General Cell Structure

● All living organisms are comprised of cells

● These cells all have some common unifying features, including
○ DNA as genetic material
○ Cytoplasm
○ A plasma membrane

DNA
● All living cells contain some sort of DNA, this varies between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells
● The presence of DNA means that a new cell can be formed from an old cell, as genetic material is able
to be stored and transferred
● DNA also controls the production of enzymes and other vital proteins within the cell

Cytoplasm
● Cytoplasm is found within the boundary of a cell
● It is composed of mainly water with dissolved substances, such as ions
● The fluid is known as cytosol
● Many of the cell's important reactions take place within the cytoplasm

Plasma membrane
● The plasma membrane surrounds the cell and encloses all the cell contents
● In all cell types, the plasma membrane has two layers and this is called a bilayer
● The bilayer consists of lipids; these vary depending on the type of organism
● The membrane is responsible for controlling the interactions of the cell's interior with the exterior
○ Materials required by the cell are transported into the cell interior
○ Waste substances are exported out of the cell to the surrounding environment
● The membrane is studded with proteins which have varying functions including:
○ Cell recognition
○ Cell communication
○ Transport into and out of the cell
○
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
● The cell structure of organisms determines whether they are prokaryotic or eukaryotic
● Prokaryotes have the simplest cell structure, being the first organisms to evolve on Earth and have
been classified into two domains:
○ Bacteria or Eubacteria - 'true' bacteria, includes commonly known bacteria such as E.coli and
Helicobacter
○ Archaebacteria or Archaea - typically found in extreme environments such as high temperatures
and salt concentrations and include methanogens (organisms that exist in anaerobic conditions
and produce methane gas)
● Prokaryotic cells are small, ranging from 0.1µm to 5.0µm
● Prokaryotes have cells that lack a nucleus (the Greek roots of prokaryote are 'pro' = before and
'karuon' = nut or kernel, relating to 'before the nucleus')
Structure of prokaryotic cells
 ● The cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells is not divided into compartments, it lacks membrane-bound
organelles (except for ribosomes)
● Structures that are common to most prokaryotes include:
○ 70S ribosomes
○ DNA in a loop
○ Cytoplasm
○ Plasma membrane
○ Cell wall

Ribosomes
● Prokaryotic ribosomes are structurally smaller (70S) in comparison to those found in eukaryotic cells
(80S)
● The function of these ribosomes is the binding and reading of mRNA during translation to produce
proteins

DNA
● Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, but they do have genetic material. This is generally in the form of a
"naked" single circular DNA molecule (not associated with proteins) located in the nucleoid and in
smaller loops called plasmids
● Plasmids are small loops of DNA that are separate from the main circular DNA molecule
○ Plasmids contain genes that can be passed between prokaryotes (e.g. genes for antibiotic
resistance)

Cytoplasm
● Prokaryotic cytoplasm is very similar to the cytoplasm of any other cell
● It is the site of many cellular reactions
● This is where the 70S ribosomes are found
● A major component of the cytoplasm is a gel-like cytosol, a water-based solution that contains ions,
small molecules, and macromolecules

Cell membrane
● The cell membrane of prokaryotes is composed of a lipid bilayer
● A group of prokaryotes, known as archaea, have their plasma membrane formed as a monolayer as
opposed to a bilayer
● The role of the plasma membrane is to control substances entering and exiting the cell

Cell wall
● Most prokaryotes have a cell wall containing murein/peptidoglycan (a glycoprotein)
● The cell wall acts as protection, maintains the shape of the cell and prevents the cell from bursting
● Some bacteria are able to be classified because of their cell wall structure
○ Their ability to retain a dye called crystal violet classifies a group of bacteria as Gram positive,
they appear blue/violet after exposure to the dye
○ Examples of gram positive bacteria are Bacillus and Staphylococcus
○ Bacteria that do not react with the dye are referred to as Gram negative bacteria

