Arc magmatism and hydrocarbon generation in the northern Taranaki

Basin, New Zealand

Vaughan Stagpoole and Rob Funnell
Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences, 41 Bell Road South, PO Box 30-368 Lower Hutt, New Zealand
(e-mails: v.stagpoole@gns.cri.nz r.funnell@gns.cri.nz)

ABSTRACT: A Middle–Late Miocene andesitic arc named the Mohakatino Volcanic

Centre is buried beneath younger sediments in the northern part of the Taranaki
Basin, New Zealand’s primary oil production province. Volcanoes of the centre
cover an area of about 3200 km2. An estimated 70003000 km3 of andesite were
erupted from the centre and between 1000 to 2500 km3 of magma were intruded
into the basement beneath the volcanic cones. The key element of the petroleum
system altered by magmatism is the maturity of source rocks and the timing of
expulsion, although volcanism also contributes to the formation of potential
reservoirs and traps. In the northern Taranaki Basin, two periods of hydrocarbon
expulsion occurred: following magmatism (14 Ma to about 8 Ma), and following
renewed burial (since about 4 Ma). Thermal models indicate that Late Cretaceous
terrestrial source rocks close to large magmatic intrusions became fully mature
during magmatism. Overlying marine source rocks are modelled to still be generating
and expelling hydrocarbons to the present day. Hence hydrocarbon expulsion and
the charge history of this basin is partly governed by Miocene magmatism. Results
are also relevant to many petroleum basins that contain similar andesitic arc volcanic
rocks.

KEYWORDS: Taranaki Basin, volcanism, magma, basin simulation, maturation

INTRODUCTION sidence and the formation of deep, fault-bounded basins that

filled with organic-rich terrestrial and paralic sediments
Generation of hydrocarbons in sediments that are rapidly (Thrasher 1990). Gradual subsidence and marine transgression
heated by magmatic intrusions has occurred in many geological followed in the Paleogene. By the end of the Oligocene,
settings (e.g. Dow 1977; Simoneit et al. 1978; Wang et al. 1989; carbonate sedimentation predominated across most of the
Allis et al. 1995; Farrimond et al. 1999). The prospectivity and Taranaki Basin.
productivity of sedimentary basins may be significantly affected Propagation of the modern plate boundary through New
by the presence of igneous intrusions. In this paper we use Zealand began in the Eocene (King & Thrasher 1992). The
numerical models to examine how magmatic intrusives onset of subduction to the northeast of the basin led to rapid
influence source rock maturity in the northern Taranaki Basin, regional subsidence, reverse faulting and foreland basin devel-
New Zealand. We describe the positive and negative effects that opment (King & Thrasher 1992; Holt & Stern 1994).
intrusive magmatism has on the petroleum system and on Subduction-related arc volcanism began north of the Taranaki
basin prospectivity. Arc volcanism is prolific around the Pacific Basin in the Early Miocene (Hayward 1993; Herzer 1995), but
and occurs in and adjacent to many petroleum provinces. during the Middle–Late Miocene the focus of volcanic activity
Conclusions drawn from modelling the effect of intrusive shifted to the Mohakatino Volcanic Centre in Taranaki (Fig. 1).
magmatism on the petroleum system of the northern Taranaki Extensional faulting accompanied and post-dated Miocene
Basin can be applied, in a general way, to many other intra-arc volcanism forming the Northern Graben between the Cape
basins. Egmont Fault Zone and the Turi Fault Zone (Fig. 1). Through-
The Taranaki Basin, New Zealand’s most explored and out the Pliocene and Pleistocene the Giant Foresets Formation
commercially successful hydrocarbon province, is located along prograded rapidly north and westwards across the basin burying
the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand (Fig. 1). the Miocene volcanoes. Sedimentation rates during this period
Overviews of Taranaki Basin stratigraphy and petroleum were as high as 700 m Ma
1, contributing over 2000 m of
system include work by Palmer (1985), King & Robinson sediment thickness to the sedimentary column. Volcanism from
(1988), King & Thrasher (1992, 1996), Palmer & Andrews the Pliocene to the present day has been either high-K andesitic
(1993) and King (1994). The stratigraphic framework of the volcanoes or basaltic lava flows and scoria cones erupted in
northern Taranaki Basin is shown in Figure 2. predominantly onshore eastern parts of the Taranaki Basin and
Cretaceous–Cenozoic evolution of the Taranaki Basin began adjacent areas (Fig. 1).
in the Late Cretaceous during the separation of the New Seven exploration wells have penetrated volcanic edifices of
Zealand continental landmass from Gondwanaland. The early the Mohakatino Volcanic Centre. In addition, many thousands
stages of basin development are characterized by rapid sub- of line-kilometres of seismic reflection data are available from
Petroleum Geoscience, Vol. 7 2001, pp. 255–267 1354-0793/01/$15.00 2001 EAGE/Geological Society of London
256 V. Stagpoole and R. Funnell

165 O E 170 O E 175 O E 180 O

174°E 175°E the northern Taranaki Basin. This is, therefore, an outstanding
35 O S

Northern Taranaki
35 O S
NORTHLAND BASIN area to study the influence of magmatism on hydrocarbon
Basin Auckland City generation, as addressed in this paper.

Trough
10
00

North
Manukau

ngi
Island 37°S
ura
Hik Manukau Harbour
MIOCENE MAGMATISM IN THE NORTHERN
Awhitu
TARANAKI BASIN
1000
South Waikato Heads
45 O S
Island 45 O S The widespread Mohakatino Volcanic Centre comprises at least
WAIKATO
1000
Waikato BASIN 20 andesitic arc volcanic cones and multi-vent volcanoes that
Tuatua Raglan Harbour were active from 14 to about 8 Ma (King & Thrasher 1996).
North
165 O E 170 O E 175 O E 180 O
Raglan Hamilton The volcanoes cover an area of about 3200 km2 (Fig. 1). Most
RE

