Published in Zimbabwe

By
Harare

O-LEVEL COMBINED SCIENCE BOOK 3

E. BROWN, D. CHAURUKA AND J.S. MUTAMBARA

First Edition

© E. BROWN, D. CHAURUKA AND J.S. MUTAMBARA

First Edition 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means without the prior permission in writing of the
author or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate designated
rights organisation.

You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same
condition on any acquitter.

1
CHAPTER 1: BIOLOGY
TOPIC 1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF A CELL
Learners will be able to:
o identify specialized cells
o draw and label specialised cells
o state the function(s) of the specialised cells in relation to structure
o use a microscope to observe cell structure

1.0 CELL THEORY

Cells were first described by Robert Hooke in 1665. In the 1830s two German scientists,
Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden, using light microscopes, suggested the cell theory.
According to the cell theory:
1. All organisms are composed of cells. They may be unicellular (one celled) or
multicellular (many celled).
2. The cell is the basic ‘unit’ of life. Scientists have modified the cell theory over time as
new technology leads to new discoveries.
3. Cells are formed from pre-existing cells during cell division.
4. Respiration (the chemical reactions that create life) occurs within cells.
5. Hereditary information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell when cell division
occurs.
6. All cells have the same basic chemical composition.

Microscopy
Cells cannot be seen with a naked eye because they are very small. A microscope is used to
magnify or enlarge them so that they can be seen. A microscope found in most school
laboratories looks like the one shown in Figure 1.1.

Fig.1.1: Light microscope

2
Light Microscopes
The light microscope is the most common microscope in most school laboratories. Light
microscopes allow you to see the image because light passes through it. The properties of light
mean that it is impossible to magnify an image by more than x1000.

Electron Microscopes
The electron microscope was developed in the 1930s. It uses a beam of electrons instead of
light. It is possible to get much larger magnifications, up to x50, 000,000. Because you can’t
see electrons, the image is displayed on a monitor.

The disadvantage of electron microscopes is that you cannot see colour, and can only study
dead cells. Electron microscopes allowed scientists to discover the internal structures of cells.

Magnification
Magnification is the number of times larger an image is, than the real size of the object.

𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 (𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆)

𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆
𝑰
M =𝑨

Here I = observed size of the image (that is, what you can measure with a ruler) and A = actual
size (that is, the real size – for example, the size of a cell before it is magnified). If you know
two of these values, you can work out the third one. For example, if the observed size of the
𝐼
image and the magnification are known, you can work out the actual size: A = 𝐴 . If you write
the formula in a triangle as shown in fig 1.2 and cover up the value you want to find, it should
be obvious how to do the right calculation. Some worked examples are now provided.

Fig.1.2: Calculating Magnification

Activity 1.1
Calculating magnification

You are provided with two bean seeds, which have been soaked in water for 48 hours.
o Select one of the seeds and remove the testa (seed coat).
o The bean seed is in two parts. Carefully separate the parts and place on the white tile.
o Use the hand lens to look at the inside of both parts, to view the embryo.
o If an embryo is not present use another bean seed.

i. Make a large, labelled drawing of the inside of one part of the bean seed. Include detail
of the embryo in your drawing.
ii. You are going to calculate the magnification of your drawing.

Maximum length of bean seed ………………………mm

3
 Draw a line on your drawing, to show where you have measured this length. Measure
the maximum length of the bean seed in your drawing.

Maximum length of the bean seed in your drawing ………………mm

iii. Calculate the magnification of your drawing.

Show your working.

Specialized cells
When plant and animal cell grow, their cells increase in number by dividing. Typical growing
regions are the end of bones, layers of cells in the skin, root tips and buds. Each cell divides to
produce two daughter cells. Both daughter cells may divide again, but usually one of cells
grows and changes its shape and structure and adapts to do a particular job.
To function efficiently, multi celled organisms have cells that are specialized to carry out
certain functions. This means that the functions of the body are divided between different
groups of cells. As an organism develops from a fertilized egg, new cells are produced. These
cells grow and change to become specialized for certain functions.
Red blood cells

Fig.1.3: Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells are very small cells. They have a cell membrane and cytoplasm like any other
cell, but they do not have a nucleus. The cytoplasm is full of a red protein called hemoglobin.
Haemoglobin carries oxygen from lungs to all cells of the body.
Being small enables the red blood cells to squeeze through the smallest blood capillaries, taking
oxygen as close as possible to each cell that needs it. Red blood cells are circular and are disc
shaped (have a dent in the middle), a shape which gives them a large surface area. This speeds
up the rate at which oxygen can move into and out of them.

Muscle cells

Fig.1.4: Muscle

4
They are cells found in muscles in animals, they contract and relax together to move the
organisms. Like all animal cells muscle cells have a cell membrane and cytoplasm and nucleus.
But each muscle cell has many strands of protein arranged in a pattern. The strands of protein
can slide between each other, making the cell much shorter. This is called contraction.

Their function is to contract to support and move the body. They are adapted by two ways:
i. They are made of contractile filament to help in contraction.
ii. They contain lots of mitochondria to supply the cell with energy.

Palisade mesophyll cells

The structure of the palisade cell is shown in fig 3.3

Fig 3.3 drawing of a palisade cell

The palisade cells form the palisade layer in a leaf. Photosynthesis takes place in the palisade
cells. Palisade cells show several adaptations for photosynthesis:

i. They are long cylindrical shaped, arranged at right angles to the upper epidermis of the
leaf to absorb maximum light.
ii. They have numerous chloroplasts in their cytoplasm. Chloroplasts are the site for
photosynthesis.
iii. Cells have a large vacuole with a thin peripheral cytoplasm. This restricts the
chloroplasts to a layer near the outside of the cell where light can reach them most
easily.
iv. Cell walls of palisade cells are thin so that gases can diffuse through them easily.

Root hair cells

Fig 1.3 Root hair structure and its position in a plants root

5
Plants make glucose sugar by the process of photosynthesis. For healthy growth they also need
to absorb mineral salts that are dissolved in the soil water. Mineral salts contain elements such
as nitrogen, phosphorus and magnesium. Water and mineral salts are absorbed from the soil by
the root hair cells which cover the surface of the root. These cells greatly increase the surface
area for absorption. They contain no chloroplasts. Their functions are:

o to absorb water and minerals from the soil and

o to anchor the plant in the soil.

Root hair cells are adapted to their functions in 3 ways:

i. they have an extension that increases the surface area for more water intake.
ii. they have a large number of mitochondria for respiration to become more active for
active uptake of mineral salts from the soil against concentration gradient.
iii. They have a concentrated vacuole to help absorbing water by osmosis.

6
Exercise 1.1
1 Draw one straight line from each type of cell to a function of that cell.

2 The diagrams show several types of specialised cell.

Name each type of cell. Use the internet to find some of the specialized cells which are not
covered in this chapter.

Give the letter (A, B, C, D or E) which

a. Does not contain a nucleus.
b. Traps dust and bacteria.
c. Has half the normal number of chromosomes.
d. Can ingest bacteria.
e. Carries information as electrical impulses.
f. Contains haemoglobin.
g. Is part of the nervous system?

7
TOPIC 2: NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis
Learners will be able to:
o State factors which affect photosynthesis
o describe experiments on factors which affect photosynthesis
o describe the fate of end products of photosynthesis
o identify parts of the internal structure of a leaf
o describe how the leaf is adapted for photosynthesis

2.0 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is a process that provides energy for all forms of life. Photosynthesis involves
three stages:
1. Energy is captured from sunlight.
2. Light energy is converted to chemical energy.
3. The chemical energy is used for the formation of organic compounds, using carbon
dioxide.
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of the plant cells and algae. Photosynthesis can be
summarised by the equation:
Word equation:
Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
Symbol balanced equation:
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O2
Photosynthesis is the process whereby plants make glucose from carbon dioxide and water
using energy from the sun.
However this equation does not show how photosynthesis occurs. There are many reactions in
photosynthesis each catalysed by a different enzyme. Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll.
Oxygen is produced as a by-product. The plant may use the oxygen in its own respiration or it
may diffuse out into the atmosphere where it is used by other organisms.

2.1 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is affected by various factors.
1. The most obvious of these factors is light intensity. In general, the rate of
photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases until all the pigments cannot absorb
any more light.

8
 2. The carbon dioxide concentration affects the rate of photosynthesis in the same
manner. Once a certain concentration of carbon dioxide is present, rate of
photosynthesis cannot increase any faster.
3. Photosynthesis is most efficient within a certain range of temperatures. Like all
metabolic processes, photosynthesis involves many enzyme-assisted chemical
reactions. Recall that enzymes operate properly only within certain ranges of
temperature. Unfavourable temperatures may inactivate enzymes.
Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature determine the optimum level of
photosynthesis for a particular plant.
Green plants make glucose from carbon dioxide and water. However, if too much sugar is
dissolved in the leaf cell sap of plant cells it would make a very concentrated solution. This
would make water move in from other cells by osmosis and cause cells to swell so much that
they would need to make very thick cell walls. To prevent this, glucose molecules are linked
together to form large starch molecules which are insoluble and have no effect on osmosis.
Iodine is used to test for the presence of starch in leaves. The iodine test is used to find whether
photosynthesis has been happening or not.
2.2 INVESTIGATIONS INTO PHOTOSYNTHESIS
In each of these investigations, two plants are used:
o One plant is experimental plant which is given everything that a plant would need,
except for one factor that is being investigated, such as carbon dioxide.
o The other plant is the control plant, which is given everything that the plant needs,
including the condition under investigation
In each investigation, both plants are then treated exactly the same way. Any difference
between them at the end of the investigation, therefore, must be as a result of the condition
being tested.
At the end of each investigation, iodine solution is used to test the leaf from the experimental
and control plants to see if starch has been made. Iodine turns blue-black when it reacts with
starch. By comparing the leaves, you can find out what conditions are necessary for
photosynthesis.

Experiment 1.1
De-starching a plant
Leaves that are being investigated should not have starch at the beginning of the investigation,
so that if at the end of the investigation you find starch present or absent, you would be sure
that it was as a result of the factor investigated.
Plants are de-starched by leaving them in a dark cupboard for 24 hours. The plant cannot
photosynthesize in the dark, so they use up all the starch stored in the leaf and are described as
de-starched. To ensure the plants are completely de-starched, test the leaf for starch before you
begin your investigations. Figure 2.1 shows the stages in testing a leaf for the presence of starch

9
Experiment 2.2
Aim: To investigate if light is necessary for photosynthesis
You will need: A healthy potted plant; a dark cupboard; a white tile or saucer; 250ml beaker;
boiling test tube; methylated spirit or alcohol; forceps; burner; iodine solution; medicine
dropper

Method
1. De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for about 48 hours.
2. Test one of it leaves for starch, to check that is does not contain any.
3. Fix a leaf of this plant in between two strips of a thick paper on leaf as shown in fig 2.2.

10
 Fig 2.2 investigating if light is necessary for photosynthesis

4. Place the plant in light for a few days.

5. Remove the cover from the leaf and test it for starch.
6. In your lab book write your conclusion based on the results obtained

Experiment 2.3
Aim: To investigate if carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis
To solve this problem, the carbon dioxide must be removed from the air around the leaf. One
chemical that can remove carbon dioxide is potassium hydroxide. Carbon dioxide may also be
added to the control, the chemical that produces carbon dioxide to increase the concentration
of carbon dioxide is sodium hydrogen carbonate.

Method
1. You will need two de-starched potted plants of the same type.
2. Test a leaf for starch from both samples.
3. Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them as A and B as shown in figure 2.3.

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 Fig 2.3 is carbon dioxide necessary for photosynthesis?

4. Inside Set-up A, keep sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). It produces carbon dioxide.

5. Inside Set-up B, keep Sodium hydroxide (NaOH). It absorbs carbon dioxide.
6. Keep both set-ups in the sunlight at least for 6 hours.
7. Perform the starch test on both of the plants.

Observations
a) Record what you observed after the starch test of a leaf from each set up.
b) What do your results suggest about carbon dioxide and photosynthesis?

Experiment 2.4
Aim: To investigate if chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

You will need:

o A healthy plant with variegated leaves which has been in the sunlight for several hours.

Fig 2.4 Variegated leaf

o Apparatus for testing a leaf for starch.

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Method
1. In you lab book make a drawing to show the pattern of green and white and other
coloured parts of the leaf.
2. Make a drawing of you leaf after testing for starch.

Observations
a) What was the control in this experiment?
b) What do your results tell you about chlorophyll and photosynthesis?

2.4 INVESTIGATING FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Many factors such as light intensity, carbon dioxide and temperature affect the rate of
photosynthesis. If any of these factors are in short supply, the rate of photosynthesis will slow
down. The factor that is in short supply is called the limiting factor. It limits the rate at which
photosynthesis can take place.

One of the easiest ways of measuring the rate of photosynthesis is to measure the rate of oxygen
production. Figure 2.6 shows the simplest method. You can count the number of oxygen
bubbles produced by the plant over a period of time.

Experiment 2.5

Aim: To investigate the effect of Light intensity on the rate of Photosynthesis

Before you proceed: Prepare a table in your lab book as the one shown in table 5.1

Distance between pond weed and light Number of bubbles given off in 1
source (metres) minute

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1. Place a pond weed Elodea upside down in a measuring cylinder containing water.
2. Place the measuring cylinder in a large beaker of fresh water at 25°C. This helps to
maintain a constant temperature around the pond weed.
3. Place excess sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) in the water to give a constant saturated
solution of carbon dioxide.
4. Place the lamp (the only light source) at distance from the plant.
5. Count the number of oxygen bubbles given off by the plant in 1 minute period. This is the
rate of photosynthesis at that particular light intensity.
6. The gas should be checked to prove that it is indeed oxygen – relights a glowing splint.

7. Repeat at different light intensities by moving the lamp to different distances.

8. Graph the results placing light intensity on the horizontal axis (x-axis) and rate of
photosynthesis on the vertical axis (y-axis).

14
Plants need light energy to make the chemical energy needed to create carbohydrates.
Increasing the light intensity will boost the speed of photosynthesis. However, at high light
intensities the rate becomes constant.

Fig 5.5 effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis

o From figure 5.7 you can see that as light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis
increases until a point is reached at which the plant is photosynthesizing as fast as it
can. This is marked at point B.
o At point B, even if the light becomes more intense, the plant cannot photosynthesize
any faster. This is the optimum level of light.
o Light is a limiting factor between A and B on the curve. The rate of photosynthesis is
limited by how much light is available. If light intensity increases, the rate of
photosynthesis increases.
o Light is not a limiting factor between points B and C on the curve. If the light intensity
were increased, the rate of photosynthesis would not increase. The plant already has as
much light as it can use. Other factors are now limiting at this stage of light intensity.

Experiment 2.6
Effect of carbon dioxide on the Rate of Photosynthesis
When the concentration of carbon dioxide is low the rate of photosynthesis is also low (the
plant has to spend time waiting for more carbon dioxide to arrive). Increasing the concentration
of carbon dioxide increases the rate of photosynthesis. If carbon dioxide concentration is
plotted against rate of photosynthesis, a graph similar to figure 5.6 will be obtained.

Figure 5.6 rate of photosynthesis at different concentration of CO2.

15
Experiment
1. Place a pond weed Elodea upside down in a test tube containing water at 25°C.
2. Place the tube in a beaker of fresh water.
3. Place excess sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) in the water to give a constant saturated
solution of CO2.
4. Place the lamp (the only light source) at a fixed distance from the plant.
5. Maintain the room temperature at 20°C.

6. Count the number of oxygen bubbles given off by the plant in a one -minute period.
This is the rate of photosynthesis at that particular concentration of CO2.
7. The gas should be checked to prove that it is indeed oxygen for oxygen relights a
glowing splint.
8. Repeat at different lower CO2 concentrations by using different concentration of
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) solution.
9. Graph the results placing CO2 concentration on the x-axis.

Explanation
o The rate of photosynthesis increases linearly with increasing CO2 concentration (from
point A to B).

16
 o The rate falls gradually, and at a certain CO2 concentration it stays constant (from point
B to C). Here a rise in CO2 levels has no effect as the other factors such as light intensity
become limiting.

2.5 USES OF GLUCOSE PRODUCED IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1. Glucose is used to release energy in respiration taking place all the time in plant cells.
2. Glucose can be changed to starch and stored.
3. Glucose can be used to make cellulose which makes up the body of plants (e.g. cell walls)
4. Glucose can be used to make proteins, which also make up the body of plants.

2.6 LEAF STRUCTURE

The main function of the leaf is to photosynthesize and make food for the plant. The structure
of the leaf is adapted to help it to photosynthesize as efficiently as possible.

Experiment 5.5
Aim: To look at the structure of a leaf
Before you proceed: The best way to find out about the structure of a leaf is studying it yourself.
To do this, your teacher will allow you to find a large, green leaf. You will also need a ruler
and a pencil.
1. Look carefully at your leaf and identify the following parts:
i. The leaf stalk: the part that joins the leaf to the stem.
ii. The leaf blade: the flat part of the leaf.
iii. The veins: fine lines across the surface of the leaf, the veins carry water and
minerals to the cells in the leaf, and take away food they have made, they also
help to support the leaf.
2. In your lab book, make a large, labelled drawing of the upper surface of the leaf to show
each of the parts mentioned in 1.
3. Measure the length of your leaf, from the leaf stalk to to the tip, to the nearest
millimetre. Write this measurement under your drawing.
4. Measure the length of your drawing along the same length as you measured on the leaf,
to the nearest millimetre. Record this measurement as well.
5. Calculate magnification of your drawing. Magnification is the length you measured on
your drawing, divided by the actual length of the leaf.

Magnification =
6. Answer these questions in your note book.
Look carefully at your leaf, and think about how its structure helps in photosynthesis.
a) How does its shape help it to get as much light as possible?
b) How does water reach all parts of the leaf?
c) Why is the leaf green?
d) Turn your leaf over, and look at the underside. Does it look different from the
upper surface?
e) Describe the underside of the leaf.

17
The leaf consists of a broad, flat part called the lamina, which is joined to the rest of the plant
by a leaf stalk or petiole. Running through the petiole are vascular bundles, which then form
the veins in the leaf.

Fig 5.9 leaf external structure

Although a leaf looks thin, it is made up of several layers of cells. You can see these if you
look at a transverse section (cross-section) of a leaf under a microscope.

Fig 5.10 leaf internal structure

1. Cuticle is made of wax for water proofing the leaf. The wax is secreted by cells of the upper
epidermis
2. Upper epidermis is the topmost layer which is thin and transparent to allow light to pass
through. No chloroplasts are present in the epidermal layer. The epidermis acts as a barrier
to disease organisms.
3. Palisade mesophyll layer is the main region for photosynthesis. Palisade cells are columnar
(quite long) and packed with chloroplasts to trap light energy. They also receive carbon
dioxide by diffusion from air spaces in the spongy mesophyll.

18
4. The spongy mesophyll cells are more spherical and loosely packed. They contain
chloroplasts, but not as many as in palisade cells. The air spaces between cells allow
gaseous exchange carbon dioxide to the cells, and oxygen from the cells during
photosynthesis
5. The vascular bundle is a leaf vein, which is made up of xylem and phloem. The xylem
vessels bring water and minerals to the leaf while phloem vessels transport sugars and
amino acids away (translocation) to other parts of the plant.

Fig 5.11 leaf external and internal structure

6. The lower epidermis acts as a protective layer of the leaf. The stomata are present to
regulate the loss of water vapour (transpiration).
7. Stomata are holes in the epidermis. Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. Guard
cells control the stoma opening and closure. Water vapour passes out during transpiration.
Carbon dioxide diffuses in through the stoma and oxygen diffuses out during
photosynthesis

2.7 ADAPTATIONS OF THE LEAF TO PHOTOSYSNTHESIS

Some of the internal features of a leaf are adaptations for photosynthesis.
o Palisade mesophyll cells are packed tightly together near the upper surface of the leaf
for maximum absorption of light where its intensity is highest.
o There are many chloroplasts in the palisade mesophyll cells to absorb as much light as
possible.
o Stomata are usually more concentrated in the lower epidermis; they open to allow
carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf. Carbon dioxide is a raw material for
photosynthesis.
o Leaves are thin so that carbon dioxide does not have to diffuse far from the atmosphere
to the cells of the palisade and spongy mesophyll.
o There are large intercellular spaces within the spongy mesophyll layer. This makes it
easy for carbon dioxide to diffuse to all the mesophyll cells. Diffusion through air is
much faster than diffusion from cell to cell.
o Xylem in veins brings water and ions to the mesophyll cells. Water is a raw material
for photosynthesis and magnesium ions are needed by the cells to make chlorophyll.
o The sugar produced in photosynthesis is converted to sucrose and transported away
from the leaf in the phloem veins to other parts of the plant.

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2.8 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN LEAVES
Stomata are small pores (holes) in the epidermis that allow gases to diffuse into and out of the
leaf. Stomata are usually in the lower epidermis, but some plants like water lilies have them in
the upper epidermis.
In sunlight:
o Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf for photosynthesis
o Oxygen made during photosynthesis diffuses out of the leaf
o Water vapour also diffuses out of the leaf.

Exercise
1. Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of plants.
i. Leaves absorb light energy and this is converted into chemical energy. State
where in leaves this energy change takes place.

ii. Complete the word equation for photosynthesis.

Water + ..................................→ oxygen +..................................

iii. Describe how water enters a plant from the soil.

20
TOPIC 3: HUMAN NUTRITION
Learners will be able to:
o draw and label parts of the alimentary canal and associated organs
o identify parts of the alimentary canal of a human
o state the functions of parts of the alimentary canal of a human

3.0 ALIMENTARY CANAL

To be of use to the body, food must move from the digestive system into the blood. The
molecules of food must be small enough and soluble to pass through the small intestine walls:
e.g. vitamins, minerals, water. Large and insoluble molecules like starch, proteins, and fats
must be digested to small, soluble molecules. Fibre is excreted from the body as faces because
human beings cannot digest and absorb it into the blood.

The alimentary canal is part of the digestive system, it is a long tube which stars at the mouth,
runs through the stomach and intestines and finishes at the anus. The digestive system also
includes the accessory organs (teeth, tongue, gall bladder, salivary glands, liver, and the
pancreas).

Main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs are:

o Mouth, salivary glands
o Oesophagus
o Stomach
o Pancreas, liver, gall bladder
o Small intestine (duodenum and ileum)
o Large intestine (colon and rectum)
o Anus.

21
Fig 3.1 the human alimentary canal

22
TOPIC 4: NUTRITION
Learners should be able to:
o Name types of teeth and their functions
o Describe mechanical and chemical digestion
o Explain the importance of digestion
o Describe the function of a typical enzymes (amylase)
o Identify the end products of digestion

4.0 HUMAN TEETH

There are four types of teeth in human; incisors, canines, premolars and molars. Each
specialized for different functions.

Fig 4.1 Human teeth

An adult human being has a total of 16 teeth on each jaw.

Types of teeth and their functions

Incisor Canine Premolar Molar

Position in Front Either sides of Behind canines Back

mouth
incisors

Description Chisel shaped Slightly more 2 points (cusps) 4 or 5 cusps. 2 or

(sharp edged) 3 roots
pointed than
incisors

Function Biting off pieces Gripping and Tearing and Chewing and
tearing food grinding food grinding food
of food.

23
4.1 CHEWING
Mechanical digestion is performed by the teeth. The pieces of food are mixed with saliva and
become smaller and easier to swallow and have a larger surface area.

Peristalsis
The walls of the alimentary canal have an inner, circular muscle fibre coat and an outer,
longitudinal muscle fibre coat.

Fig 4.2 peristalsis

As the ball of food (bolus) formed in the mouth enters the pharynx, a reflex action is initiated.

Fig 4.3 Peristalsis

o This produces slow, wave-like contractions in the walls of the esophagus and later along
the whole length of the tract (peristalsis).
o Peristaltic waves involve the contraction of the circular muscle fibres behind the bolus
and their relaxation in front of the bolus.
o Longitudinal muscles provide the wave-like action. The two functions together push
the ball down the tract.
o Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.

Bile is not an enzyme.

Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder; its role is to emulsify fats, to increase
the surface area for the action of enzymes. This means breaking down large droplets of fat to
smaller droplets (a physical change not a chemical change). This increases the surface area of
the fats for the enzyme lipase to work on.

24
4.2 CHEMICAL DIGESTION

Chemical digestion: is where enzymes are used to break down large insoluble substances such
as proteins into smaller soluble substances like amino acids so that they can be absorbed.

These are the three enzymes you have to know

The enzyme amylase breaks down starch into maltose. Amylase is produced in the pancreas
and also in the salivary gland.

Protease are enzymes that break down proteins to peptides; this is done by pepsin, a protease
and then into amino acids by trypsin, another protease. Pepsin comes from the stomach and
trypsin comes from the pancreas.

Lipase is an enzyme that breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. Lipase is produced
by the pancreas.

25
Summary of chemical digestion in the different regions of the alimentary canal

Other Function of
substances other
Region of Digestiv Enzymes Substrat Product( in juice
gut e juice e s) substance

Mouth saliva salivar protein peptides hydrochlor alkaline

y ic acid environme
amylas nt for
e amylase

Stomach
Gastric pepsin proteins peptides hydrochloric acidic
juice acid environment
from the for pepsin,
stomach kills bacteria
glands

Small -amylase -starch -maltose hydrogen neutralise

intestine Pancreati -trypsin -peptides -amino carbonate chyme,
(duodenu c juice -lipase -fats acids alkaline
m) -fatty environment
acids + for enzymes
glycerol
bile salts and
hydrogen
carbonate

emulsifies
fats,
Bile neutralises
chyme

Small Intestinal maltase maltose glucose N/A N/A

intestine juice
(ileum)

26
Exercise
This table gives descriptions of organs in the human digestive system. Read each description
and then write down the name of each organ in the left hand column. Use the words at the
bottom of this page

Organ Description

Here the food is chewed and moistened with saliva. The food is shaped
into a round ball before it is swallowed

This is a tube that squeezes the food down to the stomach.

This is a bag that churns up the food. It contains gastric juice and
hydrochloric acid. Gastric juice contains an enzyme that digests protein.
The acid kills germs.

This is a very long tube that the food passes into after it leaves the
stomach. Here the food is completely digested and then it is absorbed
through the walls and into the blood stream.

This is a small leaf-shaped organ. It makes pancreatic juice which passes

into the small intestine. This juice contains an alkali that helps to
neutralise the acid from the stomach. It also contains several enzymes.

This organ makes a chemical called bile which is stored in a small bag
called the gall bladder. The bile is squeezed into the small intestine
Where it helps to break up large pieces of fat

This is a wide tube that the undigested food passes through. Water is
absorbed from this back into the body.

This organ has no function in humans but it helps with digestion of plant
material in herbivores such as sheep. It sometimes becomes infected in
humans and then it must be removed.

The dried out waste food material is stored here until it is ready to be
passed out of the body through the anus.

Organs: liver small intestine gullet pancreas stomach

large intestine appendix mouth rectum.

27
TOPIC 5: RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
Learners will be able to:

o state the differences between inhaled and exhaled air

o describe the role of the alveoli in gaseous exchange
o explain how the alveoli is adapted for gaseous exchange

5.0 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Gas exchange usually involves 2 or more gases transferred in opposite directions across a
respiratory surface.

You learnt in form 2 about the Structure of the breathing system. It is made up of: the larynx,
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated capillaries.

Gaseous exchange relies on diffusion. To be efficient, the gaseous exchange surface must:
o Be thin to shorten distance to diffuse
o Be moist to allow gases to dissolve
o Have a large surface area
o Must have a concentration gradient across surface which is maintained by movement
of air and transport or the use of gas.

These features are present in gills (fish) and alveoli (lungs).

Fig 5.1 Adaptations of the alveoli for gaseous exchange

Inspired and expired air

o inspired air is the air we breathe in
o expired air is the air we breathe out

28
5.1 THE COMPOSITION OF INSPIRED AND EXPIRED AIR
To investigate the differences in composition between inspired and expired air, we use
limewater because it change colour when the gas is bubbled through, from colourless to
milky.

Fig 5.2 Lime water changes from colourless to milky in the presence of expired air

Question
There is more CO2 present in expired air this explains why expired air makes limewater
change colour more quickly than inspired air.

Fig 4.3 Gaseous exchange in the alveolus

State how each feature labelled on the diagram of an alveolus makes the process of gaseous
exchange efficient. [5 marks]

29
TOPIC 6: TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
Learners will be able to:
o explain the process of transpiration
o state factors affecting the rate of transpiration
o measure transpiration in a plant
o outline the importance of transpiration

6.0 TRANSPIRATION
Large amounts of water pass through plants. A large tree can use water at a rate of 1 100 cm³
per minute. Only 1% of this water is used by the plant cells for photosynthesis and turgor,
and the remaining 99% evaporates from the leaves and is lost to the atmosphere. This
evaporation from leaves is called transpiration.
Transpiration is the evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells, followed by
loss of water vapour from plant leaves, through the stomata.

Water in the leaf cells forms a thin layer on their surface. The water evaporates into the air
spaces in the spongy mesophyll. This creates a high concentration of water molecules which
then diffuse out of the leaf into the surrounding air, through the stomata, by diffusion.

Experiment
Aim: Investigating Water Loss in Plants

Fig 6.1 water loss in plants

1. Tie a polythene bag around the stem and pot of a plant. (This prevents water
evaporating from the soil in the pot.)
2. Place it inside a large bell jar that stands on a Vaseline glass plate. (This prevents
exchange of gases with the outside of the jar.)
3. Leave in a partly exposed, sunny site.
4. Observe the bell jar after 24 hours.

30
Result
Droplets of water have formed on the inside of the bell jar.

Conclusion
Explain why water on the inside of the jar must have come from the plant?
The movement of water through a plant can be split into three sections: through the roots, stem
and leaves:
The flow diagrams below show the movement of water from the roots to the leaves.