Additional structures
● In addition, many prokaryotic cells have a few other structures that differentiate the species from others
and act as a selective advantage, examples of these are:
○ Plasmids
 ○ Capsules
○ Flagellum
○ Pili
● Some prokaryotes (e.g. bacteria) are surrounded by a final outer layer known as a capsule. This is
sometimes called the slime capsule
○ It helps to protect bacteria from drying out and from attack by cells of the immune system of the
host organism
● Flagellum (plural = flagella) are long, tail-like structures that rotate, enabling the prokaryote to move (a
bit like a propeller)
○ Some prokaryotes have more than one
● Pili are shorter and thinner structures than flagella
○ They assist with movement, avoidance of attack by white blood cells, conjugation (the sexual
mode for bacteria) and are commonly used to allow bacteria to adhere to cell surfaces
A diagram of the structure of prokaryotic cells

Eukaryotic Cell Structure

Structure of eukaryotic cells
● Eukaryotic cells have a more complex ultrastructure than prokaryotic cells
● The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells is divided up into membrane-bound compartments called organelles.
These compartments are either bound by a single or double membrane
● The compartmentalization of the cell is advantageous as it allows:
○ Enzymes and substrates to be localised and therefore available at higher concentrations
○ Damaging substances to be kept separated, e.g. digestive enzymes are stored in lysosomes so
they do not digest the cell
○ Optimal conditions to be maintained for certain processes e.g. optimal pH for digestive enzymes
○ The numbers and location of organelles to be altered depending on requirements of the cell
Animal and plant cells
● Animal and plant cells are both types of eukaryotic cells that share key structures such as:
​ Membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus
​ Larger ribosomes (80S)
● However, there are key differences:
■ Animal cells contain centrioles and microvilli
■ Plant cells have a cellulose cell wall, large permanent vacuoles and chloroplast
A diagram of a eukaryotic animal cell
The ultrastructure of an animal cell shows a densely packed cell – the ER and RER and ribosomes form
extensive networks throughout the cell in reality
 A diagram of a eukaryotic plant cell

Plant cells have a larger, more regular structure in comparison to animal cells

● In complex multicellular organisms, eukaryotic cells become specialised for specific functions
● These specialised eukaryotic cells have specific adaptations to help them carry out their functions
● For example, the structure of a cell is adapted to help it carry out its function (this is why specialised
eukaryotic cells can look extremely different from each other)
● Structural adaptations include:
​ The shape of the cell
​ The organelles the cell contains (or doesn’t contain)
● For example:
■ Red blood cells are biconcave and do not contain a nucleus. This makes more space
inside the cell so that they can transport as much oxygen as possible
■ Cells that make large amounts of proteins will be adapted for this function by containing
many ribosomes (the organelle responsible for protein production)
Organelles
Plasma membrane

The structure of the cell surface membrane – although the structure looks static, the phospholipids and
proteins forming the bilayer are constantly in motion

● All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane which controls the exchange of materials between the
internal cell environment and the external environment
○ The membrane is described as being ‘partially permeable’
● The plasma membrane is formed from a bilayer of phospholipids spanning a diameter of around 10 nm
Nucleus

The nucleus of a cell contains chromatin (a complex of DNA and histone proteins) which is the genetic
material of the cell
 ● Present in all eukaryotic cells (except red blood cells), the nucleus is relatively large and separated
from the cytoplasm by a double membrane (the nuclear envelope) which has many pores
● Nuclear pores are important channels for allowing mRNA and ribosomes to travel out of the nucleus,
as well as allowing enzymes (e.g. DNA polymerases) and signalling molecules to travel in
● The nucleus contains chromatin (the material from which chromosomes are made)
○ Chromosomes are made of sections of linear DNA tightly wound around proteins called histones
● Usually, at least one or more darkly stained regions can be observed within the nucleus – these
regions are individually termed ‘nucleolus’ (plural: nucleoli) and are the sites of ribosome production
Rough endoplasmic reticulum

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) - the attached ribosomes enable this structure to be identified in
electron micrographs

● Found in plant and animal cells

● Surface covered in ribosomes (80S)
● Formed from folds of membrane continuous with the nuclear envelope. These flattened membrane
sacs are called cisternae
● Processes proteins made by the ribosomes
● The proteins synthesised by the ribosomes move to the cisternae, bud off into vesicles that carry the
proteins to Golgi apparatus before being secreted out of the cell
Ribosomes
 Ribosomes are formed in the nucleolus and are composed of almost equal amounts of RNA and protein