City
ENT

Tuatua volcanoes were erupted in bathyal water depths, although a

e
IC C

Zon

38°S Kawhia 38°S number of the larger cones (greater than about 1500 m high)
CAN

Te Kumi Zone
Mangaa
Kawhia Harbour have been truncated by erosion and, presumably, extended up
VOL

lt

to, or above, the sea surface. After volcanic activity ceased, the
Fau

Northern
lt
Fau
TINO

Kora volcanoes were rapidly buried beneath the Giant Foresets

AKA

ont

NORTH Formation. Consequently, most volcanoes have not been

Egm

WANGANUI
ri

Graben
MOH

Tu

BASIN severely eroded and are well preserved. Volcanoes entombed

Fault

in sediments are clearly imaged on seismic reflection profiles

Cape

(Fig. 3).
39°S 39°S The larger volcanoes of the Mohakatino Volcanic
Taranaki

TARANAKI New Plymouth

BASIN Centre have characteristic morphologies with suites of seismic
reflections that enable detailed facies analysis (Herzer 1995).
TARANAKI
PENINSULA Identification and mapping of these facies on seismic reflection
173°E
173 174°E 175°E data enables an estimate of the solid rock volume of volcanic
Fig. 1. Map of the northern Taranaki Basin and adjacent area material erupted from the centre. The total volume of erupted
showing the Mohakatino Volcanic Centre (light shading) comprising volcanic material derived from Mohakatino Volcanic Centre is
Miocene arc volcanoes. Older volcanic centres (no shading) are estimated at 7000 km33000 km3. Miocene volcanism was
Northland andesitic arc volcanoes; younger volcanic centres (dark long lived, covered an extensive area and contributed large
shading) are andesitic volcanoes and basaltic volcanic cones. Faults volumes of volcanic material to the northern Taranaki Basin.
active in the Neogene are also shown.
FACIES and
GROUPS

AGE LITHOLOGY and

(Not to absolute RELATIVE
time scale) HYDROCARBON (NW) FORMATIONS (SE) SEA LEVEL
International N. Z. OCCURRENCES Fall Rise
RECENT
PRO

PLEIST. G I A N T Shelf
GRA

Wn and
ROTOKARE

Wn slope
D AT
Increased clastic sediment supply

F O R E S E T S muds
IO N

PLIOCENE
F M
Shelf
Wo A R I K I F M M A N sands
Tk G A A
F M Slope
LATE

silts
Shelf
muds
Turbidite
Tt sands
KORA
MIOCENE

WAI-ITI

Sw
MIDDLE

MOHAKATINO FM Volcaniclastic
sediments
MOKI FM
Sc Turbidite
Pl sands
M A N G A N U I F M
EARLY

Bathyal muds
NGATORO

T A I M A N A F M Basinal oozes
Lw TIKORANGI FM Platform
Ld carbonates
OLIGOCENE (basina l) O T A R A O A F M
Lwh Proximal turbidites
Ar KORA MOA
Hiatus
TANGAROA FM
TANGAROA
LATE

muds

Mangahewa FM
EOCENE

(coastal facies)
sa n d
MIDDLE

Ab
s

Dp
fa c ie

T U R I F M
KAPUNI

fa c e
S h e lf

la in
EARLY

al p
S h o re

C o a st

TANGAROA
PALEOCENE Tane Mbr
WAIPAWA FM
Dt
PAKAWAU

Wainui Mbr N O R T H C A P E F M
LATE
Mh R A K O P I F M
CRETACEOUS Fig. 2. Cretaceous–Cenozoic
Cn B A S E M E N T TANIWHA FM stratigraphic framework for the
northern Taranaki Basin (after King &
LEGEND Thrasher 1996). Principal source rocks
STRONG SHOW PROVEN PRODUCTIVE in the basin (grey shading) are coaly
facies of the Rakopi and North Cape
formations and the Waipawa Formation
Oil Oil
marine shale.
 Northern Taranaki Basin hydrocarbon generation 257

Kora-1
South Line 81-SY-12 North
0
Seabed

1.0
top Pliocene

Two-way time (seconds)

top Miocene 2.0
top Middle Miocene
top Early Miocene

top Eocene 3.0

top Cretaceous

4.0

Basement

0
Kora-1 5 km

Fig. 3. Interpreted seismic reflection

profile (upper) and depth-converted
section (lower) which passes over the
Kora Volcano 2000
Kora volcano. The volcano, feeder-dyke
zone and sub-basement igneous

Depth (m)
intrusions are highlighted in dark
shading on the seismic profile. The
4000
depth section shows up to 900 m of
doming that is apparent for the top
Eocene seismic horizons. Other seismic
6000 horizons below the volcano are domed
upwards by similar amounts, indicating
most of the volcanic intrusions are
8000 below the sedimentary section.

The influence of magmatic intrusions and the eruptive process within the basement (Fig. 3). The amount of doming which, in
are critical components to modelling basin development and places, is in excess of 1000 m, was determined by measuring the
hydrocarbon generation. upward deflection of sedimentary horizons interpreted to have
been flat lying prior to volcanic activity. The volume of
intruded material that displaces overlying sediments can be
Magmatic intrusions quantified by assuming that the component of doming that
Igneous intrusions are often associated with andesitic volcanoes remains, after correction for the effects of velocity pull-up
(Williams et al. 1987; Marsh 1989; Locke et al. 1993). In the (McQuillin et al. 1986) associated with lateral variations in
Taranaki Basin, well logs and seismic reflection data indicate seismic velocity, is due to magmatic intrusions. Sedimentary
that, in addition to sea-floor eruptions, magma intruded the horizons can be extrapolated across the zone of incoherent
basin fill sediments and basement rock below the volcanic reflectivity associated with the feeder-dyke zone because, in
centre. Exploration wells have intercepted igneous intrusions in many cases, this zone is only a small portion of the area of
the sedimentary succession below volcanoes in the northern doming (Fig. 3).
Taranaki Basin (e.g. Amoco NZ 1988). These intrusions are up Analysis of seismic reflection data from all of the northern
to several hundred metres thick and have radiometric ages Taranaki Basin indicates that the volume displaced by magmatic
younger than the surrounding sediments. intrusions is between 1000 and 2500 km3. Most of the volume
Igneous rock also appears to have been intruded in the of intruded rock appears to be below the sedimentary section.
basement below the Cretaceous and Cenozoic sedimentary The volume estimate does not include possible deeper mid-
succession. In the northern Taranaki Basin, Hatherton et al. crustal intrusions that are unable to be interpreted from the
(1979) used magnetic and gravity data to deduce that igneous available seismic reflection data.
intrusive rock lay within the crust below the Miocene
volcanoes. Allis et al. (1995) and Armstrong et al. (1997) suggest
that a high heat flow anomaly under New Plymouth is caused Volcanic structure and eruptive process
by a Pleistocene igneous intrusion within the mid- to upper Interpretation of seismic reflection data in the northern
crust. Heat flow from large intrusive bodies within the crust can Taranaki Basin indicates the entombed volcanoes have a similar
have a significant influence on the petroleum system by structure to many active volcanoes in other parts of the world.
dramatically modifying the maturity of large volumes of source At Mt St Helens (USA), interpretation of microseismicity
rock in the overlying sedimentary section (Allis et al. 1995). identified several bodies of magma located at different depths
Igneous intrusions in the basement are difficult to identify on beneath the cone (Scandone & Malone 1985). Earthquake
seismic reflection profiles because they have similar seismic tomography studies at Mt Pinatubo (Philippines), during the
reflection characteristics to the basement rock. However, many 1991 eruptions, indicated a magma reservoir below the volcano
volcanoes lie directly over sediments that have been domed at between 6000 and 11 000 m depth (Mori et al. 1996). Mori
upwards during volcanic activity, apparently by magma intruded et al. (1996) propose magma had collected within the reservoir
258 V. Stagpoole and R. Funnell