Fig 6.2 water loss in plants

6.1 MECHANISM OF WATER MOVEMENT THROUGH A PLANT

Water molecules are attracted to each other by cohesion forces between them. Therefore water
vapour evaporating from a leaf crates a kind of suction. (Similar to drinking using a straw; low
pressure in your mouth due to suction causes the juice to move up the straw into your mouth)
The pressure of water at the top of the vessels (in the Leaves) is lower than that of the bottom
(in the roots); this causes water to move up the stem in the xylem. More water is drawn into
the leaf from the xylem. This creates a transpiration stream, which pulls water up from the
root.
1. Water uptake by roots
Water is absorbed into the root hair cells by osmosis, since the cells have a lower water potential
that the water in the soil. Water then diffuses from the epidermis through the root to the xylem

31
 down a water potential gradient. The uptake of water by osmosis actually produces a force that
pushes water up the xylem. This force is called root pressure.

2. Movement through the Stem

The xylem vessels form continuous pipes from the roots to the leaves. Water can move up
through xylem vessels and can reach a height of over 100m. Since the xylem vessels are dead,
open tubes, no osmosis can occur within them. The driving force for the movement is
transpiration in the leaves. This mechanism of pulling water up a stem is sometimes called the
transpiration pull. This mass flow of water relies on two properties of water:
o Cohesion- the ability of water molecules to attract each other, sticking together
o Adhesion- the water molecules also tend to stick to the inside of the xylem
vessel.
So there is a continuous flow of water from the roots to the leaves. This movement of water up
the xylem is called the transpiration stream.

3. Movement through the Leaves

The xylem vessels ramify in the leaves to form a branching system of fine vessels called leaf
veins. Water diffuses from the xylem vessels in the veins through the adjacent cells down its
water potential gradient. Water evaporates from the spongy cells into the air space, and diffuses
out through the stomata. This causes low pressure in the leaves, so water is sucked up the stem
to replace the lost water.
Evaporation is driven by solar energy, which is therefore the ultimate source of energy for all
the water movements in plants.

6.2 FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION

The rate of transpiration can be measured in the lab using a potometer.
A potometer actually measures the rate of water uptake by the cut stem, not the rate of
transpiration; and these two are not always the same. During the day plants often transpire more
water than they take up (i.e. they lose water and may wilt), and during the night plants may
take up more water than they transpire (i.e. they store water and become turgid). The difference
can be important for a large tree, but for a small shoot in a potometer the difference is usually
trivial and can be ignored. The potometer can be used to investigate how various environmental
factors affect the rate of transpiration.
Environmental factors that affect the rate of transpiration

i. Light
Light stimulates the stomata to open allowing gas exchange for photosynthesis, and this
also increases transpiration. This is a problem for some plants as they may lose water
during the day and wilt.

ii. Temperature.
High temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water from the spongy mesophyll
cells, and reduces air humidity, so transpiration increases.

32
iii. Humidity
High humidity means a higher water potential in the air, so a lower water potential
gradient between the leaf and the air, so less evaporation.
iv. Air movements
Wind blows away saturated air from around stomata, replacing it with drier air, so increasing
the water potential gradient and increasing transpiration.
Many plants are able to control their stomata, and if they are losing too much water and their
cells wilt, they can close their stomata, reducing transpiration and water loss.

6.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION

The transpiration stream has more than one function. It:
i. Supplies water for the leaf cells to carryout photosynthesis
ii. Carries mineral ions dissolved in water
iii. Provides water to keep the plant cells turgid
iv. Allows evaporation from the leaf surface, which cools the leaf, in a similar way to sweat
cooling the skin.

Experiment
Aim: To measure transpiration rate in plants Using a simple potometer.

Fig 6.3 Simple Potometer

An air bubble is introduced into the capillary tube at the start of the investigation. As water
evaporates through the stomata of the leaves water is drawn up the capillary tube causing the
bubble to move.
The investigation makes the assumption that water uptake is equal to the transpiration rate.
However not all water is lost from the leaves, some is taken up by leaf tissue or used for
photosynthesis.

Method
o Set the bubble to its starting position by using the tap to release water from the water
reservoir.
o Measure the time taken for the bubble to move a set distance

33
 o Measure how far the bubble moves in a set period of time.
o Record the results.
o Repeat the experiment.

You can also measure the rate of transpiration (water loss) using a balance

Fig 6.4: Measuring Water Loss

i. Describe how you can use the set up in the figure above to measure the rate of
transpiration.
ii. What is the use of oil on the surface of water?
iii. Which of the two; this method and the use of a photometer would give more accurate
results? Explain your answer.

6.4 WILTING
More transpiration takes place during the day than at night because the stomata are open during
the day and closed at night. The stomata open during the day so that carbon dioxide can diffuse
into the leaf. Carbon dioxide is the raw material for photosynthesis and diffuses into chloroplast
in the mesophyll cells.
The stomata close at night to reduce the volume of water lost by transpiration. They may also
close in hot dry conditions during the day as water lost during transpiration is not being replaced
by water from the soil. The stomata close up to reduce transpiration. If the plant still does not
get enough water it will start to wilt.

Fig 6.5 loss of water vapour from a leaf

34
Its cells have lost so much water that they are no longer turgid or full of water. Turgid cells
are firm and give the plant support. If these cells become flaccid, then the plant becomes soft.
The plant no is longer upright and the leaves droop. The leaves move downwards so that they
are out of direct rays of the sun so does not get hot. When the temperature decreases and they
can absorb more water than is lost by transpiration the leaves recover again.

Experiment
Aim: Investigating stomata distribution on leaf surfaces
Method for an epidermal impression of leaf
1. The upper surface of a leaf is painted with a thin layer of clear nail varnish.
2. Leave for 10 – 15 minutes to allow the varnish to dry.
3. Remove the layer of varnish by attaching clear sticky tape to it, peeling it from the leaf
surface and sticking it to a microscope slide.
4. Observe the slide with a microscope and count the number of stomata in the field of view.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 for the lower surface of a leaf.
6. Compare the results.

Result
Which surface has a larger number of stomata?

Conclusion
The function of stomata is to allow gas exchange between the cells of the leaf and the air;
however water is also lost by diffusion through open stomata. Having most of the stomata on
the lower surface of the leaf shades them from the heat of the sun, and is an adaptation to reduce
water loss.

Experiment
Aim: Comparing water loss from leaves
Method
1. Four leaves were removed from a green plant and their stalks covered with Vaseline
(this prevents water loss from the cut ends).
2. Their surfaces were treated as follows:
o Leaf 1 – Vaseline on upper surface of leaf,
o Leaf 2 – Vaseline on lower surface of leaf,
o Leaf 3 – Vaseline on upper and lower surface of leaf,
o Leaf 4 – No Vaseline.

Fig 6.6 water loss in leaves

35
Analysis

Leaf Appearance after 10 days Explanation

1 Slightly wrinkled As there are far less stomata on the upper

surface of a leaf the Vaseline has only
prevented a small amount of water loss.

2 Almost fresh As most stomata are found on the lower

surface the Vaseline has prevented most
of the water being lost from the leaf.

3 Fresh The Vaseline has prevented water loss

through the stomata on both surfaces.

4 Wrinkled and dried out Water has been lost through the stomata
of both surfaces.

The result in the table is a description and therefore cannot be graphed; this is a qualitative
result.

If the mass of the leaves were measured before and after 10 days and the percentage change in
mass was calculated we would have a result that could be graphed; this is a quantitative result.

Repeat this investigation so that you can obtain quantitative data. Identify the apparatus that
you would need. Write down your method and present it to your teacher for approval before
you can proceed.

36
INVESTIGATION
Your teacher will assist you in this experiment. Read through all the questions on this paper
carefully before starting work.
1. You are going to investigate osmosis in pieces of potato placed in different liquids. You
are also provided with three liquids A, B and C.
o Label three small beakers A, B and C.
o Pour liquid A into beaker A to a depth of 40 mm.
o Pour liquid B into beaker B to a depth of 40 mm.
o Pour liquid C into beaker C to a depth of 40 mm.

2. You are provided with half a potato, a white tile and a knife. Take care when using
the knife as the blade will be sharp.
o Remove the film that is covering the potato.
o Cut three thin slices of potato, as shown in Fig. 1.1. Each slice should be approximately
3 mm thick.

3. Lay one slice on the white tile. Remove the edges of the slice so that it is a square shape,
at least 30 mm along each side, as shown by the bold line in Fig. 1.2.
4. Put the pieces shaded in Fig. 1.2 to one side.

5. Cut the square shape into six sticks, approximately 30 mm long × 5 mm wide, as shown
by the dotted lines in Fig. 1.3.

6. Cut the remaining two slices of potato into sticks using the same method. This will give
you 18 sticks in total.

37
o Place six sticks into each of the three small beakers, A, B and C.
o Make a note of the time.
o Leave the sticks in the liquids for 15 minutes.

7. You are going to observe and record the texture and firmness of the sticks before and
after they have been in liquids A, B and C.
8. Prepare a table to record your results.

38
6.5 BLOOD CIRCULATION

Learners will be able to:

o describe the double circulatory system

In form 2 you learnt that;
i. The heart is part of the body’s circulatory system. Circulation is the movement of blood
around the body.
ii. The heart is a muscular pump that contracts and relaxes, without getting tired,
throughout one’s life. This is because of the special properties of the cardiac muscle,
the main tissue of the heart.
iii. The heart is made up of two halves separated by the septum. Each half is divided into
two chambers, an upper chamber called the atrium and a lower chamber called the
ventricle. This means that there are four chambers in the heart;
iv. The right atrium and the left atrium are thin walled and receive blood from the body
and lungs. The right ventricle and the left ventricle have thick muscular walls and
pump blood out of the heart to the lungs and the rest of the body.
v. The septum separates deoxygenated blood on the right side of the heart from
oxygenated blood on the left side of the heart.
The double circulation
Beginning at the lungs, blood flows into the left-hand side of the heart, and then out to the rest
of the body. It is brought back to the right-side of the heart, before going back to the lungs
again.

This is called a double circulation system, because the blood travels through the heart twice
in one complete journey around the body:

39
Fig 7.1 general circulatory system in humans showing double circulation

o one circuit links the heart and lungs (low pressure circulation)
o the other circuit links the heart with the rest of the body (high pressure circulation).

Importance of a double circulation

1. Oxygenated blood is kept separate from deoxygenated blood. The septum in the heart
ensures this complete separation. Oxygenated blood flows through the left side of the
heart while deoxygenated blood flows through the right.
2. The blood pressure in the systemic circulation is kept higher than that in the
pulmonary circulation. The left ventricle, with a thicker wall, pumps blood under higher
pressure to the body and delivers oxygenated blood effectively to all parts of the body.
The right ventricle has a thinner wall and pumps blood to the lungs under lower
pressure, thereby avoiding any lung damage.

Exercise
i. Which blood vessels carry blood (a) away from, and (b) towards the heart?
ii. What is a double circulatory system?
iii. What is oxygenated blood?
iv. Where does the blood get oxygenated?
v. Which side of the heart contains oxygenated blood?

40
TOPIC 7: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
Learners will be able to:
o explain the structures of wind and insect pollinated flowers
7.0 WIND AND INSECT POLLINATED FLOWERS

Pollination is the process of transfer and deposition of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma surface of the flower.

It is an important event in the sexual reproduction of seed bearing plants. Pollination is

important for ensuring that seed set and continuity of a species.

There are two main types of pollination - self-pollination and cross pollination.

7.1 SELF POLLINATION

It is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of either the same
flower or another flower on the same plant. Accordingly, self-pollination is of two types;

i. Pollination in which the pollen grains from the anthers of a flower are transferred to the
stigma of the same flower.

ii. pollination in which the pollen grains from the anthers of one flower are transferred to
the stigma of another flower on the same plant

Advantages of self-pollination
o Chances of pollination are more.
o Self-pollination maintains purity of the race and avoids mixing.
o It need not produce a large number of pollen grains.
o Flower need not possess devices such as large and showy petals, presence of scent and
nectar, etc. to attract pollinators.

Disadvantages of self-pollination
o Offspring continuously gets weaker after every generation.
o Less chances of the production of new varieties.

7.2 CROSS POLLINATION

41
Fig 8.1 Cross pollination by bees
Cross Pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from the flower of one plant to the
stigma of the flower of another plant of the same species.

7.3 AGENTS OF POLLINATION

Pollination is effected by many agents like wind, water, insects, birds and other animals. On
the basis of the agents that bring pollination, the mode of pollination is as follows:

Fig 8.2 Bees are important pollination agents

Wind pollination
It is a method of pollination or transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma through the
agency of wind.
Wind pollinated flowers are characterized by the following adaptations:

Fig 8.3 Features of wind pollinated flowers

42
 o Flowers are small colourless, inconspicuous, unscented and do not produce any nectar.
o Pollen grains are small, light, dry, dusty and sometimes winged so that they are easily
blown away to long distances.
o Pollen grains of wind pollinated flowers are produced in huge quantities. For example,
a single flower of Cannabis produces 500 000 pollen grains.
o The flowers are well exposed in the air. In certain plants, they are produced above the
foliage before the appearance of new leaves.
o The stigmas are large, well-exposed, hairy, and feathery or branched to catch the air-
borne pollen grains.
o In some plants, the anthers burst suddenly to throw the pollen grains into the air

The common examples of wind pollinated flowers are - grasses, sugar-cane, bamboo,
coconut, palm, date palm, maize.

Insect pollination
The important pollinating insects are bees, butterflies, moths, wasps and beetles. The insects
visit the flowers for nectar, edible pollen grains or shelter. Bees are the chief visitors of flowers
and they obtain both nectar and pollen from the flowers. They have pollen sacs or pollen
baskets for collecting pollen.

Fig 8.4 Features of insect pollinated flowers

The important characteristics of insect pollinated flowers are as under.

o The flowers are large or if small they are grouped into inflorescence
o The flowers are usually brightly coloured and have specific scent.
o The flowers usually possess nectar or edible pollen.
o They produce fewer pollen grains.
o Anthers and stigmas are commonly inserted.
o Stigmas are usually un-branched and may be flat or lobed.

A detailed study of the inter-relationship between the structure of flower and insect pollinators
clearly indicates that some flowering plants are dependent upon a particular type of insect for
pollination.

Exercise
1. The diagram shows a section through a flower of wheat.

43
 i. Suggest the method of pollination in this wheat flower.

ii. Give two reasons for your answer.

44
7.4 GERMINATION
Learners will be able to:

o describe the process of germination

o investigate conditions necessary for germination
o calculate percentage germination

In form two we learnt that; seed is a ripened ovule which contains the embryo or the miniature
of plant body. Seeds of different plants vary in their size and shape. However, the general plan
of structural organization of seed remains almost the same.

7.5 PARTS OF A SEED

Every seed has an outer covering called seed coat. It develops from the integuments of the
ovule. The outer coat is called testa. If only one covering is present in the seed, it is called
testa. The testa is hard and leathery.

The outer surface of seed shows a scar or mark of attachment with the seed stalk. It is called
hilum. There is a small pore, called micropyle, which represents the micropyle of ovule

The seed coat encloses an embryo which is differentiated into radicle, plumule and
cotyledons. The radicle, when elongated, gives rise to primary root whereas the plumule gives
rise to aerial shoot.

The number of cotyledons or seed leaves may be one as in monocotyledons or two as in

dicotyledons.

The process by which the dormant embryo of the seed become active growth and forms a
seedling or a young plant capable of independent existence is called seed germination.

7.6 PROCESS OF SEED GERMINATION

Fig 9.1 Germination in monocots and dicots

45
Most seeds germinate, when they are provided with water, oxygen and their dormancy is over.
The main steps of seed germination are described below.

1. Imbibition
The first step in germination is imbibition or uptake of water by the dehydrated seed. The seeds,
when placed in moist soil, absorb water through micropyle. Imbibition causes the seed to swell
as the cellular constituents are dehydrated. Imbibition takes place with great force. It ruptures
the seed coat and enables the radicle to emerge. It causes swelling of seeds and development
of the great force called imbibition pressure. Dry seeds packed in a bottle containing water can
crack it as they imbibe water and swell.

2. Respiration
Imbibition makes the embryo cells active and causes resumption of metabolic activities. Their
respiration is initially anaerobic. The cells possess some simple polysaccharides for functioning
as respiratory substrate. When the anaerobic respiration reaches a peak, mitochondria
differentiate in the embryo cells. The respiration now becomes aerobic as oxygen starts
entering the seed coats.

3. Mobilization of reserve food

The activated embryo cells induce the production of hormones and digestion of reserve food.
Depending on the nature of seed, the resource may be stored chiefly in the endosperm (e.g.
Castor, cereal grains and other monocots) or in the cotyledons (e.g. many dicotyledons such as
pea, gram, and bean). The cells which are rich in proteins produce and secrete hydrolyzing
enzymes. These enzymes bring about the digestion of the reserve foods. The latter are changed
into sugars, amino acids and other soluble substances. They are translocated to the embryo.

4. Growth of embryo
On the receipt of soluble food, the cells of embryo axis undergo division and expansion. The
radicle end of the embryo axis is the first to enlarge. It grows out of the seed coats and passes
downwardly into the soil to establish itself as the primary root. The plumule also comes out of
the seed and soil to establish itself as shoot.

7.7 FACTORS NECESSARY FOR SEED GERMINATION

A number of factors are required for the process of germination. They are of two types-external
and internal.

External factors

1. Water
Seeds are generally highly dehydrated with only 6-15% of water content in their cells.
Therefore they have low physiological activity. Water provides sufficient hydration to the
concentrated protoplasm of the transport gases, a cause hydrolysis of reserve food its transport
and allows embryo cells to grow in size.

2. Oxygen
Oxygen is essential for aerobic respiration to release energy for the metabolic activities. Seeds
usually require oxygen or good aeration for their germination.

46
3. Temperature
Seeds require a definite temperature range within which they germinate. Commonly seeds
germinate within temperature range of 50C to 400C. However, the optimum temperature or seed
germination lies between 25-300C for most of the species.

4. Light
Light is not an essential factor for the germination of most of the seeds. However some are
light sensitive and their germination is influenced by the presence or absence of light.

Internal factor

1. Maturity of embryo
The seeds of some plants, when shed, contain immature embryo. Such seeds germinate
only after maturation of their embryo.

2. After ripening
The freshly shed seeds of some plants may not possess the required hormones for the
growth of embryo; such seeds germinate only after the maturation of their embryo.

3. Viability
Usually seeds remain viable or living only for a particular period. The viability of seeds
range from a few days to more than one hundred years. Maximum viability has been
recorded in some seeds. Seeds germinate only within the period of viability.

4. Dormancy
Seeds of many plants are dormant at the time of shedding. Seed dormancy may be due
to various reasons like impermeability, toughness of seed coats, presence of growth
inhibitors etc. Such seeds germinate only after natural breakage of dormancy.

Exercise

1. Many years ago some farmers stored wheat in pits in the ground. The figure shows a pit
full of grain.

Wheat grains near the edge of the pit germinate.

47
The germinating grains use up all of one gas from the air in the pit and produce a different gas.
The germinating grains also release heat that causes the temperature in the pit to rise to 80 °C.

i. Name the chemical reaction that uses up and produces the gases.
ii. Name the gas used up during this chemical reaction.
iii. Name the gas released during this chemical reaction.
iv. Suggest and explain three reasons why most of the grains in the pit did not germinate
or decay.

2. Seeds from the plant family Papilionaceae form an important part of the human diet. You
are provided with three different types of soaked seed: lentil (Lens culinaris), chickpea
(Cicer arietinum) and soya bean (Glycine max).

Carefully observe these seeds with the hand lens.

a. Describe the differences in shape and appearance of the seed coat (testa) between the
three types of seed.

Write your answers in Table 1.1.

feature lentil chickpea soya bean

shape of seed

appearance of

b. Describe the food tests you could carry out to show that these seeds contain:

i. protein;
ii. fat.

c. Carefully remove the seed coat (testa) from one seed of each type.

Separate the two parts of each seed (cotyledons) and place on a clean white tile.
Add iodine solution to the cotyledons of each seed.
Leave the seeds for at least five minutes.

48
Copy the table below in your book and record your results

Type of seed

Lentil Chickpea Soya bean

Observation

Conclusion

d. The percentage of protein and fat in five types of seed are shown in Table 1.3.

Type of Percentage of protein / Percentage of fat /

seed % %

chickpea 8.0 2.5

Lentil 9.0 0.6

lima bean 6.0 0.4

mung bean 7.0 0.4

soya bean 16.0 8.0

i. Construct a bar chart to show the percentages of protein and fat in the five types
of seed. Use the same axes for the two sets of data. Your teacher will give you
the graph paper. DO NOT draw in the text book.

49
ii. Meat is a good source of protein.
Name the type of seed in the table that would be a good alternative to meat in
the human diet. Percentage Germination

50
7.8 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

Learners will be able to:

o state the functions of the male and female reproductive system
o describe the structure and functions of sex cells
o draw and label the sex cells
o describe the route of the sperm from the testis to the ovum after ovulation define
fertilization
o describe the menstrual cycle
o describe the role of the placenta
o identify the substances exchanged in the placenta

7.8.1 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Fig 10.1 human male reproductive system

The male reproductive system is made up of the following sex organs the testes seminal
vesicles, prostate glands, urethra and penis.
The penis becomes firm to be inserted into vagina during sexual intercourse to transfer sperm
into the female body.

A pair of testes is located in the scrotum outside the abdominal cavity because sperm formation
requires a lower temperature than the normal body temperature. Each testis contains a coiled
mass of tubules which produce sperms.

The process of formation of sperms is known as spermatogenesis. The cells of the testes also
secrete the male sex hormones called androgens. The most important androgen is testosterone
which control spermatogenesis and play a role in the male secondary sexual characteristics
such as growth of beard, moustache, body hair and hoarse voice.

The sperms are delivered through the sperm duct also known as the vas deferens which unites
with the urethra which forms a common passage for both sperms and urine. Along the path of
vas deferens lie the seminal vesicles and the prostate glands, which add their secretions so
that the sperms are released in fluid called semen. This fluid provides nutrition and helps in
the transport of sperms.

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7.8.2 STRUCTURE OF THE SPERM

Fig. 10.2 Human Sperm.

The sperm consists of four parts namely head, neck, mid piece and tail. The head contains a
nucleus containing a haploid set of chromosomes (genetic material) and a terminal acrosome
containing enzymes. The mid piece contains the spirally coiled mitochondria which generates
energy for the movement of the sperm. The tail propels the sperm and enables it to swim in the
liquid medium.

7.8.3 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Fig 10.3 human female reproductive system

The female reproductive system consists of ovaries and other organs such as fallopian tubes,
uterus, cervix and vagina. The ovaries produce an egg (ovum) in every 28 days. The ovaries
also produce the female sex hormones, oestrogen and progesterone.

Each ovary consists of follicle cells, which produce the ovum by a process known as oogenesis.
The uterus is a hollow, thick-walled muscular organ. The fertilized ovum is implanted and
52
nourished in the uterus. The vagina is a muscular tube which connects the cervix and the
external genital organs.

The vagina receives the sperms and serves as a birth canal. The hormone oestrogen is
responsible for oogenesis and for the appearance of female secondary sexual characters such
as development of breasts, widening of hips, growth of hair and feminine voice.

7.8.4 STRUCTURE OF EGG OF HUMAN OVUM

Fig 10.4: Human Ovum

The egg of human is without yolk and contains cortical granules and yolk platelets. The egg is
surrounded by a number of egg membranes. The fluid-filled cyst inside which an ovum
develops is called a Graffian follicle.

After ovulation, the egg is caught in the funnel of the oviduct. The funnel is lined with cilia
which beat back and forth, wafting the egg into the entrance of the oviduct. Very slowly the
egg travels towards the uterus. Cilia lining the oviduct help to sweep it along. Muscles in the
walls of the oviduct also help it to move by peristalsis.

If the egg is not fertilized by sperm within 8-24 hours of ovulation, it will die. By this time it
has travelled a short way along the oviduct. So a sperm must reach an egg while it has only
travelled a short way along the oviduct. So a sperm must reach the egg while it is quite near
the top of the oviduct if fertilization has to be successful.

7.8.5 MATING
When a man is sexually excited, blood is pumped into spaces inside the penis tissue, so that it
becomes erect. To bring the sperm as close as possible to the egg, the man’s penis is placed
into the vagina of the woman. Sperm are pushed out of the penis into the vagina. This happens
when muscles in the walls of the tubes containing the sperm contract rhythmically. The wave
of contraction begins in the testes, travels along the sperm duct and into the penis. The sperm
are squeezed along, and out of the man’s urethra into the woman’s vagina. This is called
ejaculation. Ejaculation deposits semen at the top of the vagina near the cervix.

7.8.6 FERTILIZATION
The sperm are still quite a long way from the egg. They swim using their tails, up through the
cervix, through the uterus and into the oviduct. Sperm can only swim at a speed of 4 mm per
minute, so it takes quite a while for them to get as far as the oviducts. Many will never get there
at all. But one ejaculation deposits over a million sperm into the vagina, so there are high
chances that some of them will reach the egg.

53
Fig 10.5 Surrounded by sperm but only one will fertilize it

One sperm enters the egg. Only the head of the sperm gets inside; the tail is left outside. The
nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the egg to form a zygote. This is called
fertilization. As soon as the successful sperm penetrates the egg, the egg membrane becomes
impenetrable, so that no other sperm gets in. The unsuccessful sperm will all die.

The zygote moves slowly down the oviduct. As it goes, it divides by mitosis. It takes several
hours for the embryo to reach the uterus, and by this time it is a ball of 16 or 32 cells (a
blastocyst). The blastula develops into an embryo

Fig.10.6: Zygote divides by mitosis

The uterus has a thin, spongy lining, and the embryo sinks into it. The sinking of the embryo
into the uterus wall is called implantation.

54
Fig 10.6 implantation

Fig 10.7: From Ovulation to Implantation

As the blastula develops into an embryo some of the cells form a placenta, linking the embryo
with the uterus lining. Organs such as the heart develop and, after 8 weeks, the embryo is called
a foetus.

7.8.7 THE PLACENTA

Growth of the foetus requires a good supply of nutrients and oxygen. This is achieved through
the link between the placenta and the mother’s blood supply in the uterus lining.

The placenta is an organ composed of soft tissue that has finger-like projections called villi.
The villi fit closely into the uterus wall. The umbilical cord joins the foetus to the placenta.
The umbilical cord contains: two arteries which carry blood from the foetus to the placenta and
one vein which returns blood to the foetus

55
Fig.10.8: The Placenta

The Placenta brings blood supply of foetus close to mother’s blood but prevents mixing of the
blood. This is really important because the foetus and mother may have different blood groups;
any mixing could result in blood clotting, which could be fatal to both mother and foetus.

Blood from the foetus pass through the umbilical artery to the placenta. Here it comes close to
the mother's blood. Oxygen, amino acids, glucose and other nutrients diffuse from the mother’s
blood into the blood of the foetus. Carbon dioxide urea and other wastes pass into the mother’s
blood from the foetal blood. Blood returns to the foetus through the umbilical vein.

The placenta also produces the hormone progesterone throughout the course of pregnancy
which stimulates the maintenance of the thickness of the uterus lining.

Antibodies pass from the mother’s blood into the foetus’ blood through the placenta.
Antibodies give the baby some resistance to infection

7.8.8 FUNCTIONS OF THE AMNIOTIC SAC AND AMNIOTIC FLUID

Fig.10.9: The Amniotic Sac.

The amniotic sac is a membrane formed from cells of the embryo, which contain amniotic
fluid. It encloses the foetus and prevents entry of bacteria.

56
The amniotic fluid supports the foetus, protecting it from physical damage. It also absorbs
waste products (urine) released by the foetus.

7.8.9 MENSTRUAL CYCLE

The menstrual cycle in women is a recurring process in which the lining of the uterus is
prepared for pregnancy, and if pregnancy does not happen, the lining is shed at menstruation.
The cycle lasts about 28 days.

Fig 10.10 menstrual cycle

Several hormones control the menstrual cycle;

o Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinising hormone (LH) are secreted by
the pituitary gland which is at the base of the brain. The functions of these two
hormones is to release the egg from the ovary (ovulation)
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
o stimulates growth / development of follicle;
o stimulates secretion of oestrogen;
o enhances effect of LH in stimulating ovulation;
Luteinising hormone (LH)
o stimulates (final) development of follicle;
o stimulates ovulation;
o stimulates development of corpus luteum;
o stimulates production of progesterone / corpus luteum produces progesterone.
Oestrogen
o stimulates repair / proliferation of uterine lining;
(as it rises in concentration) it inhibits FSH;
eventually positive feedback on FSH;
o (as it peaks its concentration) it stimulates release of LH:

57
Progesterone
o maintains / proliferates the uterine lining;
o inhibits release of FSH;
o inhibits release of LH;
o fall in progesterone results in menstruation;
o fall in progesterone removes inhibition of FSH and new cycle commences;

o Oestrogen and Progesterone are secreted by the ovaries. Their function is to change
the thickness of the uterus lining in preparation for pregnancy and if pregnancy doesn’t
occur the lining is shed off.
o The recurrence of changes that occur in the female sex organs for about 28 days
throughout the reproductive life of women from puberty to menopause (except during
pregnancy) is known as the menstrual cycle.
o After ovulation, the mature ovum is brought to the fallopian tube and may get fertilized.
o When the ovum is not fertilized, the ovum along with the uterine wall is ruptured and
discharged with blood and the uterine tissue by a process called menstruation. The
menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones. Figure illustrates what happens during the
human menstrual cycle.
o First the follicle develops inside the ovary. The developing follicle secretes a hormone
oestrogen. The oestrogen causes the lining of the uterus grow thick and spongy.
o When the follicle is fully developed, ovulation takes place then follicle stops secreting
oestrogen. The follicle becomes corpus luteum which starts to secrete hormone
progesterone.
o Progesterone keeps the uterus lining thick and spongy and well supplied by blood, in
case the egg is fertilized. If it is not fertilized, the corpus luteum gradually disappears.
Progesterone is not secreted anymore, and so the uterus lining breaks down.
Menstruation happens.
o A new follicle starts to develop in the ovary, and the cycle begins again.

But if the egg is fertilized the corpus luteum does not deteriorate so quickly. It carries on
secreting progesterone until the embryo implants into the uterus wall and the placenta
develops. Then the placenta takes over the production of progesterone through the pregnancy
period. Progesterone maintains the uterus lining, so that menstruation does not happen during
pregnancy.