● Found freely in the cytoplasm of all cells or as part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotic
cells
● Each ribosome is a complex of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. They are constructed in the
nucleolus (a region in the nucleus)
● 80S ribosomes (composed of 60S and 40S subunits) are found in eukaryotic cells
● Site of translation (which is part of protein synthesis)
Mitochondrion

A single mitochondrion is shown – the inner membrane has protein complexes vital for the later stages of
aerobic respiration embedded within it

● The site of aerobic respiration within all eukaryotic cells, mitochondria are just visible with a light
microscope
● Surrounded by a double-membrane with the inner membrane folded to form cristae
● The matrix formed by the cristae contains enzymes needed for aerobic respiration, producing ATP
● Small circular pieces of DNA (mitochondrial DNA) and ribosomes are also found in the matrix (needed
for replication)
●
Golgi apparatus
 The structure of the Golgi apparatus

● Found in plant and animal cells

● Flattened sacs of membrane called cisternae (like the rough endoplasmic reticulum)
● Modifies proteins and lipids before packaging them into Golgi vesicles
○ The vesicles then transport the proteins and lipids to their required destination
○ Proteins that go through the Golgi apparatus are usually exported (e.g. hormones such as
insulin), put into lysosomes (such as hydrolytic enzymes) or delivered to membrane-bound
organelles
Vesicles

The structure of the vesicle

● Found in plant and animal cells

● A membrane-bound sac for transport and storage

Lysosome

The structure of the lysosome

● Specialist forms of vesicles which contain hydrolytic enzymes (enzymes that break biological
molecules down)
● Break down waste materials such as worn-out organelles
● Used extensively by cells of the immune system and in apoptosis (programmed cell death)
Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are found in the green parts of a plant – the green colour is the result of the photosynthetic
pigment chlorophyll

● Found in plant cells

● Larger than mitochondria
● Surrounded by a double-membrane
● Membrane-bound compartments called thylakoids containing chlorophyll stack to form structures called
grana
● Grana are joined together by lamellae (thin and flat thylakoid membranes)
● Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis:
○ The light-dependent stage takes place in the thylakoids
○ The light-independent stage (Calvin Cycle) takes place in the stroma
● Also contain small circular pieces of DNA and ribosomes used to synthesise proteins needed in
chloroplast replication and photosynthesis
Large permanent vacuoles

The structure of the vacuole

● A sac in plant cells surrounded by the tonoplast, which is a selectively permeable membrane
● Vacuoles in animal cells are temporary in existence and small
Cell wall - an extracellular component (not an organelle)

The cell wall is freely permeable to most substances (unlike the plasma membrane)

● Found in plant cells but not in animal cells

● Cell walls are formed outside of the cell membrane and offer structural support to the cell
● Structural support is provided by the polysaccharide cellulose in plants, and peptidoglycan in most
bacterial cells
● Narrow threads of cytoplasm (surrounded by a cell membrane) called plasmodesmata connect the
cytoplasm of neighbouring plant cells
●
Additional organelles
● The below organelles can be found in other specialised cells in eukaryotes

Flagella

The structure of the flagella

● Found in specialised cells

● Similar in structure to cilia, made of longer microtubules
● Contract to provide cell movement, for example in sperm cells
Centrioles

The structure of the centriole

● Hollow fibres made of microtubules

● Two centrioles at right angles to each other form a centrosome, which organises the spindle fibres
during cell division
● Not found in flowering plants and fungi
●
Microtubules

The structure of the microtubule

● Found in all eukaryotic cells

● Makes up the cytoskeleton of the cell and are about 25 nm in diameter
 ● Made of α and β tubulin combined to form dimers, the dimers are then joined into protofilaments
○ Thirteen protofilaments in a cylinder make a microtubule
● The cytoskeleton is used to provide support and movement to the cell
●
Microvilli

The structure of the microvilli

● Found in specialised animal cells

● Cell membrane projections
● Used to increase the surface area of the cell surface membrane in order to increase the rate of
exchange of substances
Cilia

The structure of the cilia

● Hair-like projections made from microtubules

● Allows the movement of substances over the cell surface
Exam Tip
In the exam, you could be required to apply your knowledge of organelles to deduce the function of a
specialised cell. To answer these questions, just think about what organelles you can see in large numbers,
consider the function of that organelle and then think about where this function might need to happen a lot in
an organism (e.g. if the cell’s main function is to carry out photosynthesis it will need to contain many
chloroplasts)!
 Prokaryotic cells are often described as being ‘simpler’ than eukaryotic cells, and they are believed to have
emerged as the first living organisms on Earth

Exam Tip
Make sure you learn the typical structures and organelles found in prokaryotic cells, as well as their functions.