before passing up to the surface through a system of conduits 100

Percent of kerogen converted to hydrocarbons

defined by a 2000 to 3000 m wide low velocity zone beneath
the summit. 80
A similar structure can be interpreted from seismic reflection
profiles of the Mohakatino Volcanic Centre. Beneath each
cone, usually directly below the summit, is a zone of chaotic 60
and discordant seismic reflectors, interpreted as a system of Type III oil
feeder-dykes. Extending out laterally from the feeder-dyke zone Type III gas
are layers of bright, discordant reflectors interpreted as volcanic 40
Type III total HC
sills that have intruded into the surrounding sediments. The Type II oil
feeder-dyke zone connects a deeper, sub-basement intrusion to 20 Type II gas
the volcanic edifice (Fig. 3). The deep intrusion may be Type II total HC
interpreted as the magma reservoir, or magma chamber (after
Marsh 1989), where magma collected before moving up 0

through the feeder-dyke system to erupt onto the surface. The 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240

present-day sedimentary domes beneath the volcanoes mirror Temperature C

the form of the now solidified magma reservoirs. The amount Fig. 4. An example of applying the hydrocarbon generation kinetic
of doming is dependent on the quantity of magma that was parameters for Type II and Type III kerogen (after Institut Francais
resident in the reservoir at the time activity ceased. du Petrole 1995) used in modelling a burial history site with constant
The depth of the magmatic intrusions cannot be directly heating rate of 3C Ma
1.
interpreted from available seismic reflection data. Intrusions are
interpreted to lie in the upper crust or at the basement– Basin at that time. Most evidence suggests that volcanism
sediment interface. This is also in agreement with studies that occurred from 14 to 8 Ma (King & Thrasher 1996) and
suggest magma will tend to pond at a neutral buoyancy level in intrusive episodes occurred just prior to, or in conjunction with,
the crust that is controlled by the density contrast between the eruptive volcanism.
magma and surrounding rock (Corry 1988; Paterson & Fowler
1993). The presence of a rheological or strength contrast, such
as brittle–ductile transition or the basement–sediment interface, PETROLEUM GENERATION IN THE NORTHERN
may also control the depth of intrusions (Roman-Berdiel et al. TARANAKI BASIN
1995). At these locations, during magmatism, the least principal There are two recognized source rocks in the northern Taranaki
stress direction may change from horizontal to vertical and Basin; coals and interbedded shales of the Late Cretaceous
magma will spread laterally and form sills and laccoliths Rakopi and North Cape formations (Cook 1988; Killops et al.
(Roman-Berdiel et al. 1995; Armstrong et al. 1997). 1994), and a late Paleocene marine shale (Waipawa Formation)
(Reed 1992; Killops et al. 2000). Rakopi Formation and coaly
facies of the North Cape Formation have between 5 and 10%
Kora Volcano TOC with mixed oil and gas potential as indicated by hydrogen
Kora was surveyed and drilled by Arco Petroleum NZ Ltd in indices. These Type III source rocks are the principal source
the mid-1980s (Arco 1988). Initially the target for drilling was rocks elsewhere in the Taranaki basin (Killops et al. 1994) and
Late Eocene sandstones, but the discovery and production of are widely distributed throughout the northern part of the basin
oil (over 600 BOPD for 10 days) within the flanks of the (Thrasher et al. 1995).
volcano led to an intensive survey programme and the drilling Thermal modelling studies indicate that the present-day
of three further wells (Bergman et al. 1992; Reed 1992). surface heat flow in the northern Taranaki Basin is between 55
A seismic reflection profile and interpreted depth section and 65 mW m
2, but there are localized high and low heat flow
through the volcano (Fig. 3) show Kora lies within 6000 to anomalies on the Taranaki peninsula (Funnell et al. 1996). The
7000 m of Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic sediments. The lower predicted present-day maturity of source rocks for oil expulsion
1500 m of sediments comprises Late Cretaceous terrestrial requires burial depths of about 5000 m (King & Thrasher
sediments of the Rakopi Formation and predominantly marine 1996). Mature kitchen areas are essentially confined to the
sediments of the North Cape Formation (Thrasher et al. 1995). Northern Graben and the deeper sub-basins of the Western
Approximately 2000 m of Paleocene to Middle Miocene marine Platform. Expulsion of hydrocarbons from the Rakopi
siltstone and limestone overlie the Cretaceous sequence below Formation is predicted to begin in deep, isolated sub-basins
the cone and up to 2000 m of the Pliocene–Pleistocene Giant during the Eocene, and increase during the Pliocene in
Foresets Formation (marine silts and muds) cover the volcano. response to the deposition of the Giant Foresets Formation
The depth section through the volcano shows doming of all (Armstrong et al. 1996). Modelling predicts the Waipawa
seismic horizons below the volcano. Assuming the top Eocene Formation began generating and expelling hydrocarbons in the
seismic horizon was originally flat lying, and all the observed Late Miocene (King & Thrasher 1996).
deformation is due to magmatic intrusions, the maximum Source rock type has an important effect on the potential
amount of doming is about 900 m. Although some sills have maturity of sediments because terrestrial source rocks (contain-
been intruded into the sediments, most magmatic intrusions are ing Type III kerogen) generally have to be heated to a higher
interpreted to have occurred below the sedimentary section temperature to attain a similar oil-generative maturity than
because all seismic horizons that pre-date volcanism are domed marine source rocks (containing Type II kerogen). An
upwards by similar amounts. The time of magmatic intrusion is example of applying the hydrocarbon generation kinetic
difficult to determine, but it is probable emplacement occurred parameters from Institut Francais du Petrole (1995) to a site
at the same time as eruptive volcanism. Although Bergman et al. using constant heating of 3C Ma
1 is presented in Figure 4. At
(1992) dated some volcanic rocks from Kora at 212 Ma and depths where temperatures range between 100C and about
interpret these to be from a minor volcanic episode, there is no 200C marine source rocks will have a higher hydrocarbon-
other documented evidence of volcanic activity in the Taranaki generative maturity than terrestrial source rocks. In this
 Northern Taranaki Basin hydrocarbon generation 259