58
TOPIC 8: HEALTH AND DISEASES
Learners will be able to:
o list sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
o describe the signs, symptoms and effects of : Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Chancroid Genital
herpes
o state the causative agents of: Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Chancroid, Genital herpes
o state the control methods and treatment
o describe the signs and symptoms of malaria, typhoid, Ebola and cholera
o state the cause of malaria, typhoid, Ebola and cholera
o explain how the diseases are treated
o describe the effects of tobacco smoking on health
o describe effects of excessive consumption of alcohol
o explain effects of use of mandrax and cannabis
o outline the effects of breathing solvents

8.0 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Sexually transmitted infections are diseases that are almost always caught by having sexual
intercourse with an infected person. The most common sexually transmitted infections are:
Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Chancroid and Genital herpes.

8.1 GONORRHOEA
The disease is caused by a bacterium, Neisseria gonorrhoea. The bacterium lives in the lining
of the male and female reproductive organs. The disease is transmitted only through sexual
intercourse.
Signs and symptoms and effects of gonorrhoea
o In men: a sore develops on the penis and there is a discharge of yellow puss from the penis;
burning feeling when passing urine. The effect in men is that if treatment is delayed testis
become infected; sperm duct is blocked, leading to sterility.
o In women: a thick discharge from the vagina and burning feeling when passing urine. The
effect in women is that if treatment is delayed, oviducts become infected and blocked,
leading to sterility.
o If a pregnant woman gets gonorrhoea, her baby may become infected as it passes the vagina
during birth. As a result it may develop very sore eyes which, if untreated, can lead quickly
to blindness.

Treatment of gonorrhoea
Once signs and symptoms appear, the diseases should be treated with antibiotics. A full course
of the treatment should be taken to kill the bacteria. One gets cured in a matter of a few days
after taking treatment.

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8.2 SYPHILIS
Syphilis is also a sexually transmitted infection caused by a bacterium called Treponema
pallidum.

Signs, symptoms and effects of syphilis

o The first sign of the infection appears about two to four weeks after intercourse with
the infected person. The sign consists of a sore on, or near the, the reproductive organs:
usually just inside the vagina in females and on the end of the penis in males. The sore
doesn’t hurt and it usually lasts for only a week or two at most, so the infected person
may not notice it.
o The bacteria then move to other parts of the body, causing a mild fever and a rash on
the skin. After a few weeks these symptoms disappear, and the person appears to
recover. However, the bacterium is still in the blood stream and eventually they attack
the brain, making the person go blind and insane. This final stage of the disease may
not occur until many years after the original infection.
o If a pregnant woman has syphilis, the pathogen is likely to pass across the placenta into
the baby’s blood. As a result the baby may be born dead (still born), or it may be born
with the disease and become crippled with it later.

Treatment of syphilis
Nowadays all pregnant women have their blood tested and treated if infected to make sure that
their blood does not contain any syphilis germs.
Antibiotics such as penicillin will cure syphilis if a full prescribed course is taken. But unless
it is used in the early stages of the disease, the bacterium may do permanent damage.

8.3 GENITAL HERPES

Genital herpes is caused by a virus similar to the kind which causes chicken pox and cold sores.
The symptoms include blisters inside the vagina in females and on the head of the penis in
males. Once the virus is in you, it remains there for life and further attacks of the disease may
occur from time to time. A pregnant woman with the disease may pass it to her baby.

8.4 CHANCROID
Prevention of the spread of sexually transmitted infections
There are a number of simple rules that can prevent the spread of sexually transmitted
infections like gonorrhoea, syphilis, chancroid, and genital herpes. These are:
o Having life long sexual relationship with only one faithful person
o Educating people about the risks involved in sexual activity and how to prevent sexually
transmitted infections
o Practice safe sex by using condoms
o Finding and testing any sexual partners of a person who has been diagnosed positive of
sexually transmitted infections.

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8.5 MALARIA
The pathogen which cause malaria is a protoctist called Plasmodium. You get malaria by being
bitten by a female mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles if she is carrying the
plasmodium in her saliva. The mosquito has a long proboscis, which she pushes through the
skin into the blood vessel. She sucks up blood through the proboscis. To stop the blood clotting,
she injects some saliva. If her saliva contains Plasmodium, then she injects the Plasmodium as
well.

The mosquito is a vector for the disease. The plasmodium gets into your blood and transported
to the liver cells. They breed, and after a few days, leave the liver cells and enter some of your
red blood cells. This is when you feel ill, feeling as though you have flue.

The plasmodium breeds even faster when they are in the red blood cells. When a red blood cell
becomes full of the parasite, it bursts, releasing them in the blood so that they can infect other
red blood cells. This happens at regular intervals- say every two days. The exact interval
depends on the species of the plasmodium with which you are infected.

8.6 TYPHOID FEVER

Typhoid is caused by the pathogen Salmonella typhi, a bacterium. Transmission is through
faecal contamination of water due to untreated sewage contaminating drinking water supplies,
or to poor hygiene. Other sources are milk and food contaminated by infected person or carrier,
and flies.

Infection mechanism
Bacteria colonise small intestine, are absorbed into the lymphatic system, multiply in lymph
glands for 10 days, then enter blood stream colonizing white blood cells and causing blood
poisoning due to production of a powerful endotoxin.

Signs and Symptoms

After a two-week incubation period symptoms include fever, headache, muscle pains, followed
later by diarrhoea, rash on the skin and mental confusion.
If untreated recovery takes about a month but death is possible in rare cases.

Treatment with antibiotics is very effective.

Prevention is by ensuring clean water, by separating sewage from drinking water supplies and
by personal hygiene.

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CHAPTER 2: CHEMISTRY
TOPIC 1: SEPERATION OF MIXTURES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:

 Describe the process of distillation and fractional distillation

1.0 DISTITILITION
Distillation is a process that can be used to separate a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids.
It works when the liquids have different boiling points. Distillation is commonly used
to separate ethanol, the alcohol in alcoholic drinks, from water.
1.1 DISTILLATION OF A MIXTURE OF WATER AND ETHANOL
Simple distillation is used to separate two liquids with boiling points which differ greatly by at
least 25 °C.
Ethanol boils at 78.4 °C while water boils at 100 °C. So, by heating the mixture, the most
volatile component (ethanol) will concentrate to a greater degree in the vapour leaving the
liquid. The ethanol boils first and forms vapour which goes up the round bottomed flask and
passes into the condenser where it condenses into liquid ethanol and is collected as distillate in
another container. The process continues until all the ethanol boils out of the mixture. This
point can be recognized by the sharp rise in temperature shown on the thermometer.

This is the sequence of events in distillation:

Heating → evaporating → cooling → condensing

Fig.1: General simple distillation apparatus

Activity: Simple Distillation

62
Distillation: Mixture of alcohol ethanol and water
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.
2. Gently pour the mixture of ethanol and water in the distillation flask.
3. Mount a thermometer through a stopper as shown.
4. Light a burner to heat the mixture open the water inlet tape to supply water to the condenser.
5. Observe the vapour forming in the flask, cooling and condensing in the condenser.
6. Continue heating up to when all the ethanol has turned into vapour, that is just before 100
0
C.
7. Put out the burner and stop the process.

1.2 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

Fractional distillation differs from distillation only in that it separates a mixture into a number
of different parts, called fractions. A tall column is fitted above the mixture, with several
condensers coming off at different heights. The column is hot at the bottom and cool at the top.
Substances with high boiling points condense at the bottom and substances with low boiling
points condense at the top. Like distillation, fractional distillation works because the different
substances in the mixture have different boiling points. When the difference in boiling point of
liquids is less than 10 K, the separation cannot be achieved by simple distillation as two or
more components will distil together. The separation of such liquids is achieved by fractional
distillation process.

Fig.2: Fractional Distillation.

The fractional distillation column is set up with the heat source at the bottom on the round
bottomed flask. As the distance from the flask increases, a temperature difference is formed in
the column. It is coolest at the top and hottest at the bottom. As the mixed vapour rises to the
top, some of the vapour condenses and re-vaporises along the temperature difference.
Each time the vapour condenses and vaporises, the composition of the more volatile component
in the vapour increases. This distils the vapour along the length of the column, and eventually

63
the vapour is composed solely of the more volatile component. The vapour condenses on the
glass platforms, inside the column, and runs back down into the liquid below, the remaining
vapour goes out into the condenser and is cooled to liquid and collected at a temperature equal
to its boiling point.

Practice questions
This apparatus can be used to obtain pure water from salt water.

a. What is the purpose of the ice-cold water?

b. The glass arm must reach far down into the second test-tube. Why?
c. Where in the apparatus does this take place?
i. Evaporation
ii. Condensation
d. What is this separation method called?
e. Suggest two other mixtures that can be separated by:
i. simple distillation
ii. Fractional distillation

TOPIC 2: THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

64
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
• Define relative mass/mass number
• Define the proton number/atomic number
• Calculate the number of neutrons from given data
• Name the sub-atomic particles
• State the relative charges of and masses of sub-atomic particles
• State the relative position of sub-atomic particles within an atom
• Name the first 20 elements in the periodic table stating their symbols
• Write the electronic configuration of the first 20 elements

2.0 THE ATOM

An atom consists of three types of particles. These are electrons, protons and neutrons. These
particles occupy different parts of the atom. Protons and neutrons are found at the centre of the
atom called a nucleus and electrons occupy the outer part of the atom surrounding the
nucleus that contains protons and neutrons.

An atom
Fig.1: Structure of an Atom.
Neutrons are neutral, they have no charge, but protons and electrons are electrically charged.
A proton has a relative charge of +1, while an electron has a relative charge of -1.

Particle Symbol Charge Mass

Electron e- -1 0.0005486 amu

Proton p+ +1 1.007276 amu

Neutron no 0 1.008665 amu

The total
number of electrons in an atom is always the same as the number of protons in the nucleus.
This means atoms have no overall electrical charge.

65
The number of protons in an atom is called its proton number or atomic number. The total
number of protons and neutrons is called the atomic mass or mass number of the atom. This
represents the mass of the atom.
Electrons are arranged in energy levels called shells, and different energy levels can hold
different numbers of electrons. The electronic structure of an atom is a description of how the
electrons are arranged, which can be shown in a diagram or by numbers, and this is the
electronic configuration of the atom. It shows how electrons are arranged in an atom.

The number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom can be determined from a set of
simple rules.

 The number of protons in an atom is equal to its atomic number denoted by (Z).
 The number of electrons in a neutral atom is equal to the number of protons.
 The mass number of the atom (M) is equal to the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.
 The number of neutrons is equal to the difference between the mass number of the atom
(M) and the atomic number (Z).

The notation A X is used to represent an atomic nucleus of an atom

z

The innermost shell or lowest energy level, is filled with electrons first. Each succeeding shell
can only hold a certain number of electrons before it becomes full. The innermost shell can
hold a maximum of two electrons, the second shell a maximum of eight, the third eight and so
on. The table below gives the maximum capacity of the first three shells.

Maximum capacity of the first three shells

energy level or shell maximum number of electrons

First 2
Second 8
Third 8

A lithium atom, for example, has three electrons. Two are in the first energy level, and
remaining one in the second.
A carbon atom has six electrons. Two are in the first energy level, and the remaining four in
the second energy level.

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Fig.2: Arrangement of Electrons in a Lithium Atom.

Fig.3: Arrangement of Electrons in a Carbon Atom.

A calcium atom has 20 electrons. Two are in the first energy level, and eight in the second
energy level, eight in the third energy level and two in the fourth energy level.

The electronic configurations in the atoms of the elements above are:

Lithium - 2:1
Carbon - 2:4
Calcium - 2:8:8:2
Valence electrons
Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons. For Li, the valence is
1, for C, it is 4 and for Ca it is 2. Valence electrons participate in the union of atoms, formation
of a bond.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

67
1. The table above describes some particles.
PARTICLE ELECTRONS PROTONS NEUTRONS
A 12 12 12
B 12 12 14
C 10 12 12
D 10 8 8
E 9 9 10

(a) Which three particles are neutral atoms?

(b) Which particle is a negative ion? What is the charge on this ion?
(c) Which particle is a positive ion? What is the charge on this ion?
(d) Which two particles are isotopes?
(e) Use the table on page 29 to identify A to E.

2. The following statements are about the particles that make up the atom. For each statement
write:
p if it describes the proton e if it describes the electron n if it describes the neutron
A the positively-charged particle
B found with the proton, in the nucleus
C the particle that can occur in different numbers, in atoms of the same element
D held in shells around the nucleus
E the negatively-charged particle
F the particle with negligible mass
G the number of these particles is found by subtracting the proton number from the nucleon
number
H the particle with no charge
I the particle with the same mass as a neutron
J the particle that dictates the position of the element in the Periodic Table
3. For each of the six elements aluminium (Al), boron (B), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O),
phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), write down:
(a)
(i) which period of the Periodic Table it belongs to
(ii) its group number in the Periodic Table
(iii) its proton number
(iv) the number of electrons in its atoms
(v) its electronic configuration
(vi) the number of outer electrons in its atoms
(vii) The outer electrons are also called the electrons. What is the missing word? (7
letters)
(viii) Which of the above elements would you expect to have similar properties? Why?

68
4. This diagram represents the electronic arrangement in an atom of an element of the Periodic
Table
a) i Give the electron distribution for the atom.
ii What is special about this arrangement?
b) Which group does the element belong to?
c) Name another element with the same number of outer-shell electrons in its atoms.

2.1 THE PERIODIC TABLE

69
All the different elements are arranged in a chart called the periodic table. A Russian scientist
called Dmitri Mendeleev produced one of the first practical periodic tables in the 19th century.
The structure of the atom of an element is highly related to its position in the periodic table.
The modern periodic table is based on the initial ideas he used.

The first 20 elements in the periodic table run from hydrogen to calcium. Their electronic
structures can be shown either as diagrams or numbers. You need to know how to do both. You
also need to know their atomic numbers and mass numbers.

ATOMIC MASS CHEMICAL CHEMICAL

NUMBER NUMBER ELEMENT SYMBOL

1 1 Hydrogen H

2 4 Helium He

3 7 Lithium Li

4 9 Beryllium Be

5 11 Boron B

6 12 Carbon C

7 14 Nitrogen N

8 16 Oxygen O

9 19 Fluorine F

10 20 Neon Ne

11 23 Sodium Na

12 24 Magnesium Mg

13 27 Aluminium Al

14 28 Silicon Si

15 31 Phosphorus P

16 32 Sulphur S

17 35.5 Chlorine Cl

18 40 Argon Ar

19 39 Potassium K

20 40 Calcium Ca
THE PERIODIC TABLE SHOWING POSITION OF ELEMENTS

70
The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
 the horizontal rows are called periods
 the vertical columns are called groups
The main groups are numbered from 1 to 7 going from left to right, and the last group on the
right is group 0. The section in the middle of the table is called the Transition Metals section.
The transition metals are numbered from 1 to 18. If you know what one of the elements in a
group is like, you can make predictions about the other elements in a group. For example, all
the atoms of the elements in group 1 have 1 electron each in the outermost shell, and all the
elements in group 0 have 8 electrons in the outer shell.

The zigzag line in this diagram separates the metals, on the left, from non-metals, on the right.
Hydrogen is a non-metal but it is often put in the middle because some of its properties
resemble those of both metals and non-metals. Metals are highly electropositive, that means,
they have a low affinity for electrons, which means they have a high tendency of losing
electrons, while non-metals have a high affinity for electrons and so are electronegative, which
is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons

PERIODIC TABLE SHOWING ATOMIC NUMBERS

71
Each element has its own chemical symbol, represented by letters, and its atomic number or
proton number. You will only find elements in the periodic table and never compounds. So you
won’t find substances like water or sodium chloride in the periodic table.

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF ELEMENTS IN A GROUP

Groups in the periodic table contain elements with similar chemical properties. But there are
usually trends in properties that allow us to make predictions. For example, in group 1:

Melting point Density Reactivity

Li Decreases down the group Increases down the group Increases down the group
Na Decreases down the group Increases down the group Increases down the group
K Decreases down the group Increases down the group Increases down the group
Rb Decreases down the group Increases down the group Increases down the group

Caesium is the next element in group 1, and it can be found below rubidium. You can accurately
predict that it will have the lowest melting point, the highest density and the highest reactivity
of all the elements in group 1.
A group is a vertical column in the periodic table. Groups usually have more significant
periodic trends than periods. Elements within the same group generally have the same electron
configurations in their valence shell. Consequently, elements in the same group tend to have a
shared chemistry and exhibit a clear trend in properties with increasing atomic number.
Elements in the same group tend to show patterns in atomic radius (size of the
atom), and electronegativity. From top to bottom in a group, the atomic radii of the elements
increase. Since there are more filled energy levels, valence electrons are found farther from the
nucleus. A group has a top to bottom decrease in electronegativity.

72
2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ELEMENTS IN A PERIOD
Elements in the same period show trends in the size of the atom called the atomic radius,
electron affinity (the power to hold on to electrons) and electronegativity. Moving left to right
across a period, atomic radius usually decreases. Electronegativity increases in the same
manner as electron affinity because of the pull exerted on the electrons by the nucleus. Electron
affinity also shows a slight trend across a period. Metals (left side of a period) generally have
a lower electron affinity than non-metals (right side of a period), with the exception of the
elements in group 8.

2.4 ISOTOPES
Isotopes are the atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons. They have the same
proton number, but different mass numbers.

Fig.4: Isotopes.
The chemical properties of isotopes of a single element have similar properties. The exception
would be the isotopes of hydrogen since the number of neutrons has such a significant effect
on the size of the hydrogen nucleus. The physical properties of isotopes are different from each
other because these properties depend on the mass of the atom. This difference makes it
possible to separate isotopes of the same element from each other through fractional distillation
and diffusion.

There are common ways to indicate isotopes:

1. List the mass number of an element after its name or element symbol.
For example, an isotope with 6 protons and 6 neutrons is carbon-12 or C-12.
An isotope with 6 protons and 8 neutrons is carbon-14 or C-14.
Note that the mass number of two isotopes may be the same, even though they are different
elements. For example, you could have carbon-14 and nitrogen-14.

2. The mass number may be given in the upper left side of an element symbol. For example,
the isotopes of hydrogen may be written:
1 2 3
1H 1H or 1H

73
 They can as well be written:
1 2 3
H H or H

Examples of isotopes
Carbon 12 and Carbon 14 are isotopes of carbon, one with 6 neutrons and one with 8 neutrons
(both with 6 protons).

Carbon-12 is a stable isotope, while carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope (radioisotope).

Uranium-235 and uranium-238 occur naturally in the Earth's crust.

16
O and 18O are both isotopes of oxygen with 8 and 10 neutrons each
35
Cl and 37Cl are isotopes of chlorine with 18 and 20 neutrons each.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between isotopes of the same element?
2. A neutral atom has 8 protons and 8 electrons, what is its mass number?
3. Show the electronic configuration of:
(i) An atom which has 12 protons
(ii) An atom which has 17 electrons
(iii) An atom which has 20 electrons
(iv) In which group of the periodic table would you place each of the atoms above?
4. What changes would you expect down group I and group VI elements of the Periodic table?
5. The elements of Group VIII are called the noble gases. They are all monatomic gases.
(a) Name four of the noble gases.
(b) (i) What is meant by monatomic?
(ii) Explain why the noble gases, unlike all other gaseous elements, are monatomic.
When elements react, they become like noble gases.
(c) (i) Explain what the above statement means.
(ii) What can you conclude about the reactivity of Group VII ions?

2.5 CHEMICAL BONDING

By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

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 Describe ionic and covalent bonding

2.5.1 IONIC BONDING

Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged atoms or particles called ions. In this type of bond, electrons are apparently
transferred from one atom to another. When an atom loses an electron or more through this
transfer, then it becomes an ion with a positive charge. The positively charged atom or ion is
then called a cation. On the other hand, when an atom apparently gains an electron or more
during chemical bonding, it becomes a negatively charged ion and is called an anion.
Electrostatic forces are created when ions are formed and the ions then form a bond.
In the simplest case, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a non-metal atom, but these
ions can be more complicated. In other words, an ionic bond is the apparent transfer of electrons
from a metal to a non-metal in order to obtain a full shell for both atoms.

2.5.2 VALENCES OF COMMON IONS/ RADICALS

Atomic ion/radical Valence Atomic ion/radical Valence

Fluoride, F- 1- Sulphate, SO42- 2-

Chloride ,Cl- 1- Nitrate, NO3- 1-

Oxide, O2- 2- Hydrogen carbonate, HCO3- 1-

Nitrogen, N3- 3- Acetate, CH3COO- 1-

Ammonium, NH4+ 1+ Carbonate, CO3- 2-

Hydrogen, H+ 1+ Hydroxide, OH- 1-

Diagrams showing ionic bonding

Fig.5: Electron Transfer from Sodium to Chlorine.

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Fig.6: Bonding in Calcium Chloride.

Fig.7: Bonding in Magnesium Oxide

Fig.8: Bonding in Calcium Fluoride, CaF2

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2.5.3 COVALENT BONDING
Whereas atoms exchange electrons to achieve a full valence shell in ionic bonds, they share
electrons in covalent bonds because neither atom has a strong tendency to give them up
completely.
When two atoms come near each other, sometimes they stick together to make a molecule, and
one way they can stick together is by covalent bonding.

Atoms are unstable because their outer shells of electrons are not filled up to a maximum of
eight electrons. These atoms can fill up their outer shells by sharing electrons with other atoms
to become stable. In water, for instance, the oxygen atom needs two more electrons to be stable,
and the hydrogen atoms, each needs one. When they get together, the oxygen atom shares one
electron with one of each hydrogen atoms and the hydrogen atoms each shares one electron
with the oxygen atom.

Covalent bonds are expressed symbolically with Lewis notation, in which valence electrons
appear as dots or crosses surrounding an atom as shown in the molecules below.

Fig.9: Covalent Bonding in a Hydrogen Molecule

Fig.10: Covalent bonding in a water molecule

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Fig.11: Bonding in Chlorine Molecule.

Fig.12: Bonding in Hydrogen Chloride Gas.

Fig.13: Bonding in Carbon Dioxide.

Fig.14: Covalent Bonding in Methane Gas

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You will notice that in a covalently bonded molecule, the outer shell of each of the atoms has
a total of eight electrons, including those being shared, which is the stable state of each of the
atoms. In some texts, you will also notice that electrons from different atoms may be shown in
different colours as above in the case of hydrogen and carbon dioxide molecules. In showing
the bonding in a substance, only the outer shell containing valence electrons is shown.
The number of covalent bonds an atom can form depends on the number of electrons needed
to form a complete valence shell. For example, carbon can form up to four covalent bonds as
shown in the diagram above.

2.6 PROPERTIES OF COVALENT MATERIALS

(a) Covalently bonded materials generally have low melting points.
(b) They are generally insoluble in water.
(c) They typically do not conduct electricity as solids, gases or in solution.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. This question is about the ionic bond formed between the metal lithium (proton number
3) and the non-metal fluorine (proton number 9).
(a) How many electrons does a lithium atom have? Draw a diagram to show its electron
structure.
(b) How does a metal atom obtain a stable outer shell of electrons?
(c) Draw the structure of a lithium ion, and write the symbol for it, showing its charge.
(d) How many electrons does a fluorine atom have? Draw a diagram to show its electron
structure.
(e) How does a non-metal atom become an ion?
(f) Draw the structure of a fluoride ion, and write a symbol for it, showing its charge.
(g) Draw a diagram to show what happens when a lithium atom reacts with a fluorine atom.
(h) Write a word equation for the reaction between lithium and fluorine.
2. This diagram represents a molecule of a certain gas.

(a) Name the gas, and give its formula.

(b) What do the symbols • and x represent?
(c) Which type of bonding holds the atoms together?
(d) Name another compound with this type of bonding.

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3. Hydrogen bromide is a compound of the two elements hydrogen and bromine. It melts at -
87 °C and boils at -67 °C. It has the same type of bonding as hydrogen chloride.
(a) Is hydrogen bromide a solid, a liquid, or a gas at room temperature (20 °C)?
(b) Is hydrogen bromide molecular, or does it have a giant structure? What is your
evidence?
(c) (i ) Which type of bond is formed between the hydrogen and bromine atoms, in
hydrogen bromide?
(ii) Draw a diagram of the bonding between the atoms, showing only the outer
electrons.
(d) Write a formula for hydrogen bromide.
(e) (i) Name two other compounds with bonding similar to that in hydrogen bromide.
(ii) Write formulae for these two compounds.

2.7 WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAS

A chemical formula is the representation of a substance by symbols. It denotes the number of
atoms of each element present in the compound. For example, the formula for Ferric oxide or
Iron [III] oxide is Fe2O3, which implies that 2 atoms of Fe and 3 atoms of O are present in an
electrically-neutral molecule of the compound. To write a chemical formula, one must know
the symbols and valencies of the elements / radicals.

Guidelines for writing chemical formulas

1. Write down the chemical symbols of the elements in the compound starting with the
metallic element
2. Place the relevant charges or valencies as superscript for each atom or radical(group of
charged atoms)
3. The subscript of the cation is equal to the charge of the anion/radical
4. The subscript of the anion/radical is equal to the charge of the cation
5. The subscripts must always be reduced to the smallest ratios.
6. The radical is written in parenthesis when the subscript is 2 or greater.

Example 1: Write the chemical formula for sodium chloride.

Na Cl Na1 Cl 1
Exchange the valencies

Na 1 Cl 1
Applying guideline 5:
Na Cl
Formula: NaCl

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Example 2: Write the chemical formula for Sodium hydroxide.
Na OH Na 1 OH 1
Exchange the valencies

Na 1 OH 1
Na OH
Formula: NaOH

Example 3: Write the chemical formula for calcium chloride.

Ca Cl Ca 2 Cl 1
Exchange the valencies

Ca 1 Cl 2
Ca Cl2
Formula: CaCl2

Example 4: Write the chemical formula for Barium sulphate.

Ba SO4 Ba 2 SO4 2
Exchange valencies

Ba 2 (SO4) 2 The subscript is for the whole radical

Ba SO4
Formula: BaSO4

Example 5: Write the chemical formula for Aluminium hydroxide.

Al OH Al 3 OH 1
Exchange the valencies

Al 1 OH 3
Al (OH)3
Formula: Al (OH)3

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 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Write the chemical formulas for:
a) Potassium sulphate
b) Magnesium nitrate
c) Barium nitrate
d) Calcium carbonate
e) Calcium hydrogen carbonate
f) Aluminium oxide
g) Lead (II) nitrate
h) Sodium carbonate
i) on (III) hydroxide
j) Lithium oxide

2.8 THE MOLE CONCEPT AND AVOGADRO CONSTANT

By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
 Define a mole
 Define the Avogadro number

A mole is a unit of measurement in the Standard International of Units (SIU) for amount of
substance. The unit is defined as the amount of a chemical substance that contains as many
representative particles, e.g. atoms, molecules, ions or electrons as there are atoms in
12 grams of carbon-12 (12C). The isotope of carbon has standard atomic weight 12 by
definition. This number is expressed by the Avogadro constant, which has a value
of 6.022140857×1023 mol−1. The mole is one of the base units of the SIU, and has the unit
symbol mol. The mass per mole of a substance is called its molar mass.

Calculating the number of moles

Number of moles = mass/ Molar mass
n = m/Mr
The mole is widely used in chemistry as a convenient way to express amounts of reactants and
products of chemical reactions. The mole may also be used to express the number of atoms,
ions, or other elementary entities in a given sample of any substance. The concentration of a
solution is commonly expressed by its molarity, defined as the number of moles of the
dissolved substance per litre of solution.
The number of particles per mole is known as Avogadro's constant, and is defined such that
the mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams, is equal to the average relative
molecular mass of the substance. For example, the average relative molecular mass of water is
about 18.015, therefore, one mole of water has a mass of about 18.015 grams and has 6.02 x
1023 molecules.

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 Substance Number of Mass /g Number of
moles particles

Hydrogen 1 1 6.02 x 1023

Oxygen 2 32 1.20 x 1024

Sulphur 0.5 16 3.01 x 1023

Carbon-12 3 36 1.81 x 1024

Nitrogen 0.5 7 3.01 x 1023

Sodium 1 23 6.02 x 1023

Calcium 2 80 1.2 x 1024

Practice questions
1. How many moles of aluminium have a mass of 13 g?
2. Calculate the number of moles in 0.48 g of oxygen atoms. What would be the number
of the oxygen atoms?
3. What mass of substance would correspond to 0.8 moles of sulphur dioxide?
4. Iron is obtained by reducing iron (III) oxide using the gas carbon monoxide. The
reaction is:
Fe2O3 (5) + 3CO (g) —> 2Fe (5) +3CO2 (g)
a Write a word equation for the reaction.
b What is the formula mass of iron(III) oxide?
(Ar : Fe = 56, O = 16.)
c How many moles of Fe2O3 are there in 320 kg of iron(III) oxide?
(1 kg = 1000 g.)
d How many moles of Fe are obtained from 1 mole of Fe2O3?
e From c and d, find how many moles of iron atoms are obtained from 320
kg of iron(III) oxide.
f How much iron (in kg) is obtained from 320 kg of iron(III) oxide?

2.9 EMPIRICAL FORMULA

Empirical formula of a chemical compound is a representation of the simplest whole number
ratio between the elements comprising the compound. It shows the kind of atoms that make up
a molecule as well as the combining ratio of the atoms. It uses letters and numbers indicating
the numerical proportions of atoms of each type. For example, CH3COOH has two carbons,
four hydrogens and two oxygens. So we could write the formula like this: C2H4O2 and so it
reduces to CH2O.

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Example Problem 1:

A compound consists of 72.2% magnesium and 27.8% nitrogen by mass. What is the empirical
formula?

(1) Convert Percentage to mass:

Assume 100 g of the substance, then 72.2 g magnesium and 27.8 g nitrogen.