Functions of Life
● Unicellular (single-celled) and multicellular (many cells) organisms must carry out the following functions to stay
alive:
○ Metabolism - all the enzyme-catalysed reactions occurring in a cell, including cell respiration
○ Reproduction - the production of offspring. It may be sexual or asexual
○ Homeostasis - the ability to maintain and regulate internal conditions within tolerable limits, including
temperature
○ Growth - the permanent increase in size
○ Response - (or sensitivity), the ability to respond to external or internal changes (stimuli) in their
environment. Thus improving their chance of survival
○ Excretion - the disposal of metabolic waste products, including carbon dioxide from respiration
○ Nutrition - the acquisition of energy and nutrients for growth and development, either by, absorbing
organic matter or by synthesising organic molecules (e.g. photosynthesis)
● Unicellular organisms have adapted unique ways to carry out these functions compared to multicellular
organisms
○ Mitochondria are present to provide energy through respiration
○ The cell membrane controls movement of materials in and out of the cell to maintain homeostasis
 ○ Ribosomes are present to produce proteins for growth and repair, in addition enzymes for vital cell
functions
○ Vacuoles are used for digestion purposes and also to store waste substance
○ Cilia or flagella are used for movement of the organism in response to changes in the environment
○
Cell Structure: Animals, Fungi & Plants
● Eukaryotic cells exist in three kingdoms
○ The animal kingdom
○ The plant kingdom
○ The fungal kingdom
● The cells of each of these possess unique characteristics and structures that contribute to their
differences
Differences in eukaryotic cell structure
Cell walls
● Animal cell do not have a cell wall
● Plant cell walls are composed of the polysaccharide cellulose
● Fungal cell walls are made up mainly of glucans, chitin and glycoproteins

Vacuoles
● Vacuoles can be present in animal cells but they tend to be small, temporary and numerous when
present with unique functions
● Plant cells have large permanent vacuoles used for the storage of various substances
● Like animal cells, fungal cells can contain vacuoles but they are small and non-permanent

Chloroplasts
● Animal cells do not have chloroplasts
● Plant cells possess many chloroplasts used for the production of carbohydrates through
photosynthesis
● Fungal cells do not have chloroplasts

Presence of centrioles
● Animal cells do contain centrioles used in the role of microtubule organisation during cell division
● Plant cells do not possess centrioles
● Fungal cells do not possess centrioles

Presence of cilia and flagella

● Animal cells can have cilia and flagella, associated with a basal body (a protein structure from which
the cilia are assembled), and are used in various functions such as the movement of an egg cell
through the oviduct or the movement of fluids in the respiratory tract
● Plant cells do not contain cilia or flagella
● True fungi do not contain cilia or flagella

Other differences
● Animal and fungal cells store their carbohydrates as glycogen, whereas plants so carbohydrates as
starch
● Animal cells are flexible as they lack a rigid cell wall, whereas plant cells have a fixed shape. Fungal
cells, although they have a cell wall, can be flexible and their shape may vary
 Atypical Cell Structure
● Some eukaryotic cells have a very unique or atypical structure which enables them to carry out
specialised functions
● The number of nuclei can be used to illustrate atypical examples
● Skeletal muscle, aseptate fungal hyphae, red blood cells and phloem sieve tubes are examples of
cells/tissue with structures that question the integrity of the cell theory
Atypical examples
Striated muscle fibres

● Striated muscle fibres (fused muscle cells) are:

○ Longer than typical cells (up to 300 mm in length in comparison to a cardiac muscle cell which
has a length of 100 - 150 µm)
○ Have multiple nuclei surrounded by a single membrane (sarcolemma)
○ Striated muscle cells are formed from multiple cells which have fused together (which is how
they have many nuclei rather than one) that work together as a single unit
○ These features challenge the concept that cells work independently of each other even in a
multicellular organism