example (Fig. 4) terrestrial sediments (Type III) will have 80%

0
A BC D E Kora-1
of available kerogen converted into hydrocarbons at a tempera- 20oC
ture of 183C, whereas marine sediments (Type II) will have o
40 C 40oC
similar levels of maturity at a temperature of 145C. This 1000
60oC
difference has important implications for the present-day 80oC
2000 80 C
o

generative potential of source rocks in the northern Taranaki

100oC

Depth (m)
Basin, because terrestrial source rocks at depth may be less
3000
mature for hydrocarbon generation and therefore have greater 120oC
120oC
remaining generative potential than stratigraphically higher 4000 140oC
marine source rocks.
160oC
5000
o
160 C
180oC
PETROLEUM GENERATION CAUSED BY
6000
MAGMATIC INTRUSIONS
Heat transferred from a magmatic intrusion into nearby 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Age (Ma)
organic-rich sediments will cause the maturation of organic
matter and the possible expulsion of hydrocarbons (Dow 1977; Fig. 5. Burial history for Kora based on Kora-1 exploration well
Simoneit et al. 1981; Peters et al. 1983; Clayton & Bostick 1986; showing the effect of a 900 m thick intrusion injected into the
basement at 14 Ma. Depth is shown with respect to the ground
Summer & Verosub 1989). The amount of heat transferred is surface. The heavy lines are tracked horizons showing the depth
dependent on the size and temperature of the intrusion, and below sea floor with time. A, top Basement/base Late Cretaceous
whether the type of cooling is conductive or convective (Jaeger (75 Ma); B, intra-Late Cretaceous (70 Ma); C, top Cretaceous
1964). The proportion of kerogen converted into hydrocarbons (65 Ma); D, latest Paleocene (57 Ma) and E, Middle Eocene (48 Ma).
is, in turn, dependent on the geochemical properties of the The thin lines are isotherms, or lines of constant temperature that
source rock as well as the nature of the heating event. The show temperature variation with depth and time. Emplacement of
the igneous intrusion causes a dramatic rise in temperature of deep
widespread occurrence of magmatic intrusions has the potential sediments, seen as a spike in the isotherms (thin lines). The pulse of
to affect large areas of the northern Taranaki Basin. In this heat generated by the intrusion lasted for 2 to 3 million years before
section we present model results illustrating the effects of temperatures returned to pre-emplacement levels.
intrusions on petroleum generation.

The burial history predicted from 1D modelling of the

One-dimensional models Kora-1 exploration well is presented in Figure 5, and shows the
Thermal and petroleum generation modelling were completed depth of tracked sedimentary horizons below the sea floor
using an interactive one-dimensional (1D), finite element basin (bold lines) and isotherms (thin lines). Present-day bottom hole
simulator (Armstrong et al. 1996). The program approximates temperatures were used as constraints for modelling. Rapid
the transient heat flow equation and uses a kinetic approach to sedimentation during the Late Cretaceous (75–65 Ma) was
model vitrinite reflectance based on parameters of Burnham & followed by a long period (65 to 25 Ma) of slower thermal
Sweeney (1989) and the generation of hydrocarbons using subsidence. The subsidence rate increased after 25 Ma when
kinetic parameters of Institut Francais du Petrole (1995). All 1D subduction to the east began to affect the Taranaki Basin
modelling assumes conductive heat flow. The initial parameters (Holt & Stern 1994). When volcanism began (14 Ma), the
required for modelling were derived from thermal conductivity sedimentary sequence had reached a thickness of over 4000 m.
measurements of geological samples and down-hole tempera- Emplacement of the Kora volcanic edifice (from 14 Ma) and
ture measurements. Details of the geological parameters and the rapid deposition of the Giant Foresets Formation
modelling program are fully discussed by Armstrong et al. (c. 2000 m since 5 Ma) caused the sedimentary section to
(1996), in their models of the thermal history of the Taranaki thicken to its present 6000 m. A value of 38 mW m
2 was used
Basin. for heat flow at the base of the 78 km thick post-rift litho-
sphere, consistent with models of Armstrong et al. (1996)
for the northern Taranaki Basin. During deposition of sedi-
Effect of a magmatic intrusion ments, surface heat flow varied between 55 and 65 mW m
2,
The 1D basin simulator was used to model the effect that a except during the period of volcanism when surface heat flow
magmatic intrusion, emplaced in the basement, has on heat increased to 90 mW m
2.
flow and oil generation beneath the Kora volcano. A number The model shown in Figure 5 used a single magmatic
of different scenarios were modelled, ranging from a single intrusion of 900C, 900 m thick, instantaneously intruded at
thick intrusion emplaced at 14 Ma, to several thinner top-basement depth at 14 Ma. Cooling of the intrusion resulted
intrusions, having the same cumulative thickness, emplaced in a dramatic rise in the temperature of sediments, seen as a
over a 3 million year period. Predicted kerogen conversion and spike in the isotherms (thin lines). Temperatures at the top
vitrinite reflectance results for each model differed only slightly. Cretaceous horizon, at a depth of 3500 m below the seabed,
The single intrusion scenario caused higher temperatures in the climb to 200C for a period of about 100 000 years. The pulse
overlying sediments, but for a shorter duration, than multiple of heat generated by the intrusion lasted for 2 to 3 million years
intrusion events. The net effect was that the single intrusion before temperatures returned to pre-emplacement levels.
model predicted 10% greater total kerogen conversion during The application of thermal models with hydrocarbon kinetic
the period of volcanism, relative to models of three or four parameters allows the rate and cumulative amount of hydro-
separate intrusion events spaced at 0.5 million-year intervals. In carbon generation and expulsion (i.e. >20% generation) to
reality, magma would have been repeatedly intruded, with be modelled for the tracked horizons below the Kora-1 well
successive batches of magma varying in volume and depth. The (Fig. 6). Modelling predicts that during the period of high heat
models presented here are a simplification of the situation, but flow, associated with cooling of the magmatic body, tempera-
provide indicative predictions about hydrocarbon generation. tures in the Cretaceous source rocks (lines A, B and C) were
260 V. Stagpoole and R. Funnell

100 (Fig. 4). The generalized thermal models (Fig. 7) show that in
Percent of kerogen converted

A B areas where there have been no Miocene magmatic intrusions,

80 terrestrial source rocks currently between 5000 and 5500 m
to hydrocarbons

depth will have had between 28% and 50% of available kerogen
60
C converted to hydrocarbons (left side of Fig. 7a). Marine source
rocks at similar depths will have had nearly all available kerogen
40
D converted to hydrocarbons (left side of Fig. 7b). Heat from
Miocene magmatic intrusions will cause an increase in the
20
maturity of sediments and, as in areas where there have been no
E magmatic intrusions, the difference in the present-day maturity
0
of sediments is dependent on source rock type.
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
The shaded areas in Figure 7 show the predicted change in
Age (Ma)
the present-day maturity of sediments due to magmatic
intrusions of Miocene age. The present-day maturity of
terrestrial source rocks that are currently deeper than 5000 m
Generation rate (%/M.y.)

