and organizational protocols

governing the disclosure of personal information to another agency when multiple
forms of abuse are suspected. In some cases, state law explicitly mandates or permits
this information to be disclosed. In many states, professionals are granted immunity
from civil and criminal liability for making such disclosures in good faith. Failure to
make a mandated report may be grounds for criminal sanctions.

While reporting such concerns can seem daunting, disclosures can often be made
lawfully if there is serious concern about the safety of a child, animal or others in
the household.

An agency may have only one small piece of information. However, when this is
added to other data, a fuller picture emerges that allows professionals to better aid
families and animals at risk.

“Confidentiality holds for personal privacy of clients unless the

veterinarian is required to reveal the confidences of a medical record
because of the health or welfare of either the person or the animal. We feel an
obligation to safeguard the health and well-being of not only
the animals we care for, but of the need to care for society, as well.”
-- Mary Beth Leininger, DVM, American Veterinary Medical Association
The National Link Coalition is an informal, multidisciplinary, collaborative network
of individuals and organizations in human services and animal welfare who address
the intersections between animal abuse, domestic violence, child maltreatment and
elder abuse through research, public policy, programming, and community awareness.
We believe that human and animal well-being are inextricably intertwined and
that the prevention of family and community violence can best be achieved through
partnerships representing multi-species perspectives. The National Link Coalition’s vision is:

The Link between violence against humans and violence against

animals is widely known and understood. We believe that through
the recognition and integration of this understanding
into policies and practices nationwide,
humans and animals will be measurably safer.

For More Information contact:

Phil Arkow, Coordinator

National Link Coalition
37 Hillside Road
Stratford, NJ 08084 USA
856-627-5118
arkowpets@snip.net
www.nationallinkcoalition.org