(2) Convert Mass to moles:

For Mg: 72.2g Mg x (1 mol Mg/24.3 g Mg) = 2.97 mol Mg
For N: 27.8 g N x (1 mol N/14.0 g N) = 1.99 mol N

(3) Divide by the smaller number of moles:

For Mg: 2.97 mol / l.99 mol = 1.49
For N: 1.99 mol / l.99 mol = 1.00

(4) Multiply until whole, so as to produce all whole numbers as answers. Often this factor is
chosen by trial-and-error.
For Mg: 2 x 1.49 = 2.98 (i.e., 3)
for N: 2 x 1.00 = 2.00

And the formula of the compound is Mg3N2

Molecular formula
The molecular formula is the representation of the actual whole number ratio between the
elements of the compound. It shows the complete formula of a molecule indicating the actual
numbers of atoms in that molecule.

Example Problem 2:

A compound is analysed and found to contain 68.54% carbon, 8.63% hydrogen, and 22.83%
oxygen. The molecular weight of this compound is known to be approximately 140 g/mol.
What is the empirical formula? What is the molecular formula? 1) Percent to mass. Assume
100 grams of the substance is present, therefore its composition is:

carbon: 68.54 grams hydrogen: 8.63 grams oxygen: 22.83 grams

(2) Mass to moles. Divide each mass by the proper atomic weight.

Carbon: 68.54 / 12.011 = 5.71 mol

Hydrogen: 8.63 / 1.008 = 8.56 mol
Oxygen: 22.83 / 16.00 = 1.43 mol

(3) Divide by small:

Carbon: 5.71 ÷ 1.43 = 3.99

hydrogen: 8.56 ÷ 1.43 = 5.99
oxygen: 1.43 ÷ 1.43 = 1.00
(4) Multiply until whole. Not needed since all values came out whole.

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The empirical formula of the compound is C4H6O
Next we need to determine the molecular formula, knowing the empirical formula and the
molecular weight.
Here's how:

1) Calculate the empirical formula weight, that is, the formula mass of the empirical formula

C4H6O gives an "EFW" of 70.092.

2) Divide the molecular weight by the "EFW."
10 ÷ 70 = 2
3) Multiply the subscripts of the empirical formula by the factor just computed.
C4H6O times 2 gives a molecular formula of C8H12O2.

Example Problem 3: A compound is found to contain 50.05 % sulfur and 49.95 % oxygen by
weight. What is the empirical formula for this compound? The molecular weight for this
compound is 64.07 g/mol. What is its molecular formula?
Solution:
1) Assume 100 g of the compound is present. This changes the percents to grams:
S ⇒ 50.05 g O ⇒ 49.95 g
2) Convert the masses to moles:
S ⇒ 50.05 g / 32.066 g/mol = 1.5608 mol
O ⇒ 49.95 g / 16.00 g/mol = 3.1212 mol
3) Divide by the lowest, seeking the smallest whole-number ratio:
S ⇒ 1.5608 / 1.5608 = 1 O ⇒ 3.1212 / 1.5608 = 2
4) Write the empirical formula: SO2
5) Compute the "empirical formula weight:" 32 + 16 + 16 = 64
6) Divide the molecule weight by the "EFW:" 64.07 / 64 = 1
7) Use the scaling factor computed just above to determine the molecular formula:
SO2 times 1 gives SO2 for the molecular formula

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Practice questions

1) A compound is found to have (by mass) 48.38% carbon, 8.12% hydrogen and the rest
oxygen. What is its empirical formula?

2) A compound is found to have 46.67% nitrogen, 6.70% hydrogen, 19.98% carbon and
26.65% oxygen. What is its empirical formula?

3) A compound is known to have an empirical formula of CH and a molar mass of 78.11 g/mol.
What is its molecular formula?

4) Another compound, also with an empirical formula if CH is found to have a molar mass of
26.04 g/mol. What is its molecular formula?

5) A compound is found to have 1.121 g nitrogen, 0.161 g hydrogen, 0.480 g carbon and 0.640
g oxygen. What is its empirical formula? (Note that masses are given, NOT percentages.)

6) A compound is found to contain 31.42 % sulfur, 31.35 % oxygen, and 37.23 % fluorine by
weight. What is the empirical formula for this compound? The molecular weight for this
compound is 102.2 g/mol. What is its molecular formula?

7) Ammonia reacts with phosphoric acid to form a compound that contains 28.2% nitrogen,
20.8% phosphorous, 8.1% hydrogen and 42.9% oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula
of this compound.

8) Analysis of a compound containing only C and Br revealed that it contains 33.33% C

atoms by number and has a molar mass of 515.46 g/mol. What is the molecular formula of
this compound?

9) A compound is 19.3% Na, 26.9% S, and 53.8% O. Its formula mass is 238 g/mol. What is
the molecular formula? Zinc and phosphorus react to give zinc phosphide. 9.75 g of zinc
combines with 3.1 g of phosphorus.

a Find the empirical formula for the compound.

(Ar : Zn = 65, P = 31.)

b Calculate the percentage of phosphorus in it

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2.10 MATTER-CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS

 Calculate concentrations of solutions in mol/dm3 and g/dm3

Concentration refers to the amount of substance or solute that is dissolved in a given amount
of solvent.

It is normal to think of a solute as a solid that is added to a solvent (e.g., adding salt to water),
but the solute can also exist in another phase. For example, if we add a small amount of alcohol
ethanol to water, then the ethanol is the solute and the water is the solvent, but if we add a
smaller amount of water to a larger amount of ethanol, then the water would be the solute.
When a solute dissolves in a solvent, the resultant is a solution.

Solutions play a very important role in Chemistry because they allow interactions between
molecules of different kinds, a condition that is essential for chemical reactions to occur. Most
chemical reactions that are carried out in the laboratory and in industry, and that occur in living
organisms, take place in solution. Solutions are very common, very few pure substances are
found in nature. Solutions provide a convenient and accurate means of introducing known
small amounts of a substance to a reaction system.
We usually think of a solution as a liquid made by adding a gas, a solid or another
liquid solute in a liquid solvent. Solid solutions are very common, most natural minerals and
many metallic alloys are solid solutions.

How concentrations are expressed

There are various ways of expressing concentration. The choice is usually a matter of
convenience in a particular application.
In the consumer and industrial world, the most common method of expressing concentration is
based on the quantity of solute in a fixed quantity of solution. The “quantities” referred to here
can be expressed in weight, in volume, or both (i.e., the weight of solute in a given volume of
solution.) This is normally called the mass concentration of a substance and is calculated:

ρ = mass of solute/volume of solution

It is expressed in g/L or g/dm3 and ρ is pronounced as rho in Greek
Concentration is also expressed in the amount of substance dissolved in a given volume of
solution and this is called molarity or molar concentration of the solution and is calculated:
[x] = number of moles of solute/ volume of solution
It is expressed in mol/L or mol/dm3
[x] represents the concentration of substance x or solution
n(x) = mass/molar mss
n(x) is the number of moles of substance x

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Example 1:
A solution of sodium chloride has a volume of 50 cm3, what is the molar concentration of the
solution if it contains 5 g of the dissolved salt?
Solution:
[NaCl] = n(NaCl) / Vol of Solution
But, n(NaCl) = m(NaCl) / M(NaCl) 5 g/58.5 gmol-1 = 0.085 mol
Convert 50 cm3 to litres or cubic decimeters:
50 / 1000 = 0.05 dm3
[NaCl] = 0.085 mol / 0.05 dm3 = 1.7 mol dm-3

Example 2:
Calculate the concentration in mol/dm3 of a 500 cm3 solution of calcium nitrate containing 10
g of the solute.
Solution:
[Ca(NO3)2] = n (Ca(NO3)2) / V(Sol)
n (Ca(NO3)2 ) = m(Ca(NO3)2) / M(Ca(NO3)2)
= 10 g / 164 g/mol
n (Ca(NO3)2) = 0.06 mol
[Ca(NO3)2] = 0.06 mol / 0.5 dm3 = 0.12 mol dm-3
Example 3
What mass of potassium hydroxide would be required to make a solution of 120 cm3 of 0.10
mol dm-3 of potassium hydroxide?
Solution: The amount of KOH required is
(0.120 L) × (0.10 mol L–1) = 0.012 mol.
The molar mass of KOH is 56.1 g, so the weight of KOH required is:

(.012 mol) × (56.1 g mol–1) = 0.67 g

We would dissolve this weight of KOH in a volume of water that is less than 120 cm3, and then
add sufficient water to bring the volume of the solution up to 120 cm3.

Practice questions
1. What is the molar concentration of a 500 cm3 solution of hydrochloric acid containing
20 g of the acid?
2. What mass of sodium hydroxide would be required to make a 1000 cm3 solution of the
salt which has a concentration of 0.2 g/dm3?
3. How many moles of calcium nitrate are in a 250 cm3 solution of 0.1mol/dm3?

88
TOPIC 3: ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

 Identify the regions of acidity and alkalinity of substance on the pH scale and using
universal indicator solution
 Describe the reactions of acid with metals and bases
 Write word and chemical equations for reactions

3.0 ACID
The Arrhenius concept is the oldest concept to explain acids and bases. According to this
concept:

An acid is a hydrogen containing compound which can give hydrogen ion (H+) in aqueous
solution. For example, Hydrochloric acid (HCl) gives H+ ion in its aqueous.

Acid is a compound which yields hydrogen ion (H+), when dissolved in water.

3.1 PROPERTIES OF ACIDS

 An acid is sour to the taste and corrosive in nature.

 Generally, all acids readily react with metals to release hydrogen gas. For example,
metal zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.
 Acids react with limestone (CaCO3) to produce carbon dioxide. For example,
hydrochloric acid reacts with limestone to produce carbon dioxide, water and calcium
chloride.
 Acids can be classified into organic and inorganic acids. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) is
the best example of organic acid, and acids produced from minerals are termed as
inorganic acids like sulfuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl), etc.
 Acid converts blue litmus paper to red.
 Acids corrode metal surfaces quickly.

Acid + Metal ----> Salt + Hydrogen gas

H2SO4 + Ca ----> CaSO4 + H2

This reaction takes place with the more reactive metals. These metals displace hydrogen gas
from dilute acids. Metals after hydrogen on the reactivity series do not react with dilute acids
to produce hydrogen gas, they do not displace hydrogen from dilute acids.

K Na Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Pb H Cu Hg Au

Aluminium will react with hot concentrated HCl only.

A base is also a hydrogen containing compound, which can give hydroxide ion (OH-) in an
aqueous solution or when dissolved in water. For example, Sodium hydroxide in water forms
sodium ion (Na+) and hydroxide ion (OH-).. Other example of bases are ammonium hydroxide
(NH4OH), aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) and magnesium hydroxide(Mg(OH)2). When a
base dissolves in water, then it is called an alkali. It is a basic hydroxide which is soluble in
water. Example are NaOH, KOH, NH4OH, Ca(OH)2, among others.

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3.2 PROPERTIES OF BASES

 Bases are bitter to taste and corrosive in nature. They have a slippery and soapy feel.
 Bases are good conductors of electricity, when dissolved
 Bases react with oils and grease to form soap molecules.
 Bases convert red litmus paper to blue.
 Bases also have the tendency to corrode metal surfaces

3.3 SALTS
A Salt results when an acid reacts with a base. Both are neutralised. The H+ and OH-ions
combine to form water. The non metallic ions of the acid and the metal ions of the base form
the salt. This is a neutralization reaction.

Acid + Base ----> Salt + Water

HCl + NaOH ----> NaCl + H2O
H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 ----> CaSO4 + H2O

Salts can be formed in other ways. When metals dissolve in acids, a salt is formed along with
Hydrogen:

Acid + Metal ----> Salt + Hydrogen

In the example below Magnesium dissolves in Sulphuric Acid to give Magnesium Sulphate
and Hydrogen which appears in the form of bubbles:

H2SO4 + Mg ----> MgSO4 + H2

Acids react with carbonates to produce a salt, carbon dioxide and water:

CaCO3 + 2HCl ----> CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

3.4 WRITING EQUATIONS OF REACTIONS

A chemical equation is a shorthand expression for describing a chemical change. In this
expression, the symbols or formulas of the reacting substances are used. The substances that
react are called reactants and the substances produced are called the products. These are
separated by an arrow that points to the right. The reactants are written on the left side of the
arrow and the products of the reaction are written on the right side. The arrow is read as “gives”,
“yields”, or “forms” and the plus (+) sign is read as “and”. As an example, consider what takes
place when iron rusts. The equation for this change is:
Iron + oxygen → Iron (III) oxide
This is the word equation for the rusting of iron.
In chemical symbols:
We can now begin to write the formulas using chemical symbols of the substances in the
equation:
Fe + O2 → Fe2O3

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When the plus (+) sign appears between the formulas for two reactants, it can be read as “reacts
with”. (The + sign does not imply mathematical addition.) The equation, above, can be read as
iron reacts with oxygen to yield (or form) iron (III) oxide.
The final step is to balance the equation.

3.5 BALANCING A CHEMICAL EQUATION

As it is written, the equation indicates in a qualitative way what substances are consumed in
the reaction and what new substances are formed. In order to have quantitative information
about the reaction, the equation must be balanced. That is, there must be the same number of
atoms of each element on the right hand side of the equation as there are on the left hand side.
If the number of atoms of each element in the equation above is counted, it is observed that
there are 1 atom of Fe and 2 atoms of O on the left side and 2 atoms Fe and 3 atoms of O on
the right. This means there is no balance between the reactants and the products. The balancing
of the equation is done by placing whole numbers as coefficients to each of the reactants and
products. The stoichiometric coefficients (the numbers in front of the chemical formulas) result
from the law of conservation of mass.
To balance the number of O atoms, write a 3 in from of the O2 and a 2 in front of the Fe2O3:
Fe + 3O2 → 2 Fe2O3
The equation, above, now has 6 atoms of O on each side, but the Fe atoms are not balanced.
Since there is 1 atom of Fe on the left and 4 atoms of Fe on the right, the Fe atoms can be
balanced by writing a 4 in front of the Fe:
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
This equation is now balanced. It contains 4 atoms of Fe and 6 atoms of O on each side of the
equation. The equation is interpreted to mean that 4 atoms of Fe will reaction with 3 molecules
of O2 to form 2 molecules of Fe2O3.
Chemical equations should contain information about the state properties of products and
reactants, whether aqueous (dissolved in water (aq), solid (s), liquid (l), or gas (g).
Worked example
Tin oxide is heated with hydrogen gas to form tin metal and water vapour. Write the balanced
equation that describes this reaction.
1. Write the unbalanced equation.
SnO2 + H2 → Sn + H2O
2. Balance the equation.
Look at the equation and see which elements are not balanced. In this case, there are two
oxygen atoms on the left hand side of the equation and only one on the right hand side. Correct
this by putting a coefficient of 2 in front of water:

SnO2 + H2 → Sn + 2H2O

This puts the hydrogen atoms out of balance. Now there are two hydrogen atoms on the left
and four hydrogen atoms on the right. To get four hydrogen atoms on the right, add a coefficient
of 2 for the hydrogen gas.

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The coefficient is a number that goes in front of a chemical formula. Remember, coefficients
are multipliers, so if we write 2 H2O it denotes 2x2=4 hydrogen atoms and 2x1=2 oxygen
atoms.

SnO2 + 2H2 → Sn + 2H2O

The equation is now balanced. Be sure to double-check your math! Each side of the equation
has 1 atom of Sn, 2 atoms of O, and 4 atoms of H.

3. Indicate the physical states of the reactants and products.

To do this, you need to be familiar with the properties of various compounds or you need to be
told what the phases are for the chemicals in the reaction. Oxides are solids, hydrogen forms a
diatomic gas, tin is a solid, and the term 'water vapour' indicates that water is in the gas phase:

SnO2(s) + 2H2(g) → Sn(s) + 2H2O(g)

This is the balanced equation for the reaction.

PRACTICE EQUATIONS (Balancing Equations)

1. H2 + Br2 → HBr
2. N2 + H2 → NH3
3. Sb + O2 → Sb4O6
4. Cu(NO3)2 → CuO + NO2 + O2
5. (NH4)2Cr2O7 → Cr2O3 + N2 + H2O
7. Al + HgCl2 → AlCl3 + Hg
6. C2H6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
8. FeS + O2 → Fe2O3 + SO2
9. KOH + Cl2 → KCl + KClO + H2O
10. Ca(OH)2 + H3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + H2O

3.6 THE pH SCALE

The pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a substance is. pH stands for 'potential Hydrogen.
It ranges from 0 to 14. If a pH is lower than 7, it indicates the solution is an acid. If it is above
7, it is a base or Alkaline. If a pH is 7, it is neutral. A strong acid has lower pH than a weak
acid and a strong base has a lower pH than a weak base. A neutral solution is neither an acid
nor base. It has a pH of 7. Scientists use a pH number to show the strength of an acid or base.
pH is measured by dipping litmus paper into a solution such as water or other substances.
Pure water is neutral. When an acid is dissolved in water, the pH will be less than 7. When a
base, or alkali, is dissolved in water, the pH will be greater than 7. A solution of a strong acid,
such as hydrochloric acid, at concentration 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3 has a pH of 0. A solution of a strong
alkali, such as sodium hydroxide, at concentration 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3, has a pH of 14.

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The pH Scale

Universal indicator
A universal indicator is a pH indicator composed of a solution of several compounds that
exhibits several smooth colour changes over a pH value range from 1 to 14 to indicate
the acidity or alkalinity of solutions. There are several commercially available universal pH
indicators. The colours that indicate the pH of a solution after adding a universal indicator are
shown in the table below. The colours from yellow to red indicate an acidic solution, colours
light blue to dark blue indicate bases and green colour indicates that a solution is neutral.

pH range Description Colour

<3 Strong acid Red

3–6 Weak acid Orange or yellow

7 Neutral Green

8–11 Weak base Blue

> 11 Strong base Violet or purple

A universal indicator can be in paper form or present in a form of a solution.

Paper form Universal indicator showing a range of colours at different pH values

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 The paper form is a strip of coloured paper which changes colour to red if the solution is acidic
and to blue if the solution is basic. The strip can be placed directly onto a surface of a wet
substance or few drops of the solution can be dropped onto the universal indicator using
dropping equipment. If the test solution is of a dark colour, it is preferable to use a paper
universal indicator.

The main components of a Universal indicator in the form of a solution are various indicators
such as thymol blue, methyl red, bromothymol blue and phenolphthalein. This mixture is
important because each component loses or gains protons depending upon the acidity or
basicity of the solution being tested. It is beneficial to use this type of a universal indicator in
a colourless solution. This will increase the accuracy of indication.

Activity 1: Rainbow Reaction Tube

Amaze your friends by mixing two solutions to make a rainbow! Watch as purple sinks to the
bottom and red floats to the top, and they mix together to form every color in between.

What You Need:

 10ml graduated cylinder
 Universal indicator
 Sodium carbonate
 Beaker
 Distilled white vinegar
What You Do:
1. Put 15 drops of universal indicator in the graduated cylinder and add filtered water up to the
10 ml mark. The solution should be yellow-green.
2. Add 3 drops of vinegar to the solution in the graduated cylinder, and it should turn red.
3. In a beaker, put two scoops of sodium carbonate and then add about 30 ml of water. Mix
together with the stirring rod until the sodium carbonate dissolves. The solution should be clear.
4. To start the reaction, fill one dropper full with sodium carbonate solution. Squeeze the dropper
into the graduated cylinder quickly, rather than drop by drop. The clear solution should
instantly turn dark purple, and slowly sink to the bottom, swirling around to make the rainbow.
5. Let the contents of the cylinder settle, until you can see each color from bluish-purple to red.
To make the rainbow disappear, pour it into an empty beaker, and it should turn yellow or
yellowish green.

Activity 2: Determine pH with pH indicator strips / universal indicator solution

The Procedure:
1. Take six strips pH paper and place them on a glazed tile. Mark them 1 to 6.
2. Take the test solutions made from fruit and vegetable in separate test tubes. Label
the test tubes A-F.

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 3. Now, place a drop of the test solution on one strip of the pH paper with the help of a
fine dropper or glass rod. Use a fresh dropper for each test solution.
4. Observe the colour produced and match it with the different colour shades of the
standard colour pH chart.
5. Note down the the pH from the colour chart that matches most closely with the colour
produced on the pH paper.
6. Similarly, find the pH value of the remaining samples by using a fresh strip of pH
paper and a separate glass rod or fine dropper for each one.

Observations:

No Sample solution Colour produced on pH paper Approximate pH

1 A

2 B

3 C

4 D

5 E

6 F

Precautions:
1. Use only the standard colour chart supplied with the pH paper for assessing the ph
value.
2. Keep the pH strips away from chemical fumes.
3. Either use fresh fine dropper or glass rod for each different sample, or wash the dropper
or rod well with water every time.

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Practice questions
1. Rewrite the following, choosing the correct word from each pair in brackets.
Acids are compounds that dissolve in water giving hydrogen ions.
Sulfuric acid is an example. It can be neutralised by (acids / bases) to form salts called (nitrates
/ sulfates).
Many (metals / non-metals) react with acids to give (hydrogen / carbon dioxide). Acids react
with (chlorides / carbonates) to give (hydrogen / carbon dioxide).
Since they contain ions, solutions of acids are (good / poor) conductors of electricity. They also
affect indicators. Litmus turns (red / blue) in acids while phenolphthalein turns (pink /
colourless).
The level of acidity of an acid is shown by its (concentration / pH number). The (higher /
lower) the number, the more acidic the solution.
2. Rewrite the following, choosing the correct word from each pair in brackets.
Acids are compounds that dissolve in water giving hydrogen ions.
Sulfuric acid is an example. It can be neutralised by (acids / bases) to form salts called (nitrates
/ sulfates).
Many (metals / non-metals) react with acids to give (hydrogen / carbon dioxide). Acids react
with (chlorides / carbonates) to give (hydrogen / carbon dioxide).
Since they contain ions, solutions of acids are (good / poor) conductors of electricity. They also
affect indicators. Litmus turns (red / blue) in acids while phenolphthalein turns (pink /
colourless).

The level of acidity of an acid is shown by its (concentration / pH number). The (higher / lower)
the number, the more acidic the solution.
A and B are white powders. A is insoluble in water, but B dissolves. Its solution has a pH of 3.
A mixture of A and B bubbles or effervesces in water, giving off a gas. A clear solution forms.
a Which of the two powders is an acid?
b The other powder is a carbonate. Which gas bubbles off in the reaction?
c Although A is insoluble in water, a clear solution forms when the mixture of A and B is
added to water. Explain why.
3. Oxygen reacts with other elements to form oxides.
Three examples are: calcium oxide, phosphorus pentoxide, and copper (II) oxide.
a Which of these is:
1. an insoluble base?
2. a soluble base?
3. an acidic oxide?
b When the soluble base is dissolved in water, the solution changes the colour of litmus
paper. What colour change will you see?
c Name the gas given off when the soluble base is heated with ammonium chloride.
d i. Write a word equation for the reaction between the insoluble base and sulfuric acid.

ii. Name the type of reaction

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TOPIC 4: OXIDATION AND REDUCTION (REDOX)
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

 Define oxidation
 Define reduction
 Define electrolysis
 List raw materials used in the extraction of iron and their sources
 Describe reactions in the blast furnace
 State the functions of the raw materials
 Describe how iron and slag separate

4.0 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION IN TERMS OF OXYGEN TRANSFER

Oxidation is gain of oxygen.
Reduction is loss of oxygen.
For example, in the extraction of iron from its ore:

Because both reduction and oxidation are taking place simultaneously, this is known as a redox
reaction.

Oxidising and reducing agents

An oxidising agent is substance which oxidises something in another substance. In the above
example, the iron (III) oxide is the oxidising agent.
A reducing agent reduces something in another substance. In the equation, the carbon
monoxide, CO, is the reducing agent.
Oxidising agents give oxygen to other substances while reducing agents remove oxygen from
other substances.

4.1 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION IN TERMS OF HYDROGEN TRANSFER

Oxidation and reduction can also be defined in terms of gain or loss of hydrogen.
Oxidation is loss of hydrogen, while Reduction is gain of hydrogen.
These are exactly the opposite of the definitions in terms of gain and loss of oxygen as
discussed above.
For example, ethanol can be oxidised to ethanol:

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Ethanol can also be reduced back to ethanol again by adding hydrogen to it.

Study the following example:

CuO (s) + 𝐻2 (g) Cu (s) + 𝐻2 O

In the reaction, the hydrogen has been oxidised to water, since oxygen has been added to it,
while the copper (II) oxide has been reduced to copper since the oxygen has been removed
from it. In the reaction, copper (II) oxide is the oxidising agent while hydrogen is the reducing
agent.

Summary: Definitions of oxidising and reducing agents

Oxidising agents give oxygen to another substance or remove hydrogen from it.
Reducing agents remove oxygen from another substance or give hydrogen to it.

4.2 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION IN TERMS OF ELECTRON TRANSFER

Oxidation is loss of electrons.
Reduction is gain of electrons.
It is essential that you remember these definitions. There is a very easy way to do this. As long
as you remember that you are talking about electron transfer:

A simple example
The equation shows a simple redox reaction which can obviously be described in terms of
oxygen transfer.

Copper (II) oxide and magnesium oxide are both ionic. If you rewrite this as an ionic equation,
it turns out that the oxide ions are common on both sides of the arrow, they are spectator ions
and you are left with:

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Comment on oxidising and reducing agents
If you look at the equation above, the magnesium is reducing the copper (II) ions by giving
them electrons to neutralise the charge. Magnesium is a reducing agent.
Looking at it the other way round, the copper (II) ions are removing electrons from the
magnesium to create the magnesium ions. The copper (II) ions are acting as an oxidising agent.
An oxidising agent oxidises something else.
Oxidation is loss of electrons (OIL).
That means that an oxidising agent takes electrons from that other substance.
Therefore, an oxidising agent must gain electrons.
Or you could think it out like this:
An oxidising agent oxidises something else.
That means that the oxidising agent must be reduced.
Reduction is gain of electrons (RIG).
So an oxidising agent must gain electrons.
Typical Reactions of Main Group Metals

Typical Reactions of Main Group Metals

Reducing Oxidising
Reaction
Agent Agent
2 Na + Cl2 2 NaCl Na Cl2
2 K + H2 2 KH K H2
4 Li + O2 2 Li2O Li O2
2 Na + O2 Na2O2 Na O2
2 Na + 2 H2O 2 Na+ + 2 OH- + H2 Na H2O
+ -
2 K + 2 NH3 2 K + 2 NH2 + H2 K NH3
2 Mg + O2 2 MgO Mg O2
3 Mg + N2 Mg3N2 Mg N2
Ca + 2 H2O Ca2+ + 2 OH- + H2 Ca H2O

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 2 Al + 3 Br2 Al2Br6 Al Br2
Mg + 2 H+ Mg2++ H2 Mg H+
Mg + H2O MgO + H2 Mg H2O

4.3 ELECTROLYTIC CELL

You have already seen how an electric current can produce chemical change when passed
through an electrolyte. On the other hand, you will also see how a chemical change can produce
an electrical current. This is done through an electrolytic cell as shown in the diagram below.
Lamp Flow of electrons

Connecting wire
Copper Magnesium ribbon

1.0 mol/dm3 Sulphuric acid

Fig.1: The Electrolytic Cell.

A reaction will take place and an electric current is produced that will light the bulb. To operate
effectively, the two metals used should be widely separated in the electrochemical series. The
magnesium will dissolve in the acid and release hydrogen that bubbles at the copper (+) anode
and magnesium gives up electrons and the Mg2+ ions pass into the electrolyte. The electrons
given up by magnesium will flow through the wires to copper where they are taken up by
hydrogen to form hydrogen gas. As such, an electrical current flows in the opposite direction.
Mg(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2e-
2H+(aq) + 2e- H2(g)

A zinc- copper (Zn-Cu) cell

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Fig.2: A Zinc-Copper Cell.
Activity: Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
Materials
Spot plate
Zinc powder
Copper pieces
Lead pieces
0.1 M copper (II) nitrate
0.1 M lead (II) nitrate
0.1M zinc nitrate

PROCEDURE
As you perform the experiment, record your observations in the data table below.
1. Place each combination of metal and metal ion into the wells of the spot plate as laid out in
the data table. Use only one piece of copper, one piece of lead, and a few granules of zinc
powder for the metal samples. Use only three drops of each metal ion solution. Do not
contaminate the solutions by mixing droppers.
2. Allow the spot plate to stand undisturbed for 10 minutes.
3. Record your observations in the data table, briefly describing evidence of any reaction. If no
reaction is visible, write NR.
4. To clean up, throw the metal pieces in the marked container and rinse the solutions on the
spot plate in the sink with plenty of water. Clean the spot plates and return to the back bench.

ANALYSIS
1. Write balanced net ionic equations for any reactions that you observed.
2. Which metal was oxidized by both of the other two metal ions?
3. Which metal was not oxidized by either of the other metal ions?
4. Many metals are oxidized by aqueous solutions of acids (such as HCl) to produce hydrogen
gas and metal ions. Based on the results of this lab, which of the three metals studied in this
lab would be most easily oxidized by HCl? Write a balanced equation.

OBSERVATIONS
Data table

METAL ION

METAL Cu+2 Pb+2 Zn+2

Cu(s)

Pb(s)

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 Zn(s)

4.4 EXTRACTION OF IRON AT ZISCOSTEEL

Iron is extracted from the ore through a process of oxidation and reduction that takes place in
a blast furnace. A blast furnace is a special type of furnace for smelting iron from ore.
The main ore from which iron is extracted in Zimbabwe is called haematite, which is impure
iron (III) oxide mined at Buchwa and Ripple Creek mine which is about 14 kilometres from
ZISCO. Limestone is found on an open cast mine which is a few meters from ZISCO. Iron also
exists in nature as other ores like magnetite, which is iron (II) oxide.
Blast furnaces are very large. They can be up to 60 m and 30 m tall and 15 m and 9 m
in diameter at the widest part. The blast furnace is the biggest chemical reactor. It is usually
built with a steel case and bricks made of magnesia inside the case. Magnesia is
very resistant to heat. It does not melt. The furnace is cooled with water running inside part of
the case and bricks.
The process of making iron is simple. Iron ore is basically iron (III) oxide. Iron is made by
removing the oxygen. This leaves crude iron called pig iron. This process is
called smelting. Carbon is used in the reduction process as a reducing agent, it reduces the iron
(III) oxide to iron when the ore is heated to a high temperature. Carbon easily takes the oxygen
off the ore in high temperatures. The carbon used in the process is in the form of coke.
4.5 THE BLAST FURNACE
Iron ore, limestone and carbon in the form of coke are put into the top of the blast furnace in
layers. At the same time, hot air called is blown inside the furnace. This process is called
"blasting". It is why it is called a "blast furnace".
The hot air being fed at the bottom of the furnace ignites and burns the coke. Carbon dioxide
is formed in the reaction:
A lot of heat is liberated by the above reaction and this establishes the optimum temperature
for the for the reduction process. As the gas is forced up the furnace, there is going to be short
supply of oxygen and this creates carbon monoxide as the carbon dioxide is reduced by coke:

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 At the bottom of the furnace
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
Carbon Carbon
(coke) dioxide

In the middle of the furnace

CO2 (g) + C (s) 2CO (g)

From a temperature of about 1000 0C, the carbon monoxide then reduces the iron (III) oxide to
iron and produce carbon dioxide.