6 D (Fig. 7a) is increased by at least 40% for intrusions greater than

5
800 m thick. In contrast, marine source rocks at similar depths
4 E will be overmature – with nearly all available kerogen converted
3 to hydrocarbons – whether or not they have been heated during
2 A C volcanic activity (Fig. 7b). Furthermore, igneous intrusions
1 would have to be greater than 1600 m thick to cause a 40%
0
A&B difference in the present-day maturity of marine source rocks
at depths of about 4200 m. This has important implications
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Age (Ma)
on the timing, and amount, of hydrocarbons that have
been generated since volcanism ceased. Miocene magmatic
Fig. 6. Hydrocarbon generation from kerogen, based on the burial intrusions at the basement–sediment interface affect the
history and thermal model for Kora-1 exploration well site given in
Figure 5. The upper chart depicts the proportion of kerogen present-day maturity of marine source rocks over a more
converted to hydrocarbons for tracked intervals (key given in Fig. 5 limited depth range than terrestrial source rocks.
caption). The lower chart shows the rate at which kerogen is The effect of increasing intrusion depth on the temperature
converted to hydrocarbons. During the 2 to 3 million years of high at the base of the sediments is shown in Figure 8. Models
heat flow associated with cooling of the igneous intrusion, almost predict heat from a 1000 m thick intrusion 500 m below the
all-available kerogen in the Late Cretaceous terrestrial sediments sediment–basement interface rapidly propagates into the sedi-
(A and B) is converted to hydrocarbons. Present-day generation is
confined to the latest Cretaceous and early Tertiary marine sediments mentary section, so that maximum temperature is reached
(C, D and E). about 20 000 years after emplacement. The maximum tempera-
ture from a 4000 m thick intrusion 4000 m below the
sediment–basement interface is attained 600 000 years after
great enough to cause the rapid conversion of almost all emplacement. In both cases all heat from the intrusions is
available kerogen into hydrocarbons. Some hydrocarbon dissipated within 10 million years. The effect on present-day
generation is predicted to have also occurred in early source rock maturity is shown in Figure 9 where terrestrial and
Tertiary marine source rocks higher in the sedimentary section marine source rock maturities are presented for a range of
(between lines C and E). Once temperatures returned to intrusion depths and thicknesses. The influence of intrusions
pre-emplacement levels, modelling predicts that further hydro- on source rock maturity is lessened with increasing depth
carbon generation and expulsion did not occur until the within the basement, whereby a 1000 m thick intrusion at a
Pliocene (about 4 Ma), when rapid sedimentation caused early depth of 10 000 m has an imperceptible impact on present-day
Tertiary sediments to attain sufficient depth to re-establish sediment maturity. Similar to Figure 7, the effect of intrusions
significant hydrocarbon generation. on present-day maturity of marine source rocks is over a more
An important conclusion from modelling is that present-day limited and shallower depth range than terrestrial source rocks.
hydrocarbon generation below the volcano is mainly confined
to early Tertiary marine source rocks (between lines C and E in
Fig. 5). Little or no generation occurs in Cretaceous terrestrial FLUID FLOW AND MATURITY MODELS
source rocks (between lines A and C) because of the high Emplacement of magma in the crust invariably results in the
maturity attained and depletion of generative potential during flow of hydrothermal fluids (Norton 1984) which may interact
magmatic intrusive events in the Miocene. with source rocks and modify their maturity. It is therefore
important to understand the controls on fluid flow and predict
the amount of advective or convective heat transfer occurring
Effect of intrusion thickness and depth in petroleum basins affected by magmatism. Heat transfer by
Generalized 1D models showing the effect of different advection or convective cells with dimensions of several
intrusion thicknesses on present-day maturity for the northern kilometres will result in a different source rock maturity pattern
Taranaki Basin are presented in Figure 7. These models are to that predicted from 1D conductive modelling.
similar to the Kora model in Figures 5 and 6 but include The main controls on the pattern and vigour of fluid flow are
magmatic intrusions of different thicknesses emplaced at 14 Ma the depth, shape and permeability of the intrusion and the
when sediments were 4000 m thick. After volcanism ceased, permeability of the host rock (Norton & Knight 1977).
further sedimentation increased the total thickness to 6000 m. Conductive heat transfer appears to dominate in host rock with
Source rock type has a significant effect on the potential uniform permeabilities less than 0.01 to 0.1 mD (Cathles 1977).
maturity of sediments because of the difference in hydrocarbon In rock with higher permeabilities, advection and convection
generation kinetics between Type II and Type III kerogen may occur (Cathles 1977; Furlong et al. 1991), however, flow
 Northern Taranaki Basin hydrocarbon generation 261

a) TERRESTRIAL SOURCE ROCK b) MARINE SOURCE ROCK

Thickness of intrusion (m) Thickness of intrusion (m)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000

3000 3000

10%
3500 3500
Present-day depth (m)

Present-day depth (m)

30%

Basin fill strata

4000 4000
50%
70%
4500 10% 4500

5000 30% 5000 90%

50%
5500 5500
70%
90% 98%
95%
6000 0 6000 0
Thickness of intrusion (m)

Thickness of intrusion (m)

Basement rock
1000 1000

2000 2000
Difference in the present-day maturity
of sediments between areas affected
and unaffected by igneous intrusions 3000 3000
20 to 40% difference
40 to 60% difference
4000 4000
Greater than 60% difference