Aseptate fungal hyphae

● Fungi have many long, narrow branches called hyphae

● Hyphae have cell membranes, cell walls and some have septa
 ● Aseptate fungal hyphae do not have septa, thus these cells are multinucleated with continuous
cytoplasm
● The cells have no end walls making them appear as one cell

Red blood cells

● Red blood cells, a type of animal cell, are unique in that they do not contain a nucleus
● The reason for this is to enable the cell to carry a large volume of the oxygen binding pigment
haemoglobin
● The biconcave shape of red blood cells means they have maximum surface area to improve their
oxygen carrying capacity

Phloem sieve tubes

● These serve a plant by transporting dissolved substances, such as sucrose, around the plant
● These unique tissues have no end cell wall and lack many cell organelles such as nuclei, mitochondria
and ribosomes
● Because of the lack of their own organelles, sieve tube elements can only survive due to the presence
of companion cells which sit alongside next to the sieve tube elements and help to maintain the
cytoplasm of the sieve tubes
●
 Endosymbiotic Theory
Endosymbiosis
● Endosymbiosis is where one organism lives within another
● If the relationship is beneficial to both organisms the engulfed organism is not digested
● For endosymbiosis to occur one organism must have engulfed the other by the process of endocytosis
Endosymbiotic theory
● The endosymbiotic theory is used to explain the origin of eukaryotic cells. The evidence provided for
this theory comes from the structure of the mitochondria and chloroplasts
● It is believed that all eukaryotic cells evolved from a common unicellular ancestor that had a nucleus
and reproduced sexually
● Scientists have suggested that these ancestral cells evolved into ancestral heterotrophic and
autotrophic cells through the following steps:
● Heterotrophic cells:
○ To overcome a small surface area:volume ratio, ancestral prokaryote cells developed folds in
their membrane. From these infoldings, organelles such as the nucleus and rough endoplasmic
reticulum formed
○ A larger anaerobically respiring cell engulfed a smaller aerobically respiring prokaryote (which
was not digested)
○ This gave the larger cell a competitive advantage as it had a ready supply of ATP and gradually
the cell evolved into the heterotrophic eukaryotes with mitochondria that are present today
● Autotrophic cells:
○ At some stage in their evolution, the heterotrophic eukaryotic cell engulfed a smaller
photosynthetic prokaryote. This cell provided a competitive advantage as it supplied the
heterotrophic cell with an alternative source of energy, carbohydrates
○ Over time the photosynthetic prokaryote evolved into chloroplasts and the heterotrophic cells
into autotrophic eukaryotic cells
Diagram of endosymbiotic theory and the evolution of eukaryotic cells

ion of eukaryotic cells

 The endosymbiotic theory - an explanation for the evolution of eukaryotic cells

Evidence to support the endosymbiotic theory

● The evidence to support the endosymbiotic theory arises from the features that the mitochondria and
chloroplasts have in common with prokaryotes:
○ Both replicate by binary fission
○ Both contain their own circular, non-membrane bound DNA
○ They both transcribe mRNA from their DNA
○ They both have 70S ribosomes to synthesise their own proteins
○ They both have double membranes
NOS: Factors determining the strength of a theory - A wide range of observations are
accounted for by the theory of endosymbiosis
● The strength of the theory comes from the observations the theory explains and the predictions it
supports
● If new observations do not support a theory, it must either be adjusted or rejected
● The more observations and data that are predicted by a theory, the stronger the theory is
● A range of observations are accounted for by the theory of endosymbiosis
○ Membranes: Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own cell membranes, just like a
prokaryotic cell does
○ DNA: Each mitochondrion and chloroplast have their own circular DNA genome, like a bacteria's
genome, but much smaller
○ Replication: Mitochondria multiply by pinching in half which is the same process used by
bacteria
Exam Tip
Learn how the structure of the mitochondria and chloroplast support the endosymbiotic theory.
 Cell Differentiation
● One important process that occurred in the development of the cell was cell compartmentalisation
● This enabled unicellular organisms to develop specialised functions through specific areas of their cell
○ One example is the nucleus region which contains DNA molecules
○ Another example is the compartmentalisation of energy producing areas formed by the
endosymbiosis of mitochondria
● However, even with specialised compartments unicellular organisms have their limitations, and so
multicellular organisms evolved
● In complex multicellular organisms eukaryotic cells become specialised for specific functions
● Specialisation enables the cells in a tissue to function more efficiently as they develop specific
adaptations for that role. The development of these distinct specialised cells occurs by differentiation
● These specialised eukaryotic cells have specific adaptations to help them carry out their functions
● For example, the structure of a cell is adapted to help it carry out its function (this is why specialised
eukaryotic cells can look very different from each other)
● Structural adaptations include:
○ The shape of the cell
○ The organelles the cell contains (or doesn’t contain)
● For example:
○ Cells that make large amounts of proteins will be adapted for this function by containing many
ribosomes (the organelle responsible for protein production)
Example of a specialised cell, a red blood cell