At the top of the furnace

Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2 (g)
Iron (III) oxide

Due to its high density, the molten iron, called pig iron, flows to the hearth, the bottom of the
furnace and is run off into moulds.

The limestone (Calcium Carbonate) introduced is decomposed or broken down by heat to form
calcium oxide:
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Calcium Carbonate Calcium Oxide

The impurities contain silica (SiO2) and this reacts with calcium oxide to form calcium silicate.

SiO2 (s) + CaO (s) CaSiO3 (s)

Silica Calcium oxide Calcium silicate

The earthy impurities and the silicate form slag which floats on top of iron and flows out
through its outlet.
The gases rise up and are collected on the top of the furnace. As the gas contains a lot of carbon
monoxide, it is a valuable fuel. The gas collected on the top of the blast furnace is called blast
furnace gas. It is then washed and dried and all solid particles such as soot or ore dust are
collected. The gas is then burned in special ovens called Cowper stoves or hot blast stoves into
carbon dioxide itself.
The slag is not waste. It can be used in various ways. It can be made into bricks and used for
construction, or it can be mixed with concrete. Concrete which contains blast furnace slag is
stronger than ordinary concrete and is almost pure white, where normal concrete is dirty grey.
A blast furnace can work for 10 to 20 years without stopping.

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Practice questions
1. All reactions in which electron transfer takes place are redox reactions. This diagram
shows the electron transfer during one redox reaction.

2.a What is the product of this reaction?

b Write a balanced equation for the full reaction.
c i Which element is being oxidised?
ii Write a half-equation for the oxidation.
d i Which element is being reduced?
ii. Write a half equation for the reduction of this element
3. Redox reactions involve electron transfer.
a Fluorine, from Group VII, reacts with lithium, from Group I, to form a poisonous white
compound. What is its name?
b Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
c Draw a diagram to show the electron transfer that takes place during the reaction.
d i Which element is oxidised in the reaction?
ii Write a half-equation for this oxidation.
e Write a half-equation for the reduction of the other element.

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TOPIC 5: INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

 Outline the production of nitrogen and oxygen

 Label the general components of an electrolytic cell
 Describe anode and cathode reactions for electrolysis of molten lead bromide
 State observations for the electrolysis of lead bromide
 Describe the electrolysis of water
 State the products formed during the electrolysis of water
 State the uses of oxygen and hydrogen
 State the cathode, anode and electrolyte
 Explain the cathode process
 State the reasons for electroplating materials

5.1 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF AIRr

Many gases are obtained in commercial quantities through a process known as fractional
distillation of liquefied air. Fractional distillation differs from simple distillation only in that it
separates a mixture into a number of different parts, called fractions. A tall column is fitted
above the mixture, with several condensers coming off at different heights. The column is hot
at the bottom and cool at the top. Substances with high boiling points condense at the bottom
and substances with low boiling points condense at the top. Like distillation, fractional
distillation works because the different substances in the mixture have different boiling points.
Air is filtered to remove dust and other solids, water vapour and carbon dioxide. Water vapour
and carbon dioxide are removed because they solidify at low temperatures and this would block
the flow of liquid air through the pumps and pipes. As the dry air free of carbon dioxide is
compressed to 200 times atmospheric pressure it becomes warm. Heat is removed by a network
of pipes carrying cold liquid nitrogen. The cold, compressed air is then allowed to expand
rapidly thus cooling even further to the point where most of the air is liquefied.
The gas mixture is then purified by fractional distillation. Dense oxygen is captured as liquid
in the fractionating column as it sinks while nitrogen gas escapes from the top and is collected.
The diagram below shows the process.

5.2 PRODUCTION OF NITROGEN AND OXYGEN GASES

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Fig.1: Production of Nitrogen and Oxygen Gases.

5.3 ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis describes the process which takes place when an ionic or molten solution has
electricity passed through it. It is the breaking down of a compound using electricity. Direct
current (DC) electricity from a battery is passed into the substance through terminals called
electrodes, which are often made of carbon. The electrodes form the positive and negative
terminals of the DC. The positive electrode is the anode and the negative is the cathode. For
a solution containing metal and non-metal ions, positive ions are attracted to the negative
electrode and negative ions are attracted to the positive electrode At the electrodes, electrons
are gained or lost by the ions involved and products are formed at each of the electrodes.
Electrolysis always involves a flow of electrons in the external wires and electrodes, and a flow
of ions in the electrolyte. There is always a reduction at the cathode and an oxidation at the
anode. It is the ions which are discharged to give the products.
Electrolysis of Molten lead (II) bromide
We can carry out the following experiment in a fume cupboard.
The experimental set-up is shown below:
Activity: Electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide
1. Measure between 40 g and 60 g of solid lead (II) bromide on a balance
2. Place the measured lead (II) bromide in a 100 cm3 crucible
3. Place the crucible and it contents on a wire gauze mounted on a tripod stand
4. Light a burner and heat the crucible with the lead (II) bromide
5. With the use of connecting wires, connect a carbon electrode to each end of the
wires.
6. Connect the other end of the wires to a batter or cells, this is the source of the DC.
7. When the lead (II) bromide starts to melt, secure the electrodes and dip them in the
molten lead (II) bromide
8. Observe the changes at each electrode

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The diagram below shows what happens at each of the carbon electrodes.

A Solution of lead ions Carbon electrode

We can show what happens at each electrode by half-equations. These equations describe
what happens at an electrode.

The cathode attracts the positively charged lead ions. These ions gain electrons from the
cathode to form neutral atoms of lead which are deposited below the cathode as a silvery solid:

At the cathode:
Pb2+ + 2e− Pb

The positively charged anode attracts the negatively charged bromide ions (Br−). These give
up their extra electron to the anode to form a bromine atom.

At the anode:
Br−(aq) − e− Br(g)

Bromine exists as molecules (Br2), so the bromine atoms immediately form bromine molecules
which show as a brown gas at the anode:

107
 Br(g) + Br(g) Br2(g)

These two equations can be combined to give the half-equation at the anode:

At the anode:
2Br−(aq) − 2e− Br2(g)

5.4 ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER

Electrolysis of water is its decomposition to give hydrogen and oxygen gases due to the passage
of an electric current. When electricity is introduced to water through two electrodes, the
cathode and the anode, it breaks into ions which are attracted to the oppositely charged
electrodes. Sulphuric acid is added to the water to allow the water to form ions. Therefore the
positively charged hydrogen ions will be attracted to the cathode and the negatively charged
oxygen ions will be attracted to the anode. The diagram below shows the changes that take
place. Both hydrogen and oxygen atoms form molecules and collect as gas in the test tubes.
Note the volumes of gas formed at each electrode. Explain the difference in the volumes.

Acidified pure water

At the cathode:
The hydrogen ions produced from the sulphuric acid migrate to the cathode where they give
up electrons to become hydrogen atoms. The atoms then combine to form hydrogen gas which
then bubbles into the test tube.

H+(aq) + e- H(g)
H(g) + H(g) H2(g)

At the anode:
From the sulphuric acid, there are going to be SO4- ions and from water OH- ions. In this case,
both ions are attracted to the anode, but the OH- ions are discharged preferably.

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 OH-(aq) - e- OH(g)

The OH groups formed then interact to form water and oxygen which then collects in the other
test tube:

HO(g) + OH(g) H2 O + O(g)

O(g) + O(g) O2(g)

2 moles of hydrogen will be released for every mole of oxygen molecules produced.

5.5 USES OF OXYGEN

Oxygen has numerous uses in steelmaking and other metals refining and fabrication processes,
in chemicals, pharmaceuticals, petroleum processing, glass and ceramic manufacture, and pulp
and paper manufacture.
It is used for environmental protection in municipal and industrial effluent treatment plants
and facilities. Oxygen has numerous uses in healthcare, both in hospitals, outpatient treatment
centers and home use. For some uses, such as effluent treatment and pulp and paper bleaching,
oxygen is converted to ozone (O3), an even more reactive form, to enhance the rate of reaction
and to ensure the fullest possible oxidation of undesired compounds.

5.6 USES OF HYDROGEN

Large quantities of H2 are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries. The largest
application of H2 is for the processing ("upgrading") of fossil fuels, and in the production
of ammonia H2 is used as a hydrogenating (addition of hydrogen) agent, particularly in
increasing the level of saturation of unsaturated fats and oils (found in items such as
margarine).
Used in the production of methanol.
It is similarly the source of hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid.
H2 is also used as a reducing agent of metallic ores.
Apart from its use as a reactant, H2 has wide applications in physics and engineering. It is used
as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding.
H2 is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the
highest thermal conductivity of any gas.
Because H2 is lighter than air, having a little more than a quarter of the density of air, it is
widely used as a lifting gas in balloons.
Hydrogen is an authorized food additive that allows food package leak testing among other
anti-oxidizing properties.
Hydrogen's rarer isotopes also each have specific applications. Deuterium (hydrogen-2) is used
in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion reactions.

109
Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of hydrogen
bombs.
Hydrogen is commonly used in power stations as a coolant in generators.
5.7 COPPER ELECTROPLATING
Copper plating is the process of electrolitically forming a layer of copper on the surface of an
item. It takes place in an electrolytic cell where electrolysis uses direct current to dissolve a
copper rod and transport the copper ions to the item to be plated.

Activity: Electroplating
Electroplating a key with copper
1. Place a solution of copper (II) sulphate in a beaker.
2. Connect a copper rod as the positive terminal, and the key to be plated with copper as
the negative terminal.
3. Place the two terminals in the copper (II) sulphate solution.
4. Connect the wires to a battery as shown in the diagram below.
5. Close the switch and observe any changes to the key and the copper anode. The solution
contains an ionic substance which allows a direct electric current to flow from the
copper rod to the key.

Copper (II) sulphate solution

The copper rod is the anode and the item to be plated becomes the cathode. This current flow
causes the copper to form ions, which means each atom becomes positively charged by
losing electrons. As the copper ions dissolve into the solution or the electrolyte, they flow to
the item to be plated, where they are reduced to the metallic state by gaining electrons. This
forms a thin metallic copper film on the surface of the item, coating it. Electroplating gives

110
an object a decorative finish and prevents corrosion. The diagram above shows how a key
can be electroplated using copper.
The metal atoms that plate your object may also come from an electrolyte, so if you want to
copper plate something you need an electrolyte made from a solution of a copper salt, while
for gold plating you need a gold-based electrolyte and so on. All kinds of metals can be
electroplated in the same way as copper.

You have to ensure the electrode you want to plate is completely clean. Otherwise, when metal
atoms from the electrolyte are deposited onto it, they won't form a good bond and they may
simply rub off again. Generally, cleaning is done by dipping the electrode into a strong acid or
alkaline solution.

Practice questions

1. a. For the above activity on copper plating, show the half equation at the anode

b. Study the half-equations below and answer the questions that follow

c. What are benefits of electroplating of objects?

d. What happens to the mass of copper as the reaction proceeds?

e. If carbon was used as the anode, what solution would you choose as the electrolyte,
why?

2. Why should lead (II) bromide be heated before its electrolysis?

3. Study the half-equations below and answer the questions that follow.

Pb2+ + 2 e− Pb

2Br−(aq) − 2 e− Br2(g)

(i) Identify which one is a reduction reaction and which one is an oxidation reaction.

(i) Explain your choice in (i)

(iii) Write a balanced equation for the overall reaction

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TOPIC 6: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

 Define the term hydrocarbon

 Name the members of the homologous series with 3 carbon atoms
 Draw the displayed structures of methane, ethane, propane, ethene and propene
 State the uses of methane, ethane, propane, ethene and propene
 Outline the production of biogas
 Identify factors affecting the production of biogas
 State the uses of biogas

6.0 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry is the chemistry of compounds of carbon.
All organic compounds contain mainly carbon and hydrogen, although they could also contain
other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, bromine and others.
In its reactions, carbon forms chains of its atoms which could go to up to 2000 carbon atoms
chemically that are covalently bonded. Drugs, plastics, paper, rubber, fuel cloths, plant
material, the animal body are all organic in nature.

6.1 HYDROCARBONS
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen
and carbon atoms, and thus are group 4 hydrides.
Alkanes and alkenes are different types of hydrocarbons. The majority of hydrocarbons found
on Earth naturally occur in crude oil, where decomposed organic matter provides an abundance
of carbon and hydrogen which, when bonded, form long chains. Hydrocarbons are the
principal constituents of petroleum and natural gas. They serve as fuels and lubricants as well
as raw materials for the production of plastics, fibres, rubbers, solvents, explosives, and
industrial chemicals.

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6.2 HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
In chemistry, a homologous series is a series of compounds with the same general formula,
usually varying by a single parameter such as the length of a carbon chain or the number of
carbon atoms in the compound.
Examples of homologous series are alkanes and alkenes. Each member of the same family
differs from the next by a CH2. They show similar chemical properties, though they vary in
vigour and have a general method of preparation.
6.3 ALKANES
The alkane is a homologous series whose members differ by a repeating CH2 group. They have
got a general formula of CnH (2n + 2) where n is an integer. The simplest alkane is methane,
whose formula is CH4, which differs from the next member in the group which is ethane and
whose molecular formula is C2H6 and so on. These two differ by a CH2 group. The first four
members of the alkanes are gases at room temperature and pressure. The third member is called
propane. All alkanes have single C – C bonds, so they are saturated compounds. Each covalent
bond represents a pair of shared electrons, one from each carbon and the other from hydrogen.
Below are displayed formulas of the first three alkanes. Names of all alkanes end in “ane”.
Structure of a Methane molecule

Structure of an Ethane molecule

Structure of a propane molecule

The line between a carbon atom and a hydrogen atom (C - H) or between one carbon atom and
another carbon atom (C - C) represents a covalent bond that exists between the two atoms.
Uses of Alkanes

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1. Petroleum and natural gas are largely mixtures of different alkanes. On refining, they give
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline, kerosene, diesel, furnace oil and wax which are used
as fuels.
2. Some higher alkanes are used as lubricating oils and as Vaseline.
3. Alkanes are used as starting materials for the preparation of many other useful organic
compounds. For example, methane and chlorine produce chloromethane, dichloromethane,
trichloromethane (chloroform) and tetrachloromethane.
4. Carbon formed during decomposition of methane is in the form of finely divided particles
and is known as carbon black. Carbon black is used for making printer’s ink and paints. It is
also used in rubber industry.
5. Alkanes are also used as a source of hydrogen.
6.4 ALKENES
The alkene is a homologous series whose members conform to a general formula of CnH2n.
Alkenes have at least one double bond in their structure, and because of the double bonds,
alkenes are said to be unsaturated compounds. This bond is found between one carbon atom
and the other, C=C. The simplest alkene is ethene, whose formula is C2H4, and the next member
in the group is propene and whose molecular formula is C3H6. These two differ by a CH2 group.
All alkenes have at least a double carbon -carbon bond. Below are displayed formulas of the
first three alkenes. All names of alkenes end in –ene.
H H H H H
H C C H H C C C H
H
Ethene Propene
6.5 USES OF ALKENES
Alkenes are extremely important in the manufacture of plastics. All plastics are in some way
related to alkenes. The names of some plastics (Polythene or Poly Ethene, Polypropene),
relate to their alkene partners. Plastics are used for all kinds of tasks, from packaging and
wrapping, to clothing and outdoor apparel.
Lower alkenes are used as fuel and illuminant. These may be obtained by the cracking of
kerosene or petrol.
For the manufacture of a wide variety of polymers, e.g., polyethene, polyvinylchloride
(PVC) etc.
They are used as raw materials for the manufacture of industrial Chemicals such as alcohols,
aldehydes and many more.
Besides, alkenes are also used for artificial ripening of fruits, as a general anaesthetic, for
making poisonous mustard gas (War gas) and ethylene-oxygen flame.
6.6 PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS
Biogas is a mixture of colourless and odourless gases. Biogas can be produced through
fermentation from any degradable material, which is material that can decay, with the help of
different types of tiny microorganisms or bacteria. It can be produced in a concealed chamber

114
called a biodigester in the absence of atmospheric oxygen. Biogas is a mixture of different
gases, the major portion being methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2). It also contains traces
of other gases like hydrogen (H2), moisture (H2O) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Improved
biodigesters used for anaerobic digestion (oxygen-free digestion) can produce biogas with 65%
- 75% methane content, although some texts say about 55-65% methane and 30-35% carbon
dioxide. The average quantity of methane and carbon dioxide in cow dung based biogas
digesters are in a 60:40 ratio. The photographs below show the protruding surface parts of some
biodigesters.

Biodigesters with a common A biodigester fitted with a gas meter for

Sludge collection unit. recording amount of gas produced.

Filtration unit to render liquid feed harmless to

the environment before disposal.

All easily and fast degradable materials including cooked, raw food wastes, fruits, vegetable
waste, fish and meat waste, human excreta, excreta of all domestic and wild animals and birds,

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organic waste from food processing industries and waste water containing bio waste materials
can be used to produce biogas.
Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion through the activities of acid and methane-forming
bacteria that break down the organic material and produce methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide
(CO2) in a gaseous state. This is a natural process. It occurs in wet or moist conditions.

Biogas digestion works best at 25 to 35 0C and a pH of between 6.6 and 7.6. About 0.45 kg of
cow manure can produce about 28 litres of gas at around 28 0C, which is enough to cook a
day's meals for 4-6 people.

About 1.7 cubic metres of biogas equals one litre of petrol fuel. The manure produced by one
cow in one year can produce enough methane to replace more than 200 litres of petrol.

6.7 USES OF BIOGAS

Biogas can be used for different heating applications like cooking, lighting, operating engines
and generation of electricity. The main and simple use of biogas generated from a domestic
digester is for cooking purpose in homes. Biogas can be purified and upgraded in accordance
with the standards of natural gas. The upgraded gas can be used for running vehicles and other
applications including different industrial needs.
The saturated hydrocarbons form a homologous series with the general formula CnH2n +2.

Practice questions
a. What is a homologous series?
b. Explain what the term saturated means.
c. Name the series described above.
d. i Give the formula and name for a member of this series with two carbon atoms.
ii Draw its structural formula.
e. i Name a homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons, and give its general formula.
i Give the formula and name for the member of this series with two carbon atoms.
ii Draw the structural formula for the compound.
iii Which alkane is the main compound in natural gas?

f. i What are the optimum conditions for the conversion of waste in a biodigester?
ii Write an equation for the combustion of the biogas from the digester

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CHAPTER 3: PHYSICS
TOPIC 1: DATA PRESENTATION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Experiments play a very important role in physics. They help us explain how processes around
us happen. Experiments also help us predict the behaviour of objects and events.
In an experiment, various readings are taken. When these readings are analysed, they give us
results from which information about the behaviour of objects and events can be deduced.
A collection of related readings is known as experimental data or simply data.
In order to analyse data from a research or an experiment, we can present it in the form of a
table, a pie chart or a line graph.
In this section we are going to learn about the presentation of data in the form of pie charts and
line graphs.

1.1 PIE CHARTS

A pie chart is a circle which is divided into slices to illustrate proportions.
In a pie chart the arc length and its central angle are proportional to the quantity being
represented. Fig.1 is an example of a pie chart displaying the proportions of students who play
the different sports at a school.

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 SPORTS PLAYED BY STUDENTS AT A SCHOOL
Others 31°
Cricket 81°

Football 54°

Basket Ball 50°

Hockey 63°

Tennis 45°
Golf 36°

Fig.1: Pie Chart Displaying Proportion of Student Playing Different.

Q. Use the pie chart to calculate the percentages of students who play each of the displayed
sports. If the total enrolment of students in the school is 1 000, calculate the number of students
who play each sport.
Let us look at some examples.

Q1. A vessel is filled up with pebbles of plastic, copper, iron and sand. If the total mass of the
contents of the vessel is 200 g and the individual masses of the contents are as follows:
(i) plastic – 50 g
(ii) copper – 60 g
(iii) iron – 20 g
(iv) sand – 70 g
Represent this information on a pie chart.
SOLUTION

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 SUBSTANCES FILLING UP A 200 g VESSEL

Sand 70 g Plastic 50 g

Copper 60 g

Iron 20 g

The pie chart shows the proportions of substances filling up a container of mass 200 g.

Q2. Worried about the punctuality of her students for the first morning lessons, a class teacher
carried out a research and discovered the following:
1.Total number of students in class – 50
2. Number of students staying within 5 km of school – 5
3. Number of students staying between 5 and 10 km – 10
4. Number of students staying between 10 and 20 km – 15
5. Number of students staying beyond 20 km – 20
Represent this information using a pie chart. She had observed that 70 % of the students arrived
late for the first lesson. What could be a possible reason for this?

SOLUTION

STUDENTS AND THEIR HOME

Students
DISTANCES FROM SCHOOLStaying
Within 5 km ,
5 Students
Students Staying
Staying Between 5
Beyond 20 km and 10
km, 20 km, 10
Students
Staying
Between 10
km and 20
km, 15

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The pie chart displays the distance of the students’ homes from school. 70 % of the students
stay a distance of more than 10 km from the school. It is possible that these students were the
ones who were most likely to be late for the first lesson at school.

1.2 LINE GRAPH

A line graph is a graphical display of a quantity which changes continuously over time.
A line graph is also referred to as a line chart.
Within a line graph, there are points showing the values of the quantity at various times and
lines joining the points.
The line graph has two axes. The y-axis shows the values of the quantity or data being recorded.
The x-axis shows the intervals over which the data is being recorded.
A line graph should also have a title. The title of a line graph provides information on what is
being displayed.
A line graph should also include a key that represents the quantity, event or situation being
measured over time.
Q. A student measured the daytime temperature at 12 p.m. every day for seven days from
Monday to Sunday and obtained the following data:

Day Temperature/ C

Monday 24

Tuesday 26

Wednesday 33

Thursday 28

Friday 25

Saturday 24

Sunday 26

Represent this information on a fully-labelled line graph and answer the following questions:
(a) What is being observed?
(b) How many days of data are being displayed?
(c) Which day had the highest recorded temperature?
(d) Which day had the lowest temperature?
(e) Which day had the largest increase in temperature compared to the previous day?

SOLUTION
The line graph is as shown below.

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 DAILY TEMPERATURE AT 12 NOON
35

30

25

20

15

10

0
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

(a) The quantity or event being observed is daily temperature at 12 p.m.

(b) Seven days of data are being displayed.
(c) Wednesday had the highest recorded temperature.
(d) Monday and Saturday had the lowest recorded temperature.
(e) Wednesday had the largest increase of day time temperature from 26 C on Tuesday to 33
C.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
PIE CHARTS
1. The pie shows the percentage of blood types for a group of 400 students.

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 BLOOD TYPES OF STUDENTS
Type B Type AB
25% 19%

Type A
16%

Type O
40%

(a) How many students in the group have blood type AB?
(b) How many students in this group do not have blood type O?
(c) How many students in this group have types A or B?

2. 800 Students use different modes of transport to go to school. Given the following data
i. 10% use bicycles
ii. 45% walk
iii. 15% use a car
iv. 30% use a bus
Present this information on a pie chart. Find the number of students who use each of the modes
of transport.
3. The table below shows the percentages of the world population in each continent. The
world population is about 7 billion.
Asia – 60.4%
Africa - 15.0%
America - 13.3%
Europe-11.0%
Oceana-0.3%
Represent this information in a pie chart.
a) How many people live in Africa
b) How many people live in Asia
c) How many people live in America
4. A student staying in Mbare carried out an investigation on the energy for cooking by 3840
household. He discovered that the use of energy was as follows:
i. Electricity – 480
ii. Gas – 1764
iii. Firewood – 576
iv. Paraffin – 1000
v. Coal - 20
Present the information in a pie chart. What percentage of the of the use coal? What percentage
of the households does not use electricity?
5. Sikhulile High School has 160 students doing form 3. After carrying out a research on their
shoe sizes a fellow student compiled the following information:
i. Size 5 – 30
ii. Size 6 – 40

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 iii. Size 7 – 80
iv. Size 8 - 10
Present this information on a pie chart.

LINE GRAPHS
6. The table shows daily rainfall for Nyanga over a six day rainy period.

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6

Rainfall 15 21 33 27 36 5
(mm)
Summarize the data in the form of a line graph

7. The table shows Chipo’s mass in kilograms for 5 months

Month Mass/ kg

January 48

February 53

March 59

April 67

May 72

In which month did Chipo experience the largest increase in mass?

8. The school bus is used to ferry students for sports and cultural trips. The odometer readings
taken by the schools transport manager showed the following:

Week Mileage/ km

1 63 100

2 65 700

3 66 300

4 68 200

5 68 600

Present this information on a line graph.

9. The following hourly wind speeds were recorded at the school’s weather by Geography
students

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 HOUR Wind Speed (km/ hr)

9.00 7

10.00 13

11.00 16

12.00 5

13.00 8

14.00 11

Present the information on a line graph

10. A doctor monitoring the heartbeat of a patient over 5 minute period obtained the following
readings :

Time/ Seconds Number of Heart beats

60 76

120 75

180 74

240 72

300 73

Present the heartbeat of this patient as a line graph

TOPIC 2: MEASUREMENT
2.0 INTRODUCTION

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Physics is referred to as the subject of measurement. This is because whatever we say about an
object or a phenomenon can only make sense if some measurement of the object or
phenomenon has been done.

2.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Each object or phenomenon in physics is measured according to an appropriate physical
quantity. For example to measure how heavy an object is, the physical quantity involved is
mass.
In order to measure how hot water on the stove is, the physical quantity involved is
temperature.
The physical quantities express the how much about the measurement; that is how small or how
big. So a measurement has got size or magnitude.
Other than magnitude, a measurement also has got a unit.

2.2 QUANTITIES AND INSTRUMENTS

The following table shows some of the quantities which we measure in physics and the
instrument which can be used in their measurement.
Table 1: Quantities and Instruments.

QUANTITY INSTRUMENT

Time Stopwatch

Length 1. Metre rule

2. Tape Measure
3. Vernier Callipers
4. Micrometer Screw Gauge
Mass 1. Scale
2. Electronic Balance
Current Ammeter

Temperature Thermometer

Volume Measuring Cylinder

Each instrument has the smallest reading which it is capable of taking. This is generally referred
to as its precision. It is not possible to make a measurement which is smaller than the precision
of the instrument. For example when using a metre rule whose smallest graduation is
millimetres, all readings should be expressed to the nearest millimetre.
Let us have a look at how we take readings from some of the instruments mentioned above.

2.3 MEASURING CYLINDER

The volume of a liquid can be measured using a graduated measuring cylinder.

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The diagram of Fig.1 shows a typical measuring cylinder.

Fig.1: Measuring Cylinder

There are some graduated cylinders of various capacities (5 mL to 500 mL in general), each
with its own system of graduation. You must determine the volume corresponding to each
division first before using a given measuring cylinder.

Fig.2: Measuring Cylinders with Different Graduations.

To measure volume, look for the graduation which is closest to the surface of the liquid, and
then set your eyes at the same level as the surface. The figure below shows the incorrect and
correct ways of taking a reading from a measuring cylinder.
Observer number 1 and 2 have positioned their line of sight incorrectly and therefore cannot
take an accurate reading of the volume of the liquid.
Observer number 3 has got his line of sight right on the free surface of the liquid and hence is
going to obtain an accurate reading of the volume of the liquid.

126
Fig.3: Taking a Reading from a Measuring Cylinder.
Due to the capillary action, water tends to be attracted by the walls of its container. This
phenomenon is negligible for wide containers but in narrow containers it can be observed that
the surface becomes round (the surface is curved).
To correctly determine the volume of the liquid, you should take as a reference the lowest point
of the curved surface.

Fig.4: Taking a Reading at the Meniscus

Q. What are the readings shown by the measuring cylinders shown in the diagrams below?
A. B. C.

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2.4 MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICITY: Ammeter, Voltmeter and Galvanometer
The ammeter is an instrument used for the measurement of the amount of current flowing in
an electric circuit or through part of the circuit. It is also important to determine the value of
the smallest division before using the ammeter. Fig.5 shows a typical ammeter.

Fig.5: An Ammeter for Measuring Electric Current.

Q. What is the reading shown by the ammeter?
A voltmeter is used for the measurement of voltages or potential differences between two
points of a circuit.

Fig.6: A Voltmeter for Measuring Voltages (Potential Differences) in a Circuit.

The other instrument used for the measurement of current flowing in a circuit is the
galvanometer. The galvanometer differs from the ordinary ammeter in that it is capable of
measuring a current which changes direction with time or at different instances. Its zero is at
the centre of the instrument. When current is flowing in one direction, the pointer deflects to
one side of the zero. If the current changes direction, the pointer deflects to the other side of
zero. Both sides, however, are read as positive currents.

Fig.7: The Galvanometer.

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2.5 VERNIER CALLIPERS
The vernier callipers is a special instrument which is designed to measure diameters and
dimensions of blocks.
The diagram of Fig.8 shows the main parts of a vernier callipers.

Fig.8: Main Parts of a Vernier Callipers.

The upper jaws are used for the measurement of outside dimensions such as width, length and
diameters.
The callipers consists of two scales; the main scale and the vernier scale.
The main scale reads to an accuracy of 0.1 cm. The vernier scale adds a further degree of
accuracy to measurements. On the vernier scale, the main scale division is further divided into
10. One division on the vernier scale is 0.01 cm.
Let’s see how the reading on the callipers shown in Fig.9 is taken.

Fig.9: Taking a Reading from the Vernier Callipers.