Fig. 7. Present-day maturity, in terms of hydrocarbon generation, related to intrusions of differing thickness from 1D, conductive, thermal
modelling of a generalized burial history for the northern Taranaki Basin. The model incorporates a 6000 m thick sedimentary succession with
deposition beginning at 75 Ma. Magmatic intrusions up to 4000 m thick were emplaced at 14 Ma at basement depth. Both (a) terrestrial and (b)
marine source rocks are modelled. The lines on each chart show the cumulative percentage of kerogen converted to hydrocarbons predicted
from modelling. The shaded areas show the predicted change in the present-day maturity of sediments due to magmatic intrusions of Miocene
age.

patterns will be influenced by anisotropic permeability and Sandstones in the Taranaki Basin generally range in
lithological bedding (Rosenberg & Spera 1990). permeability from 0.1 mD to 1 D, but the more common
Processes that modify permeability, such as fracturing or lithologies, of siltstone, mudstone and marl, have estimated
diagenetic processes, can further influence heat transfer permeabilities of 0.0001–0.1 mD at depths greater than 2500 m
patterns. Fracturing caused by emplacement of the intrusion, (Allis et al. 1997). Due to this low-permeability sedimentary
and elevated fluid pressures related to fluid expansion and fluid section and its stratified nature, heat transfer by convection is
production, would enhance permeability (Knapp & Norton expected to be limited. In addition, the low-permeability
1981; Phillips 1991). Competing with these processes would plutonic basement rocks (Mortimer et al. 1997) would also
be crack healing and pressure solution, mineral deposition inhibit convection around intrusions below the sedimentary
and thermal expansion of the host rock, all of which succession. The feeder-dyke zone of volcanoes may, however,
reduce permeability (Angivine & Turcotte 1983; Walder & Nur provide localized fracture-controlled pathways for fluids to flow
1984). into sands higher in the sedimentary section and to the surface.

280
Two-dimensional models
To test whether large-scale fluid advection has an important
Temperature (oC)

240 influence on the results of maturity modelling, a two-

dimensional (2D) fluid flow model was constructed using the
200 IES PetroMod Version 6 software – a finite element basin
simulator describing sediment compaction and three-phase
160 flow. Convection cells do not develop in the model due to a
relatively simple approach to handling fluid density in the
120 software. The model geometry was based on the cross-section
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
in Figure 3 and hydrocarbon kinetic parameters were the same
Age (Ma)
as those used in the 1D models. Lithology-based program
Fig. 8. Temperature histories at the sediment–basement interface default values were used for permeability, anisotropy and heat
(present-day depth of 6000 m) for generalized 1D models of the productivity. The values used fall within the ranges predicted
northern Taranaki Basin. Solid line is predicted temperature for no for the Taranaki Basin (Allis et al. 1997). No fracture per-
igneous intrusions, dashed line is for a 4000 m thick intrusion
emplaced 4000 m below the sediment–basement interface, dotted meability or lateral variations in vertical permeability were
line is for a 1000 m thick intrusion emplaced 500 m below the incorporated in the model. Model sensitivity to boundary
sediment–basement interface. Intrusions were emplaced at 14 Ma. conditions (open or closed sides and permeable or impermeable
262 V. Stagpoole and R. Funnell

Fig. 9. Present-day maturity, in terms of hydrocarbon generation, related to intrusions of differing thickness and depth from 1D thermal
modelling of a generalized burial history for the northern Taranaki Basin. Thermal models include igneous intrusions emplaced at 14 Ma at
different depths below the basement–sediment interface. Lines on the plots show the cumulative percentage of kerogen converted to
hydrocarbons in non-marine (left) and marine (right) sediments predicted from modelling.

basement) was tested, resulting in insignificant change to the Sediment maturity derived from a 2D model of the Kora
modelled maturity. The limitation imposed by a 10 000 year volcano is shown in Figure 10. The predicted present-day
minimum timestep, use of a single water density, and the maturity for hydrocarbon generation (Fig. 10) is similar to the
inherent variability in element size reduces the sensitivity of the results of 1D modelling. Below about 4500 m depth, the
model to localized, short period (<10 000 years) fluid flow present-day maturity of sediments is greater in the region above
effects associated with intrusive events. the intrusion than in areas away from the volcano. For areas
 Northern Taranaki Basin hydrocarbon generation 263

0 5 km
South Kora-1
North
Lithology 0

Silt 1000
and
shale Kora Volcano 2000

Silt and tuff 3000

Lime and marl Zone of feeder dikes
Sandstone 20%
40% 20% 4000
Silt and 60% 40%
60%
shale 80% 80%
Shale 90%
5000
90%
Silt and 95% 95%
shale igneous intrusion
6000
80%
Coal and silt 90% 90%
95% 7000
Granite Basement
basement 8000
Fig. 10. Contours derived from 2D modelling showing the amount of kerogen that has been converted to hydrocarbons under Kora volcano.
Terrestrial source rocks (shaded zone directly on basement) overlying the igneous intrusion are largely depleted in kerogen, although modelling
indicates generation still continues where these source rocks are located away from the sub-sediment igneous intrusion. Modelling predicts
hydrocarbon generation is presently occurring in marine source rocks (shaded zone between 4000 and 5000 m) that are both above and away
from the igneous intrusion. Different kinetic parameters for marine and terrestrial source rocks account for the differing amounts of total kerogen
conversion between the two sequences.