The biconcave shape of red blood cells (erythrocytes) increases the surface area available for oxygen
absorption

Gene expression
● Every nucleus within the cells of a multicellular organism contains the same genes, that is, all cells of
an organism have an identical genome
● Despite cells having the same genome, they have a diverse range of functions because during
differentiation certain genes are expressed ('switched' on)
● Whether a gene is expressed or not is triggered by changes in the environment
● Controlling gene expression is the key to development as the cells differentiate due to the different
genes being expressed
● Once certain genes are expressed the specialisation of the cell is usually fixed so the cell cannot adapt
to a new function

Expression of genes resulting in cell differentiation

Multicellularity
● In multicellular organisms, specialised cells of the same type group together to form tissues
● A tissue is a group of cells that work together to perform a particular function
● Examples of this include the following:
○ Epithelial cells group together to form epithelial tissue (the function of which, in the small
intestine, is to absorb food)
○ Muscle cells (another type of specialised cell) group together to form muscle tissue (the function
of which is to contract in order to move parts of the body)
 ● Different tissues work together to form organs
● Examples of this include the following:
○ The heart is made up of many different tissues (including cardiac muscle tissue, blood vessel
tissues and connective tissue, as well as many others)
● Different organs work together to form organ systems
● Organ systems work together to carry out the life functions of a complete organism
Levels of Organisation in Humans Table

Specialised
Tissue Organ Organ system
cell

Digestive system (made up

Stomach (made
of numerous organs involved
Epithelial tissue up of epithelial
with digestion and absorption
Epithelial cell (made up of tissue, muscle
of food, including the
epithelial cells) tissue and
stomach, liver, small and
glandular tissue)
large intestine)

Bladder (made up
of smooth muscle
Muscle tissue Urinary system (made up of
tissue, epithelial
Muscle cell (made up of the bladder, kidneys, ureters
tissue, fatty tissue
muscle cells) and urethra)
and connective
tissue)

Brain (made up of
Nerve tissue grey matter tissue, Central nervous system
Neurones
(made up of white matter tissue (made up of the brain and
(nerve cells)
nerve cells) and blood vessel spinal cord)
tissue)

Eyes (made up of
Retina (made many tissues Visual system (made up of
Rod cells and
up of rod and including the the eyes, optic nerves and
cone cells
cone cells) retina, sclera and visual cortex of the brain)
cornea)
● Cells, tissues and organs have developed in multicellular organisms to help coordinate and
communicate with each other
● This means that organisms that possess multicellularity can thrive in most environments
● Other advantages of multicellularity includes:
○ It allows for organisms to grow larger in size
○ Cell specialisation can occur so that groups of specialised cells can perform specific functions
● The evolution of multicellularity is thought to have occurred in stages
○ First single celled organisms over time, clumped together
○ These clumps or aggregates, started forming specialised cells, particularly reproductive cells
○ The groups of specialised cells began to fold to create tissues and then became more complex
to form organs
 The evolution of multicellularity diagram

Multicellularity evolved in stages over millions of years

● The evolution of multicellularity appears to have occurred many times throughout history
● Many species of fungi and algae, which evolved before animals and plants, are multicellular

The evolution of multicellularity diagram

Evolution of multicellularity has occurred many times throughout history as evidence of multicellularity in fungi
and plants predates animals and plants