The first reading is taken from the main (that is top) scale before the zero marking. In the
diagram, this is 3.1 cm.
For the second reading, we find the marking on the vernier scale which is exactly in line with
that of the main scale. This is 0.03 cm in the diagram.
The correct reading, therefore, is 3.13 cm; which is the sum of the two.

129
Q. What is the reading shown by the two diagrams below?
A.

B.

2.6 MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

The micrometer is also used for the measurement of diameter and other dimensions of objects.
Because of its accuracy, it is the one normally used for the measurement of diameters of thin
wires.
Fig.6 shows the parts of the micrometer screw gauge.

Fig.10: Parts of a Micrometer Screw Gauge.

130
The micrometer reading is also taken from two parts.
The first reading is contributed by the scale on the sleeve and the second reading is from the
rotating vernier scale on the thimble.
Let’s consider the following example (Fig.11).

Fig.11: Taking a Reading from a Micrometer Screw Gauge.

The first reading which we obtain from the sleeve is 3.0 mm on the top scale and the extra line
after the 3.0 mm mark which is on the bottom scale represents 0.5 mm. Thus we have 3.5 mm.
The second reading is taken from the reading on the rotating vernier scale which coincides with
the horizontal line (datum line) on the sleeve and in this case it is 0.37 mm.
Adding the two readings we have

3.5 𝑚𝑚 + 0.37 𝑚𝑚 = 3.87 𝑚𝑚

The reading of the micrometer is thus 3.87 mm.
Q. What are the readings shown by the instruments below?

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2.7 THE ELECTRONIC BALANCE
Most of the instruments which are being manufactured these days are digital. Digital
instruments have got a small display screen which shows you the actual value of the
measurement being taken. All you have to do is to read it off. Digital instruments are, therefore,
easier to work with because they do not require any special skills from the observer.
The measurement of mass is done using a digital electronic balance.
The picture below shows an electronic balance.

Fig.12: A Digital Electronic Balance.

Now that we have discussed some of the instruments found in a school laboratory, let us how
you can use them in an experiment. The simple experiment which we are going to carry out
involves the measurement of density of a liquid.

2.8 DENSITY
The measurement of the density of a liquid is much easier compared to that of a solid or a gas.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume or mass divided by volume.
This is expressed mathematically as follows:
𝑚
𝐷=
𝑉
where D is the density, m is the mass and V is the volume. This expression applies to all
substances; solids, liquids and gases.

Density is generally expressed in 𝑔/ 𝑐𝑚3 (grams per cubic centimetre) or in 𝑘𝑔/ 𝑚3

(kilograms per cubic metre).

Q. Calculate the density of water given that 50 g of water occupies a volume of 50 𝑐𝑚3.
The experimental measurement of the density of a liquid is much easier compared to that of a
solid or gas.
ACTIVITY

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Aim: The aim of the experiment is to determine the density of various liquids.
APPARATUS
1. Measuring Cylinders
2. Electronic Balance
3. At least two different liquids which are safe to work with e.g. (i) water (ii) cooking oil and
(iii) paraffin
DIAGRAMS

PROCEDURE
1. Place the empty measuring cylinder on the balance and measure its mass as accurately as
possible (in grams).
2. Remove the measuring cylinder from the balance and carefully add water up to 200 ml.
Make sure this is as accurate as is possible.
3. Put the measuring cylinder back on the balance and record the new mass (cylinder plus
water).
4. Calculate the density using the formula:
𝑚
𝐷=
𝑉
N.B: Remember 1 𝑚𝑙 = 1 𝑐𝑚3 .
5. Using another clean and dry measuring cylinder repeat steps 1 to 4 for cooking oil and also
for paraffin.
6. Compare the densities of the liquids.

7. Convert the densities of the liquids into kilograms per cubic metre ( 𝑘𝑔/ 𝑐𝑚3 ).

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
VERNIER CALLIPERS AND MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE
1. What are the readings shown by the following vernier callipers (left) and the micrometer
screw gauge?
(a) (a)

(b) (b)

(c) (c)

(d) (d)

(e) (e)

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TOPIC 3: FORCE

3.0 MOTION OF OBJECTS

The early scientists realized that most objects would, in given circumstances, undergo some
movement and, in some cases, others were always moving. The questions which arose to them
were; ‘why do objects (or bodies) move’ and ‘how do they move?’ Physicists, therefore,
became preoccupied in trying to explain the motion of objects. As their knowledge increased,
they realized that bodies moved according to specific laws and equations can be used to
describe their motion. They also came up with some terms to describe the motion of the objects.
3.1 TERMS DESCRIBING MOTION OF A BODY
In order to describe how an object moves we make use of the following quantities:
(i) Distance
(ii) Speed
(iii) Acceleration and
(iv) Time
You will realize that it is impossible to describe how an object is moving without mentioning
at least one of the above quantities. One of the very first ideas which scientists believed in, was
that of change. They believed that nothing remained the same. To them, either it would change
in terms of its position (the space it occupies) or how it looks like after some time.
This led to the following idea:
Everything changes in space and time.

3.2 DISTANCE
The first term which we shall define is distance.
Distance is the length of the actual path followed by an object.

Fig.1: Distance between A and B.

Distance is measured in metres, 𝑚.

3.3 AVERAGE SPEED
To find average speed, we need to know the total distance covered by a body and the total
time taken.
Average speed is the total distance covered, divided by the total time taken.
We use the following formula to calculate average speed
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

135
Q. A motorist takes 6 hours to travel from Bulawayo to Harare. Calculate her average speed.
3.4 SPEED
Sometimes we are interested in knowing how fast a car, for example, was when it passed a
certain point or at a given time. This is referred to as the speed of the car. Its definition is as
follows:
Speed is the distance covered per unit time.
To find speed we use the following formula:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
The units for speed are metres per second (m/s) or kilometres per hour (when the distance is
expressed in kilometres and the time in hours).
EXAMPLE
What is the speed of a motorbike which covers a distance of 20 m in 4 s?
GIVEN

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 20 𝑚

𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 4 𝑠

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = ?
SOLUTION
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
3.5 ACCELERATION
Bodies do not always move at the same speed throughout their journey. Even if they are moving
in a straight line, sometimes they reduce or increase their speed. For example, a bus may move
at 60 km/hr for 30 minutes and then the driver may increase its speed such that it reaches a
speed of 75 km/hr after 5 seconds. The quantity which describes by how much the velocity of
the bus has changed in a given time is known as acceleration.
Acceleration is the change in speed per unit time.
To calculate acceleration we use the formula:
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

The units for acceleration are metres per second squared, 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
Q. A bus driver increases the velocity of a bus from 60 km/hr to 75 km/hr in 5 seconds. Find
the acceleration of the bus.
Data
Speed of 60 km/hr = 17 m/s

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Speed of 75 km/hr = 21 m/s
Time taken = 5 s
Acceleration = ?
Solution
The solution to the problem is as follows:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
(21 − 17) 𝑚/𝑠
=
5𝑠
4
=
5
0.8 𝑚/ 𝑠 2

The acceleration of the bus is 0.8 𝑚/ 𝑠 2 .

We always try to give acceleration in the units of 𝑚/ 𝑠 2 .

The velocity of 60 km/ hr is known as the initial speed, whilst the velocity of 75 km/ hr is
known as the final speed.
The term initial and final speed are used to describe the speeds of a body in between two given
times during its motion.

3.6 FORCES
Motion can be studied without worrying about what makes the objects to move, but in some
cases we may actually be interested in knowing what made the object to move, or to stop
moving. This is one area which interested Sir Isaac Newton very much and he came up with
three laws to explain why objects are found moving (or being at rest) at a given point in time.
The three laws are known as Newton’s Laws of Motion.
3.7 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Newton’s first law of motion states as follows:
A body will tend to maintain its state of rest or of uniform velocity until acted on by a resultant
force.
The law tells us that, in the absence of a resultant force, a body would remain at rest, if it was
at rest, or it would continue moving in a straight line with constant speed.
It is only when there is a resultant force acting on it that a body starts to move or changes the
way it is moving.
Thus, through this law, Newton gave an explanation of what causes the motion of an object or
a change in the motion of an object.
Remember that the absence of a resultant force does not always mean that there are no forces
acting on a body; it means that the sum total of forces is zero.
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3.8 INERTIA
The first law tells us that bodies have a tendency of maintaining the way they are moving or
their rest position. They have some form of in-built reluctance to change.
This tendency of bodies to maintain the way they are moving is called inertia.
For this reason, Newton’s first law which tells us about all this is also called the law of inertia.

In a car, the driver and the passengers always move at the same speed as the car itself. If the
car suddenly comes to a stop, e.g. in a crush, the occupants will tend to continue with their
motion according to the principle of inertia.

Seat belts are designed to stop the driver and the passengers from continuing with this motion
which would otherwise see them crushing into the already stationary seats, steering wheel or
windscreen in front of them.

Inertia also shows itself in many other different ways in our lives. When a motorcycle rider
crashes into a wall, the motorcycle immediately comes to a rest, but the rider is thrown over.
This is because the rider tends to continue moving with the same speed with which he was
moving at before crashing into the wall.

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3.9 MASS AND INERTIA
Mass and inertia are related. It is harder to move a heavier object than it is to move a lighter
object. Also, if the heavier object is at rest, it is more difficult to get it moving. A larger force
has got to be applied to move or change the way a heavier body is moving.
The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia.
The tendency of a body to maintain its motion or its rest position depends on the mass of the
body.

The bucket with sand is more difficult to push. It has got more mass and it is more ‘reluctant’
to change its state.

3.10 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

From the first law, we learnt that in order to change the way a body is moving, a resultant force
is required. As a result of a force, the velocity of a body which was at rest would begin to
increase. This means it accelerates. If it was already moving at a certain constant velocity
(uniform speed in a straight line), it either would decelerate or accelerates. Newton observed
that:
The acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it.
This is Newton’s Second Law of Motion.
This can be written as follows:

𝑎 ∝𝐹
where 𝐹 is the resultant force and 𝑎 is acceleration of the body. This is a relationship of
proportionality and it can be written as an equation in the following manner:

𝐹 =𝑚𝑎
where 𝑚 is the mass of the body. This equation is also called Newton’s second law of motion.
It is the mathematical form of the law. From this equation we are able to define the unit for
force. Forces are measured in newtons, N.

1 𝑁 is the force required to give a body of mass 1 𝑘𝑔 an acceleration of 1 𝑚𝑠 −1 .

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 A resultant force causes the motion of an
object. More importantly, a resultant force
causes the object to move with an
acceleration. The greater the resultant
force, the greater the acceleration of the
object. Newton’s second of law of motion
gives us relationship between resultant
force and acceleration.

Q. A resultant force of 10 N acts on a body of mass 2 kg. (a) Calculate the acceleration of the
body as a result of the action of this force. (b) If the same force were to act on a body of a mass
of 4 kg, what would be the acceleration of this body?
Data

𝐹 = 10 𝑁
(a) = 2 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝑎 = ?

(b) 𝑚 = 4 𝑘𝑔; 𝑎 = ?
Solution
(a) From Newton’s second law of motion we can write:

𝐹 =𝑚𝑎
Therefore:
𝐹
𝑎=
𝑚
10 𝑁
=
2 𝑘𝑔

= 5 𝑚/𝑠 2

The acceleration of the body of mass 2 kg is 5 𝑚/𝑠 2 .

(b) For the body of mass 4 kg:
𝐹
𝑎=
𝑚
10 𝑁
=
4 𝑘𝑔

= 2.5 𝑚/ 𝑠 2
The acceleration of the body of mass 4 kg is 2.5 𝑚/ 𝑠 2 .

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We can see from here that for the same force applied, the greater the mass of the body, the
smaller the acceleration.
3.11 WEIGHT
All objects close to the Earth’s surface fall back when they are released. Newton suggested that
the Earth pulls down all the objects close to its surface.
The force which attracts the objects towards the Earth is known as the force of gravity or
gravitational force.

According to Newton’s Second Law of motion, 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑎. Objects falling under gravity do so

with an acceleration equal to 𝑔. We can therefore write:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
The force of gravity acting on a body is known as the weight of a body. We use 𝑊 to represent
the weight, thus we can write:

𝑊 =𝑚𝑔
For most purposes 𝑔 is taken to be constant for all regions around the Earth and is given the
value of 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 . In reality though, the value of 𝑔 varies slightly from place.
Q. What is the weight of an a bag of mealie meal whose mass is 5 kg, given that the acceleration
due to gravity is 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 ?
Data

𝑚 = 5 𝑘𝑔

𝑔 = 10 𝑚/ 𝑠 2

𝑊 =?
Solution
The weight of a body is given by

𝑊 =𝑚𝑔
Hence:

𝑊 = 5 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 10 𝑚/ 𝑠 2

= 50 𝑁
The weight of the bag of mealie meal is 50 𝑁.
The mass of the bag is 5 kg and its weight is 50 N.
Note that weight is a force.
We can consider mass as the amount of matter in a body. If the gravitational force acting on
the body changes, for example as height changes, the weight of the body changes. Since mass
is the amount of matter in the body it does not change at all.

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The mass is always the same at all places and at all times. Weight may change from place to
place.
3.12 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
The third law can be stated as follows:
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Stated in another way
If a body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal but opposite force on body
A.
The law tells us that forces never occur singly but always in pairs as a result of the interaction
between two bodies.
Points to Note
(i) The two forces of action and reaction do not act on the same body.
(ii) The two forces arise and act at the same time.
(iii) The two forces are of the same type
(iv) The third law establishes the fact that a force is a measure of the interaction between
two bodies.

Most of the motion which we see is a result of Newton’s

third law of motion. For an object to move forward, some
force may have to be applied on another body or system
in the opposite direction. In order for the boat in the
picture to move towards our right, a force is applied on the
water to the left. The force on the water and that on the
boat constitute an action and reaction pair.

The picture shows a man jumping up and into the swimming pool from a
diving board. In order to propel himself up, the swimmer actually pushes
the diving board down (the action). According to the third law, the diving
board pushes the swimmer up in turn (the reaction). Thus, the swimmer
launches himself up into a diving action by making use of Newton’s third
law of motion.

3.13 MOMENTUM
Car accidents are something which we are all familiar with. In some cases, after loss of control
by the driver, a vehicle would ram into a wall. The damage to the wall depends on two things;
the mass of the vehicle and its speed. In order to study the motion of a body, we sometimes
need to know both the mass of the body and its velocity.

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The momentum of a body is the product of its mass and its velocity.
The mathematical expression is:

𝑝=𝑚𝑥𝑣
where 𝑝 is momentum, 𝑚 is mass and 𝑣 is velocity.
A body of small mass, but high velocity can cause considerable damage because its momentum
will be great due to the high velocity. Similarly a slow moving object, but of high mass also
has got large momentum; this time because of the large mass.

Knowledge of momentum plays an important role in sports, traffic accidents, and even in
atomic processes.

Q4.1 A 10 kg mass moving at a velocity of 8 𝑚𝑠 −1 has an impulse applied to it which causes

its velocity to change to 20 𝑚𝑠 −1in the initial direction of motion. Determine the magnitude
of the impulse applied. If the impulse was applied for 3 s, calculate the magnitude of force
acting on the body.

Q4.2 A light motor vehicle of mass 2200 kg travelling at 94 𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑟 −1 can be stopped in 21 s

by gently applying brakes. It can also be stopped in 5.5 s in a panic stop, or in 0.22 s if it hits a
concrete wall. What is the average force exerted on the vehicle in each of these stops?

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
FORCES
1. A car travels a distance of 25 km in 30 minutes. Calculate the average speed of the cars
during this short trip.
2. A motorbike travelling at 60 km/hr increases its speed to 120 km/hr in 10s. Calculate the
acceleration of the motorbike in 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
3. A motor racing car starting from rest accelerates to 100 km/hr in 4s. Calculate the
acceleration of the car.
4. Define force
5. If the mass of the car in Q3 is 1500kg, what is the force of the engine propelling it forward
6. A truck full of sand weighs 3 tonnes and the force of the engine propelling forward is
45000N, calculate the acceleration of the truck. After offloading the sand, the truck weighs
2 tones. If the same force of 45000N is used to propel it, what would be its acceleration?
7. A boy pushing a grocery trolley with a force of 150N gives it an acceleration of 2m/s(2).
Calculate the mass of the trolley.
8. Define weight. The acceleration due to gravity in Zimbabwe is about 10m/s(2). What is the
mass of a girl of mass 65 kg? The girl travels to the North Pole where the acceleration due
to gravity is 9 m/s (2). What is her weight at the North Pole?
9. Discuss the difference between mass and weight
10. State Newton’s first law of motion. A book rests on top of the table. Discuss how Newton’s
first law can be applied to this book
11. State Newton’s second law of motion. If a force F1 acts on a mass M1 , gives it an
acceleration A1 explain what happens to the acceleration if the acting on the mass is
doubled
12. A train of mass 150 000kg accelerates on level terrain at 5m/s(2). How much force is
developed by the engine in pulling the train
13. A car is travelling at high speed when the driver suddenly applies brakes after seeing an
accident in front of him. The passenger in the front, who did not have a seat belt on him
crashes into the windscreen as a result. Explain what caused the passenger to crash into the
wind screen. Explain how this accident which happened to the passenger could have been
avoided
14. Define momentum. A bird of mass 250g flying at a speed of 20m/s hits against the
windscreen of a stationary car. A boy tosses a book of mass 950g on the windscreen of a
similar car parked by a garage. Explain with same reasons which object is likely to cause
more damage to the windscreen
15. State Newton’s third law of motion. A farmer carries his harvest from the field using a
scotch cart drawn by 4 oxen. Explain whether Newton’s third law applies to the oxen and
the cart system
16. A cup rests on top of the table. Describe the possible action and reaction pairs in this case

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3.14 SIMPLE MACHINES
A machine is a device which is used to do some work.
Some machines are very complicated and they are made up of many parts such as gears and
ball bearings working together.
There are some machines which are very basic and are in fact the ones used to build the
complicated machines.
All the complex machines are, in one way or the other built using the following simple
machines:
1. Lever
2. Pulley
3. Inclined plane
4. Wheel and axle
5. Wedge
6. Screw
We are going to learn more about the first three.

3.15 LEVER
A lever is a simple machine which is made up of a beam or rigid rod resting on a pivot or
fulcrum.
The lever makes it easier to do work. Using a lever one can move a load around a pivot using
a smaller force which is also known as the effort.
The three main parts of the lever are shown in the figure below:

Fig.1: The Main Parts of a Lever.

The three separate parts of the lever are the load, the fulcrum and the effort.
The idea of a lever is used in a number of basic tools. Some of the tools include the see-saw,
scissors, the hammer, pliers and the wheelbarrow.

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The diagrams of Fig.2 show some examples of simple machines.

ITEM DIAGRAM

See-saw

Pliers

Scissors

Hammer claws

Wheelbarrow

Fig.2: Simple Machines Around Us.

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A machine’s ability to do work is measured by two factors. These are:
(1) Mechanical advantage and
(2) Velocity ratio

3.16 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

This is a measure of the gain achieved through the use of a simple machine.
The mechanical advantage of each type of machine is calculated differently.
For a lever, the distance from pivot to effort, a, and distance from pivot to load, b, are used in
the calculation of its mechanical advantage (MA).
𝑎
𝑀𝐴 =
𝑏

Fig.3: Mechanical Advantage of a Lever.

Increasing the distance from the function to the effort increases the mechanical advantage of
the lever.
Increasing the distance from the fulcrum to the load reduces the mechanical advantage of the
lever.
The mechanical advantage of the lever can be less great then 1

3.17 VELOCITY RATIO

Sometimes machines are used to change a small amount of movement on one part into a large
amount of movement on another part.
This property of machines is very important and we use the idea of Velocity Ratio to measure
it.
Velocity Ratio is the distance moved by effort divided by distance moved by load.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑉𝐸𝐿𝑂𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑌 𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑂 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
3.18 EFFICIENCY OF A MACHINE
If there are no energy losses in the machine, all the work which is done by the effort is used to
lift the load. In this case the mechanical advantage and the velocity ratio will be equal.

147
In reality, however, some of the work done by the effort is used to overcome friction and in
some cases some of the work is converted into heat and sound. All this leads to loss of energy
and the mechanical advantage is then found to be less than the velocity ratio.
A machine in which the mechanical advantage is equal to the velocity ratio is said to be 100%
efficient. It has no energy losses.
Efficiency can be the using the following formula:
𝑀𝐸𝐶𝐻𝐴𝑁𝐼𝐶𝐴𝐿 𝐴𝐷𝑉𝐴𝑁𝑇𝐴𝐺𝐸 (𝑀𝐴)
𝐸𝐹𝐹𝐼𝐶𝐼𝐸𝑁𝐶𝑌 = 𝑥 100%
𝑉𝐸𝐿𝑂𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑌 𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑂 (𝑉𝑅)
In practice machines are never 100% efficient because energy is always lost in one form or
other.
In order to reduce energy losses in some machines, grease is applied at the moving parts. This
is a way of reducing friction in the machine.
The diagram below shows the way in which the velocity ratio of a lever can be found.

Fig.4: Velocity Ratio of a Lever

3.19 INCLINED PLANE

An individual plane does not look like a machine at all. It has no moving parts whatsoever.
It is simply an even sloping surface. The word “inclined” means raised on one end.
An inclined plane can be a properly constructed frame or just a plank or log leaning at a higher
point. An inclined is also known as a ramp.
An inclined plane makes it easier for us to lift objects to a higher or lower point than if we were
to lift them directly.

3.20 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE OF INCLINED PLANE

An inclined plane has two main sides which we can consider, the length, 𝐿, which is the
distance from the lower to the higher end of the slope and the vertical side, ℎ, which is the
distance from the base up to the top of the sloped surface.

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The mechanics advantage of the inclined plane is calculated as follows:
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 (𝐿)
𝑀𝐸𝐶𝐻𝐴𝑁𝐼𝐶𝐴𝐿 𝐴𝐷𝑉𝐴𝑁𝑇𝐴𝐺𝐸 =
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 (ℎ)

The inclined plane enables us to lift heavy objects without using a lot of effort. This is because
the inclined planes have got a mechanical advantage which is greater than 1.

Q. Calculate the mechanical advantage of an inclined plane off length, 6 m whose height is 2m.
DATA

𝐿 =6𝑚

𝐿 =2𝑚

𝑀𝐴 = ?
SOLUTION
The mechanical advantage is given by:
𝐿
𝑀𝐴 = ℎ

6𝑚
= 2𝑚

=3
The mechanical advantage of the inclined plane is 3. The inclined plane increases the force
applied by 3 times.

3.21 GIVES AND TAKES IN AN INCLINED PLANE

In life, generally, we say there is a give and take situation if you have to lose something in
order to gain something.
There is a give and take which happens with an inclined plane.
If the inclined plane has a gentle slope one has to push or pull an object through a longer
distance, with a lesser effort.

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By contrast, if the slope is steeper, one pushes or pulls an object through a shorter distance but
with more effort.
The give and take can be summarised as follows:
Gentle slope means less effort needed but more distance covered.
Steep slope means more effort needed but shorter distance covered.

Fig.5: Mechanical Advantage in a Gentle and a Steep Slope.

A gentle slope gives a greater mechanical advantage.

3.22 THE PULLEY

A pulley is a wheel with a groove and a rope which is made to run in the groove.
The pulley is also known as a drum or a sheave.
A pulley is used to lift up or lower heavy objects.

3.23 TYPES OF PULLEYS

Pulleys can be arranged in three main ways. Each type of pulley arrangement depends on how
the wheel and rope are put together. These are the fixed pulley, the movable pulley and the
compound pulley.

Fixed Pulley
As the name suggests this policy is fixed in one place and cannot be removed. The rope
however, runs in the pulley as it turns in its axle.
fig

Fig.6: Fixed Pulley

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The object to be lifted up is tied to one end of the rope and the force is applied to the other end
by way of a downward pull on the rope.

Movable Pulley
In this case the load is attached to the pulley and both of them can move from one point to
another. The rope which passes through the pulley has got one of its ends attached to a fixed
pulley.

Fig.7: Movable Pulley

With a movable pulley, less effort is needed to lift a load.

Compound Pulley
This is a combination of pulleys with a single rope passing through all of them. It is also called
a combined pulley.
Various arrangements can be made starting from a combination of two pulleys up to any
number.
The figure below shows examples of compound pulleys from two up to six in total.

3.24 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE OF A PULLEY SYSTEM

To calculate the mechanical advantage of a pulley system we simply count the number of
sections of the rope which are supporting the load excluding the section where the effort is
applied.
If N is the number of sections supporting the load, then we can write.

𝑀𝐴 = 𝑁

Fig.8: The Number of Ropes Supporting Load is (a) 1 for 1st System and (b) 5 for 2nd System.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
SIMPLE MACHINES
1. What do you understand by the terms ‘simple machine’?
2. A lever is used to lift a stone of mass 10 kg which is 1m from the fulcrum. If the force is to
be applied at 2m on the other side of the fulcrum, what is the minimum value of the force
in order to lift the stone?
3. How much force is required to lift a mass of 80 kg placed on a lever as shown below? Take
g as 10 𝑚/𝑠 2.

4. In the diagram below, how much force is required to lift the load of 35 kg?

5. What are the forces required to lift the 10kg mass in A and B

A. B.

6. In the following diagram, how much force is required to lift the mass?

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7. A man pushes a hand truck up an inclined plane whose horizontal side is 12m and vertical
side is 2m. Calculate the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane. If the horizontal side
is increased to 24m, what happens to the mechanical advantage

8. Discuss the gives and takes (trade-offs) of using a gently sloping inclined plane using a
steeper inclined plane.

9. Explain how friction contributes to loss of energy in a machine which is being driven by
gears. How can this loss of energy be released.

10. A worker uses a lever of mass 10 kg to raise a load of 50 kg. His supervisor brings him
instead, a lever of 5 kg. Discuss the difference in the use of the two levers.

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3.25 THE FOUR STROKE PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINE
Altough there are a number of engines running on petrol or diesel, by far the most common
ones are those on motor vehicles. The motor vehicle has become part and parcel of our day to
day life. In a petrol or diesel engine, chemical energy in the fuel is converted to kinetic energy
of the vehicle. This is done through the movement of pistons in the cylinders of the engine. In
each cylinder, the piston undergoes a cycle involving four strokes, thus, the engine is referred
to as a four stroke engine. In this section we are going to learning about how fuel is burnt in a
four stroke engine in order to power the vehicle. We are also going to learn about the other
important devices which work together with the engine such as the carburettor.

3.26 INTERNAL COMBUSTION

Motion in most engine-powered vehicles is achieved through burning of an air-fuel mixture in
the engine cylinders. This burning of the air-fuel mixture is known as combustion.
An internal combustion engine is simply one where the fuel is burned inside the main part of
the engine (the cylinders) where power is produced.
Generally, for combustion to take place, there is need to have plenty of air. This, we know from
our experiences even at home. In lighting up a fire for cooking or braaing we have to provide
a lot of air to get the fire going.
In a combustion engine the correct amount of air-fuel mixture should be provided at all times
for the different driving conditions.
The ratio of air to fuel required to start a car for example is different from the ratio required
when the car is speeding or idling, for that matter.
This means that the right amount of air should be supplied for mixing with fuel in accordance
with the driving conditions.
When combustion takes place, heat energy is released whereas carbon dioxide and water are
produced as waste products. The most important component in the air, as it mixes with fuel ,
is oxygen. So really, when we talk about enough air, we are talking about enough oxygen.
Too little oxygen, in indoor fires for example, leads to incomplete combustion and produces
the dangerous gas carbon monoxide.
In a car, having too much air is just as bad as having too little air.
Having too much air and less fuel results in the engine running lean (you can understand it as
‘ lean on fuel’).
Having too little air and more fuel results in the engine running rich (you can understand it as
‘rich in fuel’).
Both the lean and rich conditions are bad for the engine in their different ways.

3.27 WHY THE CARBURETTOR

Fuel (petrol and diesel) engines are designed so that they take in exactly the right amount of
air whether the car is being started, is idling or is travelling at speed.

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This is achieved through a device known as the carburettor which allows air and fuel into the
engine through valves. The carburettor mixes the air and fuel in the exact amounts to suit the
driving conditions.
The carburettor provides the correct air-fuel mixture for various ambient temperatures,
atmospheric pressures, engine speeds and loads.

3.28 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Karl Benz (automobile pioneer and Mercedes founder), is considered as the first inventor of
the carburettor. He designed a carburettor in 1885 and patented it in 1888.

3.29 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The diagram which captures the principle of operation of the carburettor is shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1: The Carburettor.

In its simplest form, a carburettor consists of a pipe through which air passses into the inlet
manifold of the engine. The pipe is designed in the form of a venturi. It starts off with a wide
cross-section, then narrows and widens again.
According to laws of physics, when air flows from a wide section to a narrow section its speed
increases.
On the other hand, another law states that in a region where velocity of a fluid is higher, the
pressure is lower.
Hence, as air flows with high speed throgh the narrow section of the venturi, it causes low
pressure. It is this pressure which draws fuel in.

3.30 THROTTLE VALVE

Below the venturi, there is a butterfly valve called a throttle. This valve can be positioned such
that it does not block air-flow at all. It can also be rotated such that it almost totally stops air
flow.
The throttle valve thus controls the flow of air through the carburettor throat and governs the
air-fuel mixture the system will supply to the engine for the different conditions.
The throttle is connected to the accelerator pedal of the car through a cable or other mechanical
means.

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3.31 JETS
The amount of fuel introduced into the venturi, at the narrow section, depends on the pressure
around this region.
Well calibrated holes, known as JETS, allow exactly the right amount of fuel to go into the
venturi depending on the pressure.

3.32 CHOKE
The choke is another valve which is found at the entrance to the carburettor, before the venturi.
The choke is particularly useful when the engine is cold. Under these conditions, the fuel does
not vaporize easily and it will condense on the walls of the intake manifold, starving the
cylinders of fuel, thus, making the engine difficult to start. A richer mixture is, therefore,
required to start the engine.
The choke is used to ensure that a richer mixture is obtained. When the choke is closed it
restricts air flow towards the venturi. This creates a near-vacuum (low pressure) at the narrow
section. Fuel is drawn in by this low pressure. This way the rich mixture required to start the
car and maintain the operation of the engine when it is cold is achieved.