lying above the thickest parts of the intrusion, modelling DISCUSSION: IMPLICATIONS FOR PETROLEUM
predicts that greater than 95% of available kerogen in Late SYSTEM
Cretaceous source rocks has been converted to hydrocarbons, The Taranaki Basin has always been the principal area for
whereas overlying Paleocene marine source rocks are less hydrocarbon exploration and production in New Zealand. The
mature and capable of further generation. first well was drilled in 1865 and petroleum has been continu-
The effects of localized heat transfer processes, related to a ously produced from the basin since about 1900. However, in
fractured feeder-dyke zone and thin permeable sandstone beds, comparison to other petroleum provinces world-wide, the
are not reproduced in the 2D models. As discussed above, the Taranaki Basin is only moderately explored and, although there
model is insensitive to such effects; however, there is evidence have been a few tantalizing sub-commercial discoveries in the
that these events have occurred. Petrographic and fission track northern part of the basin, there are still many undrilled leads.
analyses on Tangaroa Sandstone samples from the Kora-1 well One of the major obstacles to further exploration in the
indicate heating by a Miocene thermal event (Reed 1992; northern Taranaki Basin is the limited understanding of the role
Bergman et al. 1992). This appears to be localized because of Miocene arc volcanism in petroleum generation. The thermal
Tangaroa Sandstone in the Kora-4 well, 5 km to the east, shows models presented here start to address this problem and
no evidence of heating from this Miocene event (Bergman et al. show that future exploration should account for the effect of
1992). Reed (1992) observed the effects of localized hydro- magmatism.
thermal flow in the vitrinite reflectance profile with depth The key element of the petroleum system altered by
for the Kora-1 well. A peak in the reflectance profile magmatism is the maturity of source rocks and the timing of
(2% Ro) corresponds with the Eocene Tangaroa Sandstone expulsion, although volcanic activity is also responsible for the
(3128–3241 m) and suggests that heating due to hydrothermal formation of potential reservoirs and traps. These elements and
flow was restricted to this formation. While the effects of their interrelationships are discussed.
localized heat transfer processes may be important on a small
scale, the contribution to maturity from such processes is
considered negligible at a regional scale. In addition, the 2D
model shows no large-scale, long-term advective fluid flow that Source rock
would significantly modify the regional pattern of maturity Modelling indicates that both the burial depth and the type of
predicted by a series of 1D models. source rock are important when considering the effects of
In summary, it appears conductive models are adequate for magmatism on petroleum generation and expulsion. The pre-
providing regional-scale estimates of hydrocarbon generation dominant source rocks in the Taranaki Basin, Rakopi and
from igneous intrusions in the northern Taranaki Basin. North Cape formations (Type III), lie at the base of the
Present-day source rock maturity predicted from the 1D sedimentary section, hence their maturity is most affected by
conductive models for the Kora volcano differs only slightly igneous intrusions in the basement. The maturity of the
from 2D fluid flow modelling results. In addition, the low Waipawa Formation marine (Type II) source rock (Killops et al.
permeability of the sedimentary section and basement 2000) is less affected by sub-sediment igneous intrusions
rocks inhibits the development of large convective cells. The because it lies higher in the section (Fig. 10).
effects of localized small-scale advection in individual sands Reed (1992) recognized that oil retrieved from the Kora-1
are difficult to model, and requires a very good understanding exploration well had a strong Tertiary marine biomarker
of the ‘plumbing system’ beneath the volcano and the signature and Killops et al. (1994) noted that oil from Kora-1
detailed application of more complex 2D or 3D modelling and traces found in other offshore northern Taranaki Basin
techniques. wells have been chiefly derived from Paleocene marine source
264 V. Stagpoole and R. Funnell

rocks (Waipawa Formation). Reed (1992) and Killops et al. (Bergman et al. 1992). Reduction in reservoir quality due to
(1994) suggest that these oils were primarily generated in the localized alteration effects is a risk associated with reservoirs
Northern Graben where Paleocene marine source rocks are within and beneath the volcanic cones.
deepest. Late Cretaceous terrestrial source rocks are also at Volcaniclastic rocks are generally perceived to have poor
sufficient depth to be expelling oil yet, in contrast to oils reservoir quality due to high proportions of glass and minerals
produced from the southern Taranaki Basin, significant that alter to low-permeability clays. However, in the northern
quantities of hydrocarbons derived from these rocks have not Taranaki Basin volcaniclastic and epiclastic sediments of the
been discovered. A possible reason is that hydrocarbons Mohakatino Formation are a proven reservoir, with the
generated during the period of volcanism were not trapped and discovery of an accumulation within this formation. Porosities
hence lost from the system. As a consequence, the Waipawa of 9–28% (average 21% from 39 samples) and permeabilities of
Formation at higher levels in the sedimentary section is a more 0.1 to 200 mD (average 32 mD from 39 samples) were
significant hydrocarbon source relative to the deeper Late measured in cored volcaniclastic and pyroclastic sequences
Cretaceous terrestrial source rock, because of its retained between 1285 to 1331 m in the Kora wells (Arco 1988). The
generative potential. Source rocks retaining some generative restricted oil reservoir size at Kora was due to the limited extent
potential after volcanic activity ceased are predicted to expel of sealing lithology at the base of the overlying Giant Foresets
hydrocarbons during post-volcanism burial. The dominance of Formation (Bergman et al. 1992). In deeper parts of the
Tertiary marine biomarkers found in oils from the northern northern Taranaki Basin, volcanic cones with higher capacity
Taranaki Basin may thus be partially attributed to the effect of seals and a more uniform cover of seal rocks should be more
Miocene magmatic intrusions on deeper Late Cretaceous prospective.
terrestrial source rocks. The Miocene and younger basin-floor turbidite sandstones,
Miocene volcanic cones cover an estimated 3200 km2 of the which stratigraphically lie above the volcanic cones, are produc-
northern Taranaki Basin. Igneous intrusions may lie directly tive reservoirs on the Taranaki Peninsula. Onshore, in the
beneath this area of sediments and, at greater depths, possibly northern Taranaki Basin, outcropping sequences contain similar
underlie a much larger area (Hatherton et al. 1979). While an non-volcaniclastic, deep-water sandstones that appear to have
area somewhat larger than that covered by volcanic cones may excellent reservoir characteristics (King & Thrasher 1996). The
have been affected by Miocene magmatism, there probably still stratigraphic and geometric relationships of potential reservoir
remains a large volume of Late Cretaceous terrestrial source rocks, however, are very complex (Adams 1998; Bergman et al.
rock unaffected by volcanic activity. 1990) and have yet to be tested.