Summary
1. Air flows into the carburettor from the car’s intake.
2. When the engine is started, the choke almost totally restricts air flow into the venturi in order
to achieve a richer air-mixture.
3. Under other conditions, fast air flow at the narrow section causes a pressure drop.
4. The low pressure causes a suction which draws in fuel.
5. The opening and closing of the throttle valve governs the amount of air-fuel mixture which
goes to the engine. When the throttle valve is open more air-fuel mixture is supplied to the
engine cylinders. The engine produces more power and the car moves faster.
6. Fuel is supplied from a small fuel tank called the float-chamber (or float-feed chamber).
7. As the fuel falls, a float in the chamber falls and opens a valve at the top.
8. Once the float chamber has been filled up, the valve rises and closes out fuel from the main
fuel tank.

3.33 WHAT IS THE CURRENT STATE OF USE OF THE CARBURETTOR

Carburettors were used in the majority of fuel-powered engines in the United States up until
the late 1980s when fuel injection became the preferred method.
The last cars manufactured in the United States with a carburettor were as follows:
1. 1990: Oldmobile Custom Cruiser, Buik Estate Wagon, Cadillac Brougham, Honda Prelude.
2. 1991: Jeep Grand Wagoneer.
3. 1993: Mazda B2200 (the light truck).

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In Australia some cars continued to use carburettors way into the 1990s:
1. 1993: Honda Civic
2. 1994: Ford Laser
3. 1996: Mazda 323/ Mitsubishi Magna
4. 1997: Daihatsu Charade
5. 1999: Suzuki Swift
In Europe, legislation required that all cars produced in member countries had to have catalytic
convertres by December 1992. The phasing out of the carburettor-engined cars had been going
on throughout the 1980s. The only cars launched with carburettors in the 1990s include:
1990: Renault Clio/ Nissan Primera
1991: Peogeot 106
In Russia, the Lada was produced with a carburettor up until 1996.
Zimbabwe had a vibrant car assembly industry up until around the year 2000. It may be safely
stated, therefore, from an assembling point of view that the last kits from the manufacturers
date back to around 20 years ago. In terms of vehicles imported directly from manufacturing
countries, the carburetted cars would date back to 25 years ago.

3.34 ENGINE BLOCK

The engine block sometimes known as the cylinder block is the large case which contains the
cylinder, pistons, intake and exhaust passages, coolant passages, crank cases and other internal
components.
Fig. is a picture showing a typical engine block.

Fig.2: A Typical Engine Block.

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Due to advances in vehicle technology and improved efficiency, the traditional engine block is
becoming less and less recognisable.
Most of the components and systems of the engine are now so integrated such that the need for
a very large casing has been reduced.

3.35 THE FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE

Almost all vehicles nowadays make use of the four stroke engine.

The diagram below shows a four stroke engine.

Fig.3: The Four Stroke Petrol Engine.

A stroke is the movement of the piston from the top to the bottom of the cylinder or from the
bottom to the top of the cylinder.

Fig.4: Strokes in a Combustion Chamber

As the name suggests, the four stroke petrol engine uses a cycle of four strokes and petrol as
the fuel.

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Each cycle involves two rotations of the crankshaft and the four strokes.

Very specific events take place during each stroke and they are named as follows:

1. Intake stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Combustion stroke
4. Exhaust stroke

Let us now look at what happens during each stroke.

Intake Stroke

The intake event is when the air-fuel mixture is introduced into the combustion chamber. It can
be described as follows:

1. The piston moves from the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder.
2. The intake valve opens as the piston moves down.
3. The movement of the piston towards the bottom creates a low pressure in the cylinder.
4. Ambient atmospheric pressure forces the air-fuel mixture through the open intake valve
into the cylinder to fill the low pressure area created by the piston movement.
5. Once the cylinder is filled up, the intake valve then closes and the air-fuel mixture is sealed
inside the cylinder.

Compression Stroke

The compression stroke is when the trapped air-fuel mixture is compressed inside the cylinder.

1. The piston begins to move from the bottom of the cylinder to the top.
2. During this stroke, both the intake and the exhaust valves are closed, so the combustion
chamber is sealed. The air-fuel mixture forms what is called the charge.

The charge is the volume of compressed air-fuel mixture trapped inside the combustion
chamber ready for ignition.

Compression is the process of reducing or squeezing a charge from a large volume to a smaller
volume in the combustion chamber. Compressing the air-fuel mixture allows more energy to
be released when the charge is ignited.

3. The flywheel helps to maintain the upward push on the piston and the compression of the
air-fuel mixture.
4. When the piston of an engine compresses the air-fuel mixture heat is generated.
5. The compression and heating of the air-fuel vapour results in an increase in temperature
and more fuel vapour is formed.
6. When the air-fuel mixture is compressed fully we can calculate the compression ratio as
follows

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟−𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

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 1 1
Petrol engines commonly have a compression ratio ranging from to .
6 10

An engine with a higher the compression ratio is more fuel-efficient than an engine with a
lower compression ratio.

7. Once the air-fuel mixture is fully compressed, it is ready to be ignited.

Combustion Stroke

The combustion stroke begins once ignition has taken place. Ignition (combustion)
event occurs when a burst of flame which lights up the air-fuel mixture is started by the spark
plug.

1. A chemical reaction is triggered by the flame. The fuel chemically combines with oxygen
leading to the release of energy in the form of heat.
2. The flame started at the top progresses across the combustion chamber until the entire air-
fuel mixture has burned.
3. The combustion stroke is now when hot expanding gases force the piston away from the
top of the cylinder.
4. The force of the piston is transferred through the connecting rod to apply a turning force
known as a torque on the crankshaft.
5. The crankshaft begins to rotate. The amount of torque produced is determined by the
pressure on the piston, the size of the piston, and the throw of the engine.
6. During the power stroke, both the intake and exhaust valves are closed.

Exhaust Stroke

The exhaust stroke occurs when spent gases are expelled from the combustion chamber and
released to the atmosphere. The exhaust stroke is the final stroke and occurs when the exhaust
valve is open and the intake valve is closed. Piston movement evacuates exhaust gases to the
atmosphere. The exhaust stroke can be described as follows:

1. As the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder during the power stroke combustion is
complete and the cylinder is filled with exhaust gases.
2. The exhaust valve opens.
3. Due to inertia of the flywheel and other moving parts, the piston is pushed back to the top
of the cylinder.
4. The exhaust gases are forced out through the open exhaust valve.
5. At the end of the exhaust stroke, the piston is right at the top of the cylinder and one
operating cycle has been completed.

To keep the vehicle running, it needs the small engine flywheel. The power stroke creates
momentum that pushes the flywheel’s inertia keeps it and the crankshaft turning during the
exhaust, intake and compression strokes.

3.36 DIESEL ENGINE

Just like a petrol engine, a diesel engine also operates by repeating a cycle of four strokes,
therefore, it is also a four stoke engine.

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Diesel engines are simpler and this is how they work:
First, air is allowed into the cylinder. The piston then compresses this air. The compression is
much more than in a petrol engine. In a petrol engine, the fuel-air mixture is compressed to
between one sixth and about one tenth of its original volume. In a diesel engine, the air is
compressed by anything from 14 to 25 times.
When a gas is compressed heat is generated. So much heat is generated by forcing air into 14–
25 times less space than it normally takes up. The air gets really hot and its temperature rises
to about 600 °C or more than that.
Once the air is compressed, a mist of fuel is sprayed into the cylinder. The air is so hot that the
fuel instantly ignites and explodes without any need for a spark plug. This controlled explosion
makes the piston push back out of the cylinder, producing the power that drives the vehicle.
When the piston goes back into the cylinder, the exhaust gases are pushed out through an
exhaust valve. This process repeats itself hundreds or thousands of times a minute.

Summary
1. Intake: Air is drawn into the cylinder through the air inlet valve as the piston moves down.
2. Compression: The inlet valve closes, the piston moves up, and compresses the air mixture,
heating it up. Fuel is injected into the hot gas through the central fuel injection valve and
spontaneously ignites. Unlike with a gas engine, no sparking plug is needed to make this
happen.
3. Power: As the air fuel mixture ignites and burns, it pushes the piston down, driving the
crankshaft that sends power to the wheels.
4. Exhaust: The outlet valve opens to let out the exhaust gases which are pushed out by the
piston.
Diesel engines are particularly good for moving large loads at low speeds, so they're ideal for
use in freight-hauling ships, trucks, buses, and locomotives.
Higher compression means the parts of a diesel engine have to withstand far greater stresses
and strains than those in a petrol engine. That's why diesel engines need to be stronger and
heavier. As a result, most of the time, diesel engines are only to power large vehicles and
machines. While this may seem a drawback, it means diesel engines are typically stronger and
last much longer than petrol engines.

3.37 COMPARISON OF A PETROL AND A DIESEL ENGINE

We can draw comparisons between the petrol and diesel engine along the following lines;
working principles, pressures, combustion, compression ratios, speed, efficiency and
maintenance costs. The following table summarises the comparisons.

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Table: Comparison of a Petrol and Diesel Engine

ASPECT PETROL ENGINE DIESEL ENGINE

Intake A petrol engine draws a mixture of petrol and The diesel engine only draws
air during the intake stroke. air during the intake stroke.

Carburettor The carburettor is used to mix air and petrol The injector is used to inject
in the required amount which is then supplied fuel at the end of the
to the engine during the intake stroke. compression stroke.

Pressure Lower Compression Pressure Higher Compression Pressure

The pressure at the end of compression is The pressure at the end of
about 1 MPa (1 Megapascal) compression is about 3.5MPa.

Spark Plug The air and petrol mixture is ignited with the The fuel is injected in the form
help of a spark plug. of fine spary. The temperature
of the compressed air
(600 ℃ 𝑎𝑡 3.5𝑀𝑃𝑎) is
sufficiently high to ignite the
fuel.

Combustion The combustion of fuel takes place at The combustion takes place at
constant volume. constant pressure.

Starting The starting is easy due to low compression. The starting is a little difficult
due to high compression.

Robustness The petrol engine is lighter and cheaper. It The diesel engine is heavier
and cost does not have to withstand high pressures. and of higher cost. It has to
withstand higher pressures.

Maintenance The maintenance cost of a petrol engine is The maintenance cost of a

lower. diesel engine is higher.

Efficiency Lower Efficiency (Conversion of chemical to Higher efficiency.

mechanical energy).
The diesel engine is about
The petrol engine is about 26 % efficient 40% efficient.

Overheating Overheating problems are higher due to Overheating problems are

lower efficiency (more chemical energy lower due to higher efficiency.
converted to heat).

Speed Petrol engines are used in high speed Diesel engines are used in
(lighter) vehicles. lower speed (heavier)
vehicles.

Vehicles Light duty vehicles: scooters, motorcycles Heavy Duty Vehicles: trucks,
and cars. buses and eartmoving
machines.

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3.38 FUEL INJECTION
Electronic fuel injection (EFI) effectively started to replace the carburettors in the mid-80s.
Even in the fuel injection system, it is important to ensure that the engine is provided with the
right quantity of air-fuel mixture for the different driving conditions.
A modern electronic fuel injection system uses pressure from an electric fuel pump to spray
fuel into the engine.
The diagram shows a model of a fuel injection system:

INJECTORS

COLD START
INJECTOR
PIPE FROM
PETROL TANK FUEL
TO TANK PUMP

RETURN PIPE
TO TANK

INLET
TRACT

FUEL FILTER FUEL INLET

ACCUMULATOR MANIFOLD
FUEL
DISTRIBUTOR

Fig.5: A Fuel Injection Engine.

The fuel injection system in petrol-engined cars is always indirect. The petrol is injected into
the inlet manifold or inlet port rather than directly into the combustion chambers. This ensures
that the fuel is well mixed before it enters the chambers.
In most diesel engines, however, use is made of direct injection in which case diesel is injected
directly into the cylinder filled with compressed air.

3.39 REASONS FOR CHANGING FROM CARBURETTORS TO FUEL INJECTION

SYSTEMS
The change from carburettors to the fuel injection system was not based so much on any
inherent inefficiencies of the carburettor itself, but was due to requirements and the need for
the use of catalytic converters.
In European countries and the United States of America, laws which regulate emissions and
fuel efficiency made it impossible to continue with the usage of the carburettor as it could not
provide compliant performance.
In order to meet the stricter emission requirements, catalytic converters were introduced. Very
careful control of the air-to-fuel ratio was required for the catalytic converter to be effective.
Oxygen sensors monitor the amount of oxygen in the exhausts and the engine control unit uses
this information to adjust the air-to-fuel ratio in real time. It was not possible to achieve this
kind of control with carburettors.

3.40 ADVANTAGES OF THE FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

The fact that the fuel injection system uses pressure has resulted in it being more efficient than
the carburettor system.

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The following are possible advantages of a fuel injection system compared to the carburettor:
1. Improved atomization. Since fuel is forced into the intake manifold under pressure, the
breaking up of fuel droplets into a fine mist is enhanced.
2. Better fuel distribution. Fuel injection provides an equal flow of fuel vapour into each
cylinder.
3. Smoother idle. A lean fuel mixture can be used without rough idle because of better fuel
distribution and better atomization.
4. Lower emissions. Efficient air-fuel mixture reduces exhaust pollution.
5. Better cold weather drivability. In Europe and the Parts of the Americas, cold weather is an
important consideration. Fuel injection provides a better control of mixture enrichment than a
carburettor and this is of absolute importance during cold weather.
6. Increased engine power. A more precise metering of fuel to each cylinder and increased air
flow can result in more power output.
3.41 SENSORS IN ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
Most operations in modern vehicles are now controlled through an electronic control unit
(ECU) or computer.
The ECU receives electrical pulses in the form of current or voltages from the various sensors.
The following sensors are part of the electronic fuel injection system.
1. Exhaust gas sensor
2. (Engine) temperature sensor
3. Air flow sensor
4. Air inlet sensor
5. Throttle position sensor
6. Manifold pressure sensor
7. Camshaft position sensor
8. Knock sensor
Based on signals sent to it, the computer uses stored data to operate the injectors, ignition
system and other engine devices which are controlled electronically.

3.42 THE AIR FILTER: IMPORTANCE OF CLEAN AIR

As we have seen, every internal combustion engine requires a mixture of fuel and air to operate
properly. Without air (oxygen), the petrol or diesel fuels can’t burn and provide the energy
needed to power the engine. Whether one is in the city with tarred roads or in the rural areas
with dust roads, driving kicks up a lot of dust and other potentially dangerous airborne particles.
These can harm the occupants of the vehicle and also the engine itself.

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The air that is used by the engine needs to be cleaned before it enters the engine, otherwise dirt,
dust, and debris will accumulate and can cause poor engine performance. The role of cleaning
up the air is played by the air filter. The air filter is placed along the air intake to the engine.

Fig.6: A Petrol Engine Air Filter.

There are two main reasons why air filters are important and these are (i) it protects the engine
parts from damage (ii) it maintains fuel efficiency and engine power.

3.43 PROTECTING THE ENGINE PARTS FROM DAMAGE

As dirt and dust are allowed in the engine, they rub on the essential metal parts of the engine
causing them to wear away. Eventually the worn out parts will have to be replaced. Air filters
are generally not very expensive, therefore it is cheaper to replace dirty air filters regularly,
than it is to replace the parts of the engine it protects.

3.44 MAINTAINING FUEL EFFICIENCY AND POWER

Also, modern engines depend on a precise air to fuel ratio in order to function properly. When
the engine is deprived of air, the ratio is compromised and that puts more stress on your engine.
A clean air filter allows just the right amount of air into our vehicles engine and makes the
engine to perform more efficiently. Without the proper combustion, fuel-efficiency and power
are both lost.

3.45 CHANGING OF AIR FILTERS

It is important to ensure that the air filter does not accumulate too much dirt. To clean up the
filter, you simply pull the filter out, located in a big black box near the engine, and use an air
hose to lightly blow out any dirt. This is just a temporary way of cleaning the air filter. After
the vehicle has travelled for some time, there is need to change the air filter. There is no specific
set time after which an air filter should be changed, but the mechanic would usually advised a
change based on mileage or time. Based on mileage, it is advisable to change the filter after the
vehicle has travelled between 8 000 and 10 000 km. Based on time, it is recommended that an
air filter should be changed after a year.
If the vehicle is used in an area where there is more air pollution and dust, it will be advisable
to change the air filter more frequently.

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3.46 FUEL FILTER
The next filter is the fuel filter. The fuel filter of a petrol engine works in a different way to a
fuel filter in a diesel engine.
For petrol engines, the fuel filter is there to remove any impurities that come with the fuel itself
which is poured into the vehicle. Since petroleum is an organic source, it has got some
impurities in it. Although these impurities may not necessarily be harmful to the engine, it is
the role of the fuel filter to remove them.
For a diesel engine, the fuel filter is used in a much different way. The fuel filter in a diesel
engine is used to prevent corrosion on the parts inside the engine by removing any water that
builds up. Since diesel is lighter than water, the filter is a bowl-like design that collects the
water at the bottom. Then, a drain plug can be removed at the bottom to get rid of the water
until just diesel is left. Allowing water into the engine or fuel system will cause serious
problems. This should always be remembered by users of diesel vehicles.
Filters in both petrol and diesel engines play an important role in the overall performance and
life-span of the engine.

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TOPIC 4: ENERGY
4.0 HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is that form of energy that flows from a body at high temperature to a body of low
temperature.
Heat can also flow from one region of a body to another region of the same body.
But how does heat from one body to another?
There are three main ways through which heat can be transferred from one point to another.
These are:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

4.1 CONDUCTION
Conduction takes place when two objects at different temperatures are in contact. Conduction
can also take place when two regions of the same object are at different temperatures
Heat flows from the object or region at higher temperatures up until the two objects (or
regions) are at same temperature.
When part of an object is heated, the atoms which make up the material will vibrate about fixed
positions. Although they cannot move away from these fixed positions, they are able to bump
into the neighbouring particles. The neighbouring particles will also vibrate and they will also
bump to the neighbours away from the part which is being heated. Heat is associated with the
vibrations to their neighbour, they be transferring heat energy in the material.
In some materials when elections receive heat energy they gain more kinetic energy and they
begin to move from a region of higher temperature to region of lower temperature. They may
also bump into atoms and other electrons thereby transferring energy.
The movement of electrons is more effective way of transferring heat than the vibration of
atoms

4.2 GOOD AND BAD CONDUCTORS OF HEAT

Materials with more free electrons transfer heat energy better than those with less free
electrons.
Those materials which allow heat to flow easily through them are known as good conductors
of heat.
Examples of good conductors of heat include iron, copper, silver and aluminium. In fact all
metals are good conductors of heat. Some metals, however, are better conductors of heat than
others.
Materials which do not allow heat to flow easily through them are known as poor conductors
of heat.

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Examples of poor conductors of heat include wood and glass. Most non-metals are poor
conductors of heat. Solids are better conductors than liquids and liquids are better conductors
than gases.

4.3 CONVECTION
Convection is the form of transfer of heat which takes place in liquids and gases.
Convection occurs when whole masses of a liquid or gas from warmer areas rise to cooler
areas in the liquid or gas. As this happens, cooler liquid or gas takes place of the warmer mass
of liquid or gas which has risen.
The masses of the liquid and gas continue this circulation pattern and whilst this is happening
heat is transferred to the cooler areas.
You can see convection when you boil water in a beaker.

Fig.1: Convection in a liquid.

The bubbles of water that rise are the water parts of the water rising to the cooler area at the
top of the beaker.
Another example of convection taking place when we heat a room using a heater in winter

Fig.2: Convection in a room.

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Warm air near the heater rises to the top when it replaces cool air. The cool air replaces cool
air replaces the warm air rising from near the heater. The circulation of air continues until all
the air in the room is at the same temperatures.
In order to show how convection takes place, we can carry out a very simple experiment in the
laboratory. You will need a beaker, water, a Bunsen burner, a tripod stand and crystals of
potassium permanganate (or of potassium manganite VII).

Fig.3: Experiment Showing How Convection Takes Place in Water.

Place the crystals at the bottom of the beaker close to the wall. Gently fill up the beaker with
water before heating it as shown in Fig.3. Carry out this experiment and describe what you see.
Write some few notes describing this experiment.

4.4 RADIATION
A body or surface of any body, whatever its temperature, always gives off heat. This heat
travels through the air to nearby regions around the body.
The heat energy given off by the bodies or the surfaces of the bodies is said to be radiated.
Radiation of heat by a body and its travelling to nearby regions is another form of heat transfer.
Radiated heat can also travel from a body to nearby regions in the absence of any medium; that
is to say through a vacuum. Radiated heat travels in the form of waves.
If you hold a hot metal rod with a wooden handle close to your face, you can feel the heat from
the rod.

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Fig.4: Heat travels from the hot rod by radiation.
Radiation takes place in the form of waves known as electromagnetic waves.

Heat is transferred through three main forms.

The diagram shows how heat is transferred
from the fire, within the water in the pot and
from the body of the pot along the handle.
From the fire to the surrounding
environment, heat is transferred by radiation.
Within the pot, from the parts where the
water is at higher temperature, heat is
transferred to those parts where the water is
at lower temperatures by convection. The
body of the pot is at a higher temperature
than the handle; therefore, heat is transferred
along the handle by conduction.

4.5 ABSORPTION, EMISSION AND REFLECTION OF HEAT.

Heat can flow from within a body through the surface to the region around. This heat energy
is said to have emitted by the body.
What happens when heat energy flows to the surface of the body?
When heat flows to the surface of the body, it can either be reflected or be absorbed.
Reflection takes place when heat strikes the surface of the object and bounces back without
entering the object.
Absorption of heat takes place when heat reaching an object passes through the surface. The
heat energy is gained by the molecules of the object whose vibration increase, thus resulting
in the increase of the temperature of the object.

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We can see, therefore that three things can happen to heat energy at the surface of an object.
These are:
1. Emission
2. Reflection and
3. Absorption

Emission takes place when the body gives off heat energy. The energy comes from within the
material.
Reflection and absorption take place when heat energy reaches the surface of the material from
the surroundings. The energy which strikes the surface from the surroundings is known as
incident energy

Fig.5: Reflection, Emission and Absorption of Heat.

4.6 GOOD AND BAD REFLECTORS, ABSORBERS AND EMITTERS OF HEAT

Different materials reflect, absorb and emit heat to different degrees.
Some materials are good reflectors of heat whilst others are bad reflectors of heat.
Also, other materials are good absorbers of heat whilst others are bad absorbers.
Similarly there are good and bad emitters of heat.

Good and Bad Reflectors of Heat

Good reflectors are substances which cause incident waves to bounce back. Poor reflectors are
materials which do not cause the incident heat waves to bounce back.
Shiny and smooth surfaces are good reflectors. These surfaces cause heat to bounce at an angle
equal to the angle at which the heat struck the material. A mirror is an excellent reflector.
Polished metals are good reflectors of heat.
Rough and dark surfaces are poor reflectors of heat.

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Good and Bad Absorbers of Heat

As heat energy reaches an object it can be absorbed in a similar manner to the way sponges
absorb water. Heat enters an object, warming it. The longer the object is exposed to the heat
source, the more heat it absorbs.

Generally, dark coloured objects absorb better than do lighter colours objects.

Light, shiny surfaces are poor absorbers of heat.

Describe what you think is happening in the picture. In your

description you should make use of the knowledge you have
gained about reflection and absorption of heat energy.

Good and Bad Emitters of Heat

Good absorbers of heat are also good emitters, and poor absorbers are also poor emitters of
heat.
Dark objects are good emitters of heat whilst light objects are poor emitters of heat.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
HEAT TRANSFER
1. State the three forms of heat transfer
2. Describe how heat is transferred by conduction
3. Give two examples of each of good and bad conductors of heat
4. Discuss why some materials are better conductors than others
5. Suggest with reason, in which kind of substances does convection take place
6. Describe an experiment which you could carry out to demonstrate convection in a
i. Gas
ii. liquid
7. Discuss two ways by which heat is transferred to you as you seat by a fireplace in the
kitchen hut at home. If the fire place was a outdoor one, would be the two methods stated
above be effective as before. Discuss.
8. State three things which can happen to heat at the surface of a material
9. One iron rod is at the temperature of 25 whilst another is at 100. Suggest with one reason
which one of the two will emit more heat energy
10. Suggest with a reason what type of clothes as you would put on under the following weather
conditions.
i. Sunny and hot summer day
ii. Cold and dry winter day
11. A shiny parabolic surface is used to heat water in a container placed at its focal point using
solar energy. Explain how the heating of the water is achieved. What thermal properties
should be possessed by the water carrying container?
12. A meat pot painted black on the outside and silver pan are both used to cook food on an
electric stove. Discuss any similarities or differences in the thermal properties of the two
13. A copper sheet of area 2 square metre is painted white and another one is painted
14. An umbrella used under a hot and dry sunny summer day should be a good reflector and
bad emitter of heat. Discuss.

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TOPIC 5: ELECTRICITY

5.0 ELECTROSTATICS
Some bodies, when rubbed with certain materials, acquire the ability to attract other objects.
The plastic barrel of your pen rubbed in your hair acquires the ability to attract small pieces of
paper. You can also try it using a plastic rule. The barrel or plastic rule is said to be electrified
or electrically charged.
Other materials which you find in the laboratory which can be charged include ebonite and
amber rods. Ebonite can be charged by rubbing it with fur.

5.1 TYPES OF CHARGES

Although bodies which have been electrically charged acquire the ability to attract other
objects. For example, an acetate rod attracts small pieces of paper, so does the barrel of your
pen (rubbed in your hair) or an ebonite rod, but does that mean that all bodies acquire charge
in exactly the same manner? A simple experiment can be carried out to investigate whether the
charge acquired by different materials is the same.
ACTIVITY
Aim: The aim of this experiment is to investigate the nature of charge on different materials.
APPARATUS
1. String
2. Light cork
3. Ebonite rod
4. Glass rod
5. Stand, boss and clamp
DIAGRAM

(a) (b)

Fig.1: A Suspended Piece of Cock; (a) Before the Ebonite Rod is brought near it and (b) After.
Whilst the piece of cork is still attracted to the ebonite rod, a rubbed glass rod is brought
adjacent to the ebonite rod. The piece of cork is seen to move away from the two rods.

174
Fig.2: The Piece of Cork Moves Away When the Glass Rod is Brought Close to the Ebonite
Rod.
PROCEDURE
1. Suspend the cork freely on a string as shown in Fig. (a).
2. Rub an ebonite rod with fur and bring it close to the cork with allowing them to get into
contact.
3. The ebonite rod attracts the cork.
4. Whilst the cork is still attracted by the ebonite rod, a friend should now rub a glass rod and
bring it close to the cork as shown in Fig. 2
OBSERVATION
When the ebonite rod is first brought close to the cork, the cork moves away from its rest
position attracted by the cork. The cork remains attracted to the ebonite rod without the two
getting into contact. When the glass rod is brought close to the cork, alongside the ebonite rod,
the cork moves away towards its original position.
EXPLANATION
The experiment serves to demonstrate that the two rods have opposite effects. It can be
concluded that the two rods have different charges. The charge on the ebonite rod is called a
negative charge and the one on the glass rod is called a positive charge.
It is now known that bodies would always acquire charge which was similar to that of either
ebonite or glass.
There are two types of charge which exist in nature. These are called positive and negative
charge.
Further, experiment shows that two positively charged bodies move away from each other
when brought close together (so do two negatively charged bodies). However, when a
positively and a negatively charged body are brought close together, they move towards each
other. Thus:

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

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5.2 THE NATURE OF CHARGE
What is charge? What is the source of electrification of bodies? When we say a body has been
electrified what would have happened to it? To answer these questions we have to discuss the
structure of matter.
All substances contain atoms. The atom was in fact made up of electrons, protons and neutrons.
The electron was shown to carry a negative charge. The proton carries a positive charge whose
magnitude is equal to that of the electron. The neutron carries no charge.
The atom comprises of a nucleus (centre of the atom) which contains the protons (positive
charge) and the neutrons (neutral), therefore, the nucleus is positively charged. The electrons
(negative charge) are in orbit around the nucleus.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.3: The Atomic Structure of (a) Hydrogen (b) Helium and (c) Lithium.
The atom in its normal state is generally neutral that is to say it carries the same number of
electrons as there are protons. When we then consider any other body, the total sum of
negative charge in it is equal to the total sum of positive charge in it, therefore, the body is said
to be neutral.
Electrons can be lost or gained by an atom or by a material.
An atom or material gains electrons it becomes negatively charged.
If an atom or material has lost some electrons it becomes positively charged. It has less
electrons than normal.
Note that electrons are the ones which are gained or lost by a material for it to be charged.

5.3 CHARGING BY FRICTION

Rubbing materials against each other is one way of transferring charge to bodies. It causes one
body to lose charge whilst the other gains it. This is known as charging by friction.
When materials are charged by friction, all of the charge which is lost by one of the bodies is
gained by the other body.
Charge is never created or destroyed; it can only be transferred from one body to another.

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5.4 THE ELECTROSCOPE
An electroscope is an instrument which is used to test whether a body is electrically charged
or not. Fig shows the basic structure of the electroscope.

Fig.4: Shows a Simple Electroscope

The electroscope comprises a pair of gold leaves, D, which repel each other after acquiring
charge. The charge is communicated to a circular disc or cap A and passes through to the gold
leaves via a metal rod C. B is a cork which serves to insulate the metal rod from the metal case
E. The metal case itself shields the gold leaves from external influences except for the desired
one of the body brought near to A. the metal case is fitted with a glass window through which
the gold leaves are observed.

5.5 TESTING CHARGE WITH THE ELECTROSCOPE

If a charge is communicated to A (by touching it with a charged body), it flows down to the
gold leaves which will repel each other because they will be having the same charge.
Is it possible to have an idea about the size of the charge on a body? Is it possible to know the
sign of charge on a body? The answer to both questions is yes.
Firstly, the separation of the gold leaves is proportional to the size of the charge. The greater
the charger, the greater the separation of the gold leaves.
Secondly it is possible to tell whether the charge on a body is positive or negative. We have to
use a body with a known charge e.g. a glass rod (positive charge). If the glass rod is brought
into contact with the cap A of the electroscope, the gold leaves will separate to a fixed distance
apart. The gold leaves will have acquired a positive charge. If the body we are testing is now
brought to A;

the gold leaves will RISE MORE if the charge is similar to that of the glass rod
and
the gold leaves will fall back if the charge is opposite to that of the glass rod.

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ACTIVITY
Carry out an experiment to:
1. Compare the size of charge on two charged bodies.
2. Investigate the nature of charge on various charged bodies.

5.6 LIGHTNING
Charging by friction has got a lot of important applications in industry. Its used in spray
painting, dust extraction etc. However, sometimes when it happens in nature, it may be very
dangerous. Lightning is a good example of this.
As clouds float in the sky, they rub against the air currents. Because of the rubbing of clouds
with the air they acquire charge.
One cloud may be negatively charged whilst the other is positively charged. When such clouds
get close to each other, charge will flow from one of the clouds to the other.
This flow of charge is accompanied with release of a lot of electrical energy. This energy
manifests itself in the form of light (lightning), heat, and sound (thunder).
Lightning is a huge spark between the clouds when electrons from one cloud flow to the other.
Thunder is the sound which is produced when the air expands rapidly after being heated by the
lightning spark.

Fig.5: Lightning Between the Clouds.

Lightning between the clouds may not present much danger to people on the ground. Are
aeroplanes endangered by lightning between the clouds? Discuss.
It is also possible to have lightning between the clouds and the ground. This happens when a
cloud has got negative charge or more negative charge compared to the ground below.
Charge is forced to flow from the cloud to the ground. This process is also accompanied by
lightning, thunder and a huge amount of heat.

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Fig.6: Lightning to the Ground.
In this case, the lightning will pose a great danger to human beings, animals, buildings or
anything in the path of the lightning.

5.7 THE LIGHTNING ROD

Human beings and buildings are in constant danger of being struck by lightning. How can we
protect buildings and property from lightning?
A common method used to protect buildings from lightning is the lightning rod. Scientists
believe that charge always tries to find a path which offers the least resistance and flows
through it to the ground.
Tall structures offering low resistance to flow of charge are the most preferred targets of
lightning. The diagram below shows how a tall structure creates a strong electric field which
attracts charge towards it.

Fig.7: The Electric Field Map between the Cloud and the Ground.
The strong electric field increases the likelihood of electrons being forced out of the cloud and
being attracted to the ground.
In order to protect buildings from lightning, early scientists like Benjamin Franklin figured out
that raising a taller conductor rod will provide an alternative, therefore safe pathway for
lightning to ground. This is how the lightning rod was born.
A lightning rod is a conductor which is raised above and adjacent to a structure and serves as
a preferred pathway in the event of lightning during a storm.

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Lightning rods are made with sharp points. Sharp points are capable of producing strong
electrical effects and as a result they attract charge. This is due to what is called ‘action at
points’ in physics.
The safe discharge of a thunder cloud by a lightning conductor depends on action at points.
The lightning is drawn to the tip of the metal spike at the top of the building and flows through
a thick copper conductor to a plate in the ground.

5.8 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO PROTECT OURSELVES AGAINST LIGHTNING

We have seen how we can protect buildings from lightning. What are the precautions which
we should take to protect ourselves from lightning? The following table shows some safety
precautions which we can take against lightning during stormy weather.

Safety Precaution Comment

1 Do not take shelter under a single tree in an area The single tree is the tallest
object in the area. Lightning
is attracted by the tallest
object.

2 Do not handle tall metallic objects. A tall metallic object attracts

lightning because of two
reasons; (i) its height and (ii)
it’s a good conductor.

3 Do not use electrical gadgets Electrical gadgets are

connected to the ground
through the earth wire.

4 Do not wade in water currents Water is a good conductor of

electricity.

5 Avoid being the tallest object in an area. Lightning is attracted by the

tallest object, and in this case
it happens to be you!

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5.9 ELECTRICITY
Electricity is one of the most important forms of energy in our lives. To have a proper
understanding of how electricity works both in our homes and in industry, we need to explain
the following terms; electric current, voltage, resistance, Ohm’s law and electric power.

5.10 CURRENT
Current is defined as the amount of charge passing through a point in a given time.

Fig.8: Current through a Point

Current is measured in amperes and the unit of current is A.

The more the amount of charge passing through a point in a given time, say P, the larger the
current.
Current is measured using an ammeter connected in series in the circuit.
But how do we get more current? What drives the charge?
Charge is caused to move through conductors or devices as a result of work done by batteries
or any other source of electrical energy.
To measure the work done by sources of electrical energy, we use the idea of potential
difference or voltage.

5.11 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (VOLTAGE)

Potential difference or voltage is the work done in moving unit charge between two points.

Fig.9: Potential Difference is between two points.

The more the work done in moving charge between A and B, the greater the potential difference
between these points.
Potential difference (voltage) is measured in volts. The unit for volts is V.
Voltage is measured using a voltmeter. A voltmeter is connected in parallel across the points
whose potential difference is being measured.

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5.12 OHM’S LAW
There is a relationship between work done in moving charge between two points and the current
flowing between the two points.
In simple terms, there is a relationship between the voltage and the current across a portion of
a circuit.
How these are related depends on the material or device through which the current is flowing.
You are going to carry out an experiment to investigate the relationship between voltage and
current in a piece of wire.
ACTIVITY
AIM: Investigation of the relationship between voltage and current in a piece of wire.
APPARATUS
1. Source of variable power supply
2. Piece of conductor wire (nichrome swg, 50-80 cm)
3. Ammeter
4. Voltmeter
5. Switch
DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram
2. The voltage across the nichrome piece of wire is changed through varying the power supply
voltage. Set the voltage across the nichrome wire to 1.0 V.
3. Record the voltage and the current (voltmeter and ammeter readings).
4. Vary the voltage, each time recording the voltage and current up until you have 6 pairs of
readings.
𝑉
5. Present your results in a table. Include in the table the value 𝐼 .
6. Draw a graph of voltage (y-axis) versus current (x-axis).
7. From your graph, calculate the gradient.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The graph is a straight line passing through the origin. It shows that:
The current is directly proportional to the voltage.

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We can write this as follows:

𝐼 ∝𝑉
where V is the voltage across the piece of wire and I is the current flowing through it.
𝑉
The ratio is equal to the gradient of the graph and is known as the resistance of the wire, R.
𝐼
Thus,
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
Resistance is measured in ohms denoted with the unit  (omega).
𝑉
We see that for whatever pair of voltage and current readings, the ratio remains unchanged.
𝐼

Devices which obey this relationship are known as ohmic resistors. We can therefore state as
follows:
𝑉
The ratio 𝐼 is a constant for ohmic resistors provided the temperature is unchanged.

This is known as Ohm’s law. It should be noted that this law is only true if the temperature of
resistor does not change. If the temperature of the wire had changed whilst you were carrying
𝑉
out your experiment you were not going to get the same value of 𝐼 .

In fact:
If the temperature of a resistor increases, its resistance will also increase.
Resistance is a very important property of materials and devices. It affects the current flowing
in a circuit in which they are connected and for electrical devices it tells us about how much
voltage is required to operate them.

5.13 COMPONENTS OF A CIRCUIT

The devices which are found in the circuit are also called components of the electric circuit. As
already stated, some are there to control the flow of current. The other components transform
the electrical energy to other forms of energy.
Some of the instruments are for the measurement voltage and current.
Examples of components of a circuit and the symbols which are used to represent them are
shown in Table 1.

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Table 1: Symbols of electrical Components

COMPONENT SYMBOL COMMENT

Switch Used to switch on or off

the circuit.

Resistor Controls voltages and

currents in a circuit

Bulb Converts electrical energy

to light energy

Ammeter Measurement of current

Voltmeter Measurement of potential

differences

Cell a) Source of electrical

energy (e.m.f)
b) A number of cells
connected together
(battery).
Battery c) A smaller rectangle
adjacent to the cell
symbol represents
internal resistance.

Cell With Internal

Resistance

Bell

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In the following diagram (Fig.10) we show an example of a simple circuit.

Fig.10: A Circuit Comprises of a Number of Devices Connected Together.

5.14 SERIES CONNECTION

Components may be connected one after the other, in which case they are said to be in series.
For the measurement of current through a resistor, the ammeter is connected in series with it.

Fig.11: An Ammeter Connected in Series With a Resistor.

The current which passes through the resistor also passes through the ammeter.

5.15 PARALLEL CONNECTION

When components are connected such that they are “side by side” and they share a connection
both ends they are said to be in parallel. For the measurement of voltage (potential difference)
across a device, the voltmeter is connected in parallel to it.

Fig.12: Voltmeter Connected in Parallel to a Resistor.

5.16 COMBINING RESISTORS

As stated, the resistance in a circuit affects the current flowing in it. As such we can reduce or
increase the current flowing in a circuit by changing the resistance forming part of the circuit.
Even if you have a number of resistors of the same value, you can connect them together in
various ways to get different values of resistance.
Resistors can be connected in series or in parallel.
Let us see how we can calculate the total resistance of resistors connected in series and in
parallel.

185
5.17 RESISTORS IN SERIES
The diagram of Fig.13 shows resistors connected in series.

Fig.13: Resistors Connected in Series.

To find the total resistance when resistors are connected in series, we may start by assuming
that 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 are the respective currents through 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 and 𝑉1, 𝑉2 the respective potential
differences. V is the potential difference at A and B, across the two resistors.
The total work done in moving charge across the three resistors is equal to the sum of work
done in moving charge across each resistor hence

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 (1)
The current through R passes through R2 and R3, and is the same current coming to and leaving
the three resistors.

𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 (2)
but

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 (3)
where V is the total or effective resistance of the three resistors between A and B. The potential
differences for the individual resistors are

𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 (4)

𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 (5)
and
So from equations

𝐼 𝑅 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 (6)
but from equation (2), (6) reduces to

𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 (7)
R is the total resistance of the system.
Resistors connected in series have got a total resistance which is equal to the sum of their
individual resistances.

186
In general we can write:

𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + . .. (8)

5.18 RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

Fig.14 shows resistors connected in parallel.

Fig.14: Resistors Connected in Parallel.

At A, the current I splits into 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 through R1 and R2 , thus

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 (9)
The work done per unit charge between A and B is the same, whatever the path used.

𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 (10)
But now
𝑉
𝐼 = (11)
𝑅

𝑉1
𝐼1 = (12)
𝑅1

and
𝑉2
𝐼2 = (13)
𝑅2

Thus substituting equations (11) to (13) in equation 9 we get

𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉2
= + (14)
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2

Taking into account equation (10) we have:

1 1 1
= + (15)
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2

The inverse of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the inverses of the individual
resistances.

187
In general we can write:
1 1 1 1
= + + + . .. (16)
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

5.19 RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY

The simplest form of a conductor is a piece of wire. The wire has got resistance and it is
important to know the factors which determine the value of this resistance. Simple experiments
can be carried out in the school laboratory with wires of different materials, length and
thickness.
Experiments show that for a given material, with the cross-sectional area maintained constant,
the resistance is directly proportional to the length 𝑙.

𝑅 ∝𝑙

Fig.15: Resistance is Directly Proportional to Length.

By taking the given material and now maintaining the length constant and varying the cross-
sectional area it can be shown that the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional
area A.
1
𝑅 ∝ 𝐴

Fig.16: Resistance is Inversely Proportional to the Cross-sectional Area.

Now combining (15) and (16) for a given wire, we have:
𝑙
𝑅 𝐴

which we can write with a constant of proportionality as:

𝑙
𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴

𝜌 is a property of the material and is called resistivity.

188
5.20 ELECTRIC POWER
Electrical energy is converted to other forms of energy in electrical devices.
We have defined potential difference as the work done in moving unit charge between two
points. The mathematical formula for this is shown below.
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑄
where V is the potential difference, W is the work done and Q is the charge.
This equation can be written as follows:

𝑊 = 𝑉𝑄
If you divide this equation by time, t, on both sides you have the following:
𝑊 𝑉𝑄
=
𝑡 𝑡
𝑊
The work done per unit ( 𝑡 ) is electric power supplied and the charge passing a point in unit
time is the current so we can write:

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

where P is the power supplied to or used by a device with V as the potential difference across
it and I the current flowing through it.

Fig.17: Power is the Product of V and I of a Device.

The power for any type of device; be it a radio, a stove, a washing machine or refrigerator is
given by this equation which we can write in words as:

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

The unit for power is the watt (W). The more commonly used multiple is the kilowatt.
Q. A stove uses 12 000 J of energy in 10 s. Calculate the power is consumes in this time. If the
stove is connected to a 240 V mains supply, how much current flows through it.

5.21 THE KILOWATT-HOUR

We have seen that we can write power supplied to or used by an electrical device can be given
by:
𝑊
= 𝑉𝐼
𝑡

189
Thus, we can write:

𝑊 =𝑉𝐼𝑡
The equations shows us that the energy supplied is equal to 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒. If power is
measured in kW and time in hours then we can calculate the energy supplied in kilowatt x
hour.
W = [kWh]
1 kWh = 1 x 103 W x 3600s
= 3.6 x 106J
The kWh is the commercial unit used to measure the electrical energy supplied or consumed.
Remember, worked done (W) in a device is the same as energy (E) supplied or used by the
device, thus, the two equations above can be written as:
𝐸
= 𝑉𝐼
𝑡
and

𝐸=𝑉𝐼𝑡

190
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. State the two types of charge which exist in nature. Charge is a property which is associated
with what might happen to the atoms. Explain how this is so.
2. Describe what happens when two small charged spheres are brought together in the
following manner
i. Sphere A, positive and sphere B, negative
ii. Sphere A , positive and sphere B, positive
iii. Sphere A, negative and sphere B, negative
iv. Sphere A, negative and sphere B, positive

How would you summarize your observations?

3. A charged ebonite rod is brought close to a small paper which moves away from its rest
position as shown below

Explain what you expect to see if the following charged rods are now also brought close to the
paper cone side by side with the ebonite rod:
i. Glass rod
ii. Perspex rod
4. When a charged ebonite rod is used to touch the cap of a gold leaf electroscope, the gold
leaves separate by 5mm at their lower end. What do you expect to observe if the following
charged rods are, in turn, made to touch the cap after the ebonite rod has been used first:
i. Glass rod
ii. Perspex rod
5. The following rods are charged by rubbing them with each another material whilst holding
them in your hands. This is called charging by friction. Why is it not possible charge a
copper rod in the same way? How would you overcome this problem
6. How is lightning produced between a cloud and ground? Briefly describe how buildings
can be protected from lightning
7. A lightning rod has four important features these are
i. Sharp point
ii. Height
iii. Conduction
iv. Earthing

8. State three forms of energy which are produced when lightning occurs
Discuss briefly about each of these forms of energy in relation to the lightning

191
9. Lightning is said to tend to strike people wearing red clothing. Audrey also says there are
some people who can manufacture lightning and direct it to strike their enemies. What’s
your view about this folklore? Discuss
10. State with a reason three safety precautions against lightning which one should take on a
stormy day
11. Charge is measured through a unit called coulomb (C). If 10C of charge passes through a
point is 5s, what is the value of current passing through a point?
12. 50J of work is done in moving in 10C of charge between two points A and B. what is the
voltage (potential difference) between the two points
13. State ohm’s law. What happens to the resistance of a conductor if its temperature increases
14. Complete the following table for an ohmic conductor assuming that the experiment was
carried at room temperature

V/ V I/ A R/ 

1.0

0.2

0.3

4.0

10.0

15. An incandescent lamp is the old type of bulb which uses tungsten filament. A student who
knows that tungsten is an ohmic conductor is surprised that when he took six pairs of
voltage and current of a lit lamp he did not get a constant value of resistance as he expected.
Suggested with reason his possible experimental observations
16. Two resistors of 10 ohms and 15 ohms are connected in series. Calculate their total
resistance, what would be resistance if they are connected in parallel?
17. Three resistors of 10 ohm each are connected is series and then they are connected in
parallel. The teacher wrote on the board
“The total resistance of the resistors connected in series is greater than 10 ohm. When the
resistors are connected in parallel their total resistance is less than 10 ohm”.
Suggest with some working whether the teacher was correct or not
18. A current of 5A passes through a fridge connected to main electricity of 240V. Calculate
the electrical power consumed by the fridge
19. A stove connected to 240V power supply, draws a current of 10A in 30 min. calculate in
kWh, the amount of energy supplied to the stove.

192
TOPIC 6: MAGNETISM
6.0 INTRODUCTION
Natural magnets were first encountered close to the Greek city of Magnesia. Thereafter, the
Chinese developed the idea of the compass and used it for navigation during the 11th century.
For a long time the study of magnetic effects was limited to natural magnets and the materials
in which magnetism was created by the natural magnets.

6.1 ELECTROMAGNETISM
In 1819, a Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that electricity caused a
magnetic field.
It is thought that the discovery by Oersted was quite accidentally. He noticed that there was a
deflection of a compass whilst he was working with the cables which carried current.
This led to the conclusion that:
A current carrying conductor has around it a magnetic field.
This meant that electricity caused magnetism and the two existed together. That’s why we
today talk about electromagnetism to reflect this fact. This word means electricity and
magnetism combined together.
Further we can also say:
A magnetic field is the region around a magnet or current carrying conductor where magnetic
effects are felt.
Before Oersted, a magnetic field was associated with magnets only.

6.2 MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERNS

Using a bar magnet, a sheet of paper and the iron filings we saw how the pattern of the magnetic
field looks like. You can repeat the experiment to observe the following pattern

Fig.1: A Sheet of Paper Placed on Top of a Bar Magnet is Used to Show the Magnetic Field
Pattern.
The magnetic field pattern of a conductor with current carrying conductor with current flowing
in it depends on how the conductor is shaped two common conductors of current carrying
conductors are the straight wire and the solenoid. To see how the magnetic field pattern of a

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straight conductor and the solenoid looks like you can carry out an experiment similar to the
one you carried out with the bar magnet.

ACTIVITY
Aim: The aim of the experiment is to investigate the magnetic field pattern of a straight
conductor and a solenoid.

APPARATUS
1. Source of d.c.
2. Conducting cables
3. Copper wire
4. Solenoid
5. Iron filings
6. Magnetic compass
7. Retort stand
8. Sheet of paper (Preferably in the form of an A4 card)
This experiment is in two parts A and B. Part A is for the investigation of the magnetic field of
a straight current-carrying conductor. Part B is for the investigation of the magnetic field of a
solenoid.

A. DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Set-up the apparatus as shown
2. Sprinkle some iron-filings on the sheet of paper through which the straight conductor is
passing.
3. Close the switch and observe the pattern formed by the iron filings
4. Draw the pattern you have observed. The pattern approximates circles around the wire.
Now move on to the next part of the experiment which involves the investigation of the
magnetic field of a solenoid.

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B. DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Set-up the apparatus as shown in Fig
2. Slide the solenoid into the slits cut on the paper card (as shown on fig)
3. Close the switch and observe the pattern formed by the iron filings
4. Draw the pattern you have observed
The more accurate diagrams showing the pattern of the magnetic field of the two conductors
as shown in Fig.2.

Fig.2: The Magnet Field Pattern of a Straight Wire and a Solenoid.

6.3 THE MOTOR EFFECT

We know that the two magnets close to each other either attract or repel each other because
they can act on each other without contact; it is thought that they interact with each other
through their respective magnetic fields.
Now we have seen that a current carrying conductor has got a magnetic field. So if this wire is
placed in a magnetic field of some other source e.g. of a permanent magnet, we should expect
the two fields to interact. If the wire is free to move we expect it to move under the force of
interaction.
Indeed this is what happens and you can demonstrate that through a very simple experiment.

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ACTIVITY
Aim: To demonstrate that a current-carrying conductor experiences a force when placed in a
magnetic field.
APPARATUS
1. Source of d.c.
2. Short conducting rod (copper or bronze ≈ 10 cm)
3. U-shaped magnet
4. 2 x stands, bosses and clamps
5. Connecting cables
DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Set-up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
2. Close the switch with the battery connected as shown
3. Observe what happens to the rod
4. Describe your observation
5. Open the switch
6. Change the connections of the battery to 2
7. Close the switch
8. Observe what happens to the rod
9. Describe your observation
10. Open the switch
11. Describe what happens
You should have observed when the circuit was connected with the battery in arrangement 1,
the rod was kicked out of the U-shaped magnet when the switch was closed. When connections
of the battery were changed, you should have observed that the rod experienced a force drawing
it into the magnet changing the connections of the battery changes the direction of the current
flowing in the rod.
This experiment leads to two every important conclusion:
1. A current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field is acted on by the field causing it to move
2. The direction of motion of a current carrying conductor depends on the direction of current
flowing in it.
Another very important observation which you made is that

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The rod is acted on and moves out or into the U-shaped magnet only when there is electricity
flowing in it. We observe that in this experiment:
Electrical current (in the rod) results into the motion of the rod, thus
Electrical energy is converted into kinetic energy.
This effect of converting electrical energy into kinetic energy is known as the motor effect
because one of its important applications is in the electric motor.

The conversion of electrical energy to kinetic

energy is known as the motor effect. The drilling
machine is made to spin at a very fast speed
when it is connected to electric power. This is
one good example where the motor effect is used
at home and in industry.

It is possible to demonstrate the motor effect in the school laboratory. In order to do that you
will carry out the following activity.

ACTIVITY
Aim: To design and investigate the operation of the electric motor

APPARATUS
1. Batteries
2. Rectangular-shaped wire
3. Two (large) rectangular magnets
4. Connecting cables
5. Axle rod
6. Carbon brushes
The following diagram shows the arrangement of the apparatus.

DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE
1. The rectangular conductor needs to be carefully constructed a follows:

2. Set-up apparatus of diagram

3. Close the switch of circuit 1 with the brushes in contact with the split rings of the
rectangular conductor
4. Observe what happens to the rectangular coil
5. Open the switch and observe what happens

EXPLANATION
As we have already seen a current-carrying conductor experiences a force when placed in a
magnetic field. This force is greatest when the conductor is placed perpendicular to the
magnetic field.

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Side a-b experiences a force upward whilst side c-d experiences a downward force. Thus, the
rectangular coil which is held in the axis will rotate in an anticlockwise direction.
As long as the current continues to flow in the rectangular coil, it will continue to rotate in
between the magnets. If the current is switched off the current will come to stop. Reversing the
connections of the battery reverses the direction of rotation. This way electrical current flowing
in a coil is converted to kinetic energy.

6.4 FACTORS AFFECTING ROTATION OF THE COIL

The rate at which the coil spins in between the magnet can be increased by:
1. Increasing the number of coils(turns)making the rectangular coil
2. Increasing the current flowing through the rectangular coil
3. Increasing the strength of the magnetic field (that is, using more powerful magnets)
The most useful application of the motor effect is in the electric motor itself. The electric motor
simply converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The electrical motor is also used in the following gadgets:
1. Washing machines
2. C.D players
3. Hair dryers

6.5 THE GENERATOR EFFECT

Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current creates a magnetic field around it.
After his discovery, the question amongst scientists of his time was “is it possible, therefore,
to also create an electric current from a magnetic field?”
One scientist who worked very hard in order to provide an answer to his question was Michael
Faraday.
After quite sometime of research, Faraday was able to show that a magnetic field can be used
to create electricity.
Faraday used a very simple experimental set-up which you can repeat in the laboratory
ACTIVITY
Aim: To investigate the creation of electric current using a magnetic field.
APPARATUS
1. Bar magnet
2. Galvanometer
3. Coil
4. Connecting cables

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DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the galvanometer to the coil as shown in the diagram
2. Quickly move the bar magnet into the coil
3. Observe what happens to the reading of the galvanometer
4. Keep the magnet thrust in the coil
5. With the magnet now held stationary in between the coil note the reading of the
galvanometer
6. Now move the magnet out of the coil
7. Observe what happens to the reading of the galvanometer
8. Repeat the experiment with the other pole of the magnet

OBSERVATION
The galvanometer is a centre zero instrument. As the magnet moves into the coil, the
galvanometer is seen to deflect in one direction (let’s suppose to the right). The deflection only
happens whilst the magnet is moving into the coil.
When there is no movement of the magnet the galvanometer shows no deflection the pointer
returns to zero).
As the magnet is quickly moved out, the galvanometer deflects to the opposite side (left hand
side). If the pole of the magnet is changed as the magnet moves in, the deflection will be to the
left this time. As the magnet is moved out, the deflection of the galvanometer is then to the
right.
EXPLANATION
This experiment shows that electric current (shown by the deflection of the galvanometer) is
created in the coil when there is movement of the magnet. The movement of the magnet cause
a change in the magnetic field passing through the area of the coil.
Faraday concluded that:
A changing magnetic field induced a current in the coil.

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The coil behaved as though it had an electromotive force which caused the current. The current
and the electromotive force which are caused by the changing magnetic field are known as
induced current and induced electromotive force respectively.
The experiment shows that a magnetic field is also able to create electricity.

6.7 THE GENERATOR EFFECT

Another way to create electricity is by moving a conductor in between magnets, that is, within
a magnetic field. Again this is a very simple way experiment which you can carry out.
ACTIVITY
Aim: Investigating an induced electromotive force in a moving conductor.
APPARATUS
1. Copper rod (diameter about 3 mm and length of about 30 cm)
2. Connecting cables
3. Galvanometer
4. Strong magnets

DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. Set-up the apparatus as shown
2. Holding the two ends of the rod, move it down quickly in a horizontal way between the
magnets.
3. Observe the pointer of the galvanometer as you move the rod down. Hold the copper rod
stationary at the end of is downward motion.
4. Move the copper wire quickly up this time and again observe the galvanometer pointer as
you do that.

OBSERVATION
When you moved the copper wire down, the galvanometer deflected in one direction. With the
copper wire stationary, there is no deflection of the pointer.
As you move the wire up, again there is a deflection of the galvanometer pointer, but this time
in the opposite direction.

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The magnetic field between the two magnets is shown in the diagram. The induced
electromagnetic force is greatest when the copper conductor moves between the magnets as
shown in (a). If the conductor moves as shown in (b), there is no induced electromotive force
which arises.

This experiment shows that the motion of the conductor in a magnetic field results in the
creation of electricity (shown by the deflection of the galvanometer).
The kinetic energy of the conductor is converted to electrical energy.
This is known as the generator effect.
Like the name suggests, the generator effect is the principle used in generators.
We can use the arrangement shown below to explain the generator effect further.

Fig.3: Explanation of the Generator Effect.

As side a – b of the coil moves down, an electromotive force is induced which delivers a current
on this part from a to b.
Meanwhile, in the side c – d which is moving up, the induced electromotive force delivers
current in the direction c to d.
Thus, the induced current in both sections of the coil is actually in the direction round it.
Now, two important issues should be noted in the arrangement:
(i) There is need to find a way of making the coil, abcd to rotate.
(ii) There is need to find a way of supplying (to an external circuit) the induced current
which is generated in the coil.
In the generator effect, mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy.

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 The generator is another example of the use of how
kinetic energy of a coil within a magnetic field
results in an electric current. The kinetic energy of
the coil is obtained from the burning of a fuel
(either petrol or diesel). As the coil spins in
between a magnet, an electromotive force (e.m.f) is
induced in it. This electromotive force is the
electricity required to power different gadgets at
home.
Thus, in a generator, chemical energy of the fuel is
converted to kinetic energy of the coil. The kinetic
energy is in turn converted to electrical energy.

6.8 ALTERNATING AND DIRECT CURRENT

Depending on the arrangement which is made to supply the induced current to the external
circuit, the current may be delivered as direct current or alternating current.

6.9 DIRECT CURRENT

In a d.c. generator, the transfer of current to the external circuit is done through a split-ring
also known as a commutator.

Fig.4: Arrangement for Direct Current.

6.10 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF VOLTAGE AGAINST TIME

The change with time of the electromotive force or voltage generated in the d.c. generator can
be represented graphically. Fig.5 shows how the voltage of a d.c. generator changes with time
as the coil rotates between the poles of the magnet.

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g

Fig.5: Variation of Voltage with Time for a DC Generator.

The voltage is not a steady value; it rises and falls between zero and a maximum value.
It is called direct current because the value of voltage remains above the zero all the time.

6.11 ALTERNATING CURRENT

In an a.c. generator, the transfer of current to the external circuit is done through a ring on each
end of the coil.

Fig.6: AC Generator with Two Rings.

The voltage takes positive values, falls to zero and then takes negative values.
Fig.7 shows the variation of voltage with time in an a.c generator.

Fig.7: Variation of voltage with time of an a.c generator.

The voltage takes negative values, falls to zero and then takes negative values.

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It is called alternating current because the voltage changes from positive to negative (it
alternates between positive and negative).

6.12 FACTORS AFFECTING THE VALUE OF THE INDUCED E.M.F.

The magnitude of the induced electromotive force depends on a number of factors. These are:
1. The strength of the magnet. The stronger the magnet, the larger the induced e.m.f.
2. The speed of rotation of the coil. The larger the speed of rotation of the coil, the larger the
induced e.m.f.
3. The number of turns of the coil. The larger the number of turns, the larger the induced e.m.f.
4. The area of the coil. The larger the area of the coil, the larger also is the induced e.m.f.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
MAGNETISM
1. If you bring a magnetic compass close to a bar magnet, it will be deflected in a given
direction. Is it possible have a deflection of the magnetic compass when it Is bought close
to a long straight, current carrying-conductor. Explain
2. Draw a diagram showing the magnetic field of a
i. Long and straight current-carrying conductor
ii. Solenoid

3. Electrical energy can be converted into kinetic energy. What is the name given to this
effect? Draw a simple diagram which can be used to demonstrate
4. Briefly describe the motor effect. State three devices in which the motor effect is used
5. A direct current (d.c) motor is an example of the application of the motor effect. State three
factors which affect the rate at which a motor can be made to turn
6. A magnetic field can be used to generate an electric current. Describe two simple
experiments by which this can be achieved
7. The generator effect involves conversion of which forms of energy?
8. The generator effect is used in the construction of an electric generator. What is the name
given to the voltage and the current generated in through the generator effect?
9. State three things which you can do to increase the magnitude of the induced e.m.f produced
through the generator effect
10. Draw and explain the graphs of voltage against time of a d.c and an a.c generator

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