Reservoirs and seals Hydrocarbon traps and accumulations

In the northern Taranaki Basin, the four main reservoir targets All significant petroleum accumulations presently known in
affected by Miocene magmatism are Late Cretaceous transgres- the Taranaki Basin occur in structural traps that were formed
sive shoreline sandstones, a Late Eocene submarine-fan com- in the Neogene. The main types of structural traps present
plex, Miocene volcaniclastics and Miocene basin-floor turbidite in the basin are thin-skinned overthrusts, inversion struc-
sandstones (Thrasher et al. 1995). Reservoirs can be classified tures and normal fault-bounded blocks. In addition, there
according to whether they lie stratigraphically beneath, within, is good potential for oil to accumulate in structures as-
or above the Miocene volcanoes. To date, production has only sociated with Miocene volcanism in the northern Taranaki
occurred from a reservoir within the volcaniclastics, with shows Basin.
found at lower levels (Fig. 2). Structures caused by the doming of sedimentary strata during
Beneath the volcanic cones, Late Cretaceous shallow marine intrusive events can be very large. Doming in excess of 1000 m
units of the North Cape Formation are believed to have very has occurred in places, and some domes exceed the area and
good reservoir potential (van der Lingen & Smale 1990), volume of the overlying volcanic cone. Modelling indicates that
although the formation is largely untested (King & Thrasher heat from the magmatic intrusions emplaced beneath this
1996). Sealing lithology is the widespread Turi Formation sedimentary succession caused source rocks to rapidly mature
mudstone (Fig. 2). Zones of overpressuring are evident in many and expel hydrocarbons. Accumulation of these hydrocarbons
wells drilled into this formation, indicative of fluid confinement in the domed strata requires trap formation to occur at the
in the stratigraphic succession. At higher stratigraphic levels, a same time as, or just prior to, hydrocarbon generation. Clearly,
Late Eocene bathyal submarine-fan complex (Tangaroa hydrocarbons generated after volcanism may also migrate into
Formation) has been found in several wells in the northern traps within the domes.
Taranaki Basin. Tangaroa Formation has over 20% porosity at The volcanic cones and associated aprons also form hydro-
depths of 3200 to 3800 m, but has only yielded hydrocarbon carbon traps (Bergman et al. 1990), as demonstrated by
shows. Sealing lithologies are the overlying Oligocene to Early continuous production from this interval in the Kora-1 well
Miocene Tikorangi Formation limestone and Early and Middle (Arco 1988). Charging of these reservoirs is likely to be
Miocene fine-grained lithologies (Fig. 2), which are effective ineffective until the volcanic cone was buried and a suitable seal
seals elsewhere in the Taranaki Basin. had formed. The Kora-1 reservoir was clearly charged well after
Reservoirs in close proximity to a magmatic intrusion may be volcanism ceased, because seal rocks were not deposited until
affected by alteration processes associated with hydrothermal the early Pliocene.
fluids (Ellis & Mahon 1977; Browne 1978; Wood & Hewett Cones are commonly dissected by radial faults (Arco
1984; Bjørlykke & Egeberg 1993). The circulation of hydro- 1988) that were presumably active during the period of
thermal fluids through the Tangaroa Sandstone in Kora-1 volcanism, and by extensional faults that were active after
caused silica and carbonate cementation (Bergman et al. 1992). volcanism ceased. Faults, or a fractured dyke-complex,
Measured data indicate a reduction in average porosity from may provide permeable pathways for hydrocarbons to leak
20% to 10%, and average permeability from 150 mD to out of traps, or limit the sustainable column height of any
0.5 mD, for cores from Kora-1 compared to Kora-4 well accumulations.
 Northern Taranaki Basin hydrocarbon generation 265

Ma 80 60 40 20 Geological time
scale
Cretaceous Tertiary International
Paleo Oligo-

Pleist.
Plio/
Late -cene
Eocene Miocene
cene

Wanganui
Rauku-

Pareora

Taranaki
South-
mara

land
Mata Dannevirke Arnold Landon N. Z. Petroleum

Wm Wn
Wp Wo
Lwh
system events
Dm
Rm

Dw
Mp

Mh

Sw
Lw
Dh
Ra

Dp

Ab

Po
Ld
Dt
Rt

Ak

Tt
Pl
Sl
Ar

Sc

Wc
Tk
Lithology and
hydrocarbon
TANGAROA-1
TANGAROA-1

Strong shows
Strong shows

Non-marine Marine accumulations

KORA-1
KORA-1

Oil
Coals & shales Waipawa Fm.
(Type III) (Type II)
Source rock
Turbidites
(?)
North Cape Fm Tangaroa Fm Fractured Reservoir rock
Sand
limestone
Marine mudstones and carbonates Volcaniclastics
Seal rock

Overburden rock
Facies
Magmatic
Drape doming Trap formation

Magmatism &III
Type II Type II Near magmatic
Generation, Fig. 11. Petroleum systems diagram for
intrusions the northern Taranaki Basin showing all
migration,
geological factors required for
Type II No magmatic accumulation generation, migration and accumulation
&III intrusions
Compactional drape trapping
of hydrocarbons. The critical moment
Critical Moment occurs in the Middle Miocene when
Structural trapping
magmatism first occurred.

Critical moment beneficial aspects that enhance prospectivity. Volcanic activity

The petroleum systems diagram for the northern Taranaki can increase the maturity of source rocks, deposit reservoir and
Basin (Fig. 11) shows that the critical moment, when the seal rocks, and create substantial hydrocarbon traps. As a result
charging of traps begins, is in the Middle Miocene when of an improved understanding of the effects of magmatism,
generation and trap formation related to magmatism first basins that in the past have been deemed poorly prospective
occurred. However, the Pliocene charge of the Kora-1 reservoir may, in fact, have significant hydrocarbon potential.
and evidence from thermal modelling, suggest that charging of
traps associated with the Mohakatino Volcanic Centre has
occurred comparatively recently and is probably on-going. CONCLUSIONS
Interpretation of borehole and seismic reflection data indicates
that an estimated 70003000 km3 of andesite were erupted in
Implications for other intra-arc basins the northern Taranaki Basin during the Miocene. Analysis of
Results from thermal models of the northern Taranaki Basin the deformation of strata, caused by magmatic intrusions,
are applicable for oil exploration in currently active, or extinct, indicates that between 1000 and 2500 km3 of igneous material
intra-arc petroleum basins. For example, andesitic arc volcanic were intruded beneath the Miocene Mohakatino Volcanic
rocks are documented throughout Southeast Asia, where the Centre. This volcanic activity dramatically modified the petro-
very productive basins of Sumatra and Java, in Indonesia, lie leum systems of the northern Taranaki Basin by rapidly
close to the Sunda Arc (Hutchison 1989; Howes 1997). In the increasing the maturity of overlying source rocks, creating new
Philippines, Miocene igneous andesitic rocks are reported in the structures capable of storing hydrocarbons and altering the
productive Sandakan basin (Graves & Swauger 1997). Another charge history of the basin. All prerequisites for the charging of
example may be the Lower Cook Inlet of Alaska, where the traps were in place by the Middle Miocene. Thermal modelling
active Augustine volcano lies within a prospective basin results indicate that the key element of the petroleum system
(Magoon & Claypool 1981). Modelling of the effect of altered by the intrusion of large volumes of magma into
intrusions in the northern Taranaki Basin demonstrates that the basement is the maturity of source rocks and the timing of
area over which hydrocarbons are generated will be governed expulsion.
by the temperature, thickness and lateral extent of the magmatic Models show that, on a regional scale, an increase in the
intrusion, rather than by the regional geothermal gradient. It is maturity of sediments caused by an intrusion emplaced in the
therefore vital to understand the effects of large intrusions basement rocks is primarily dependent on a number of factors;
when exploring basins where widespread magmatism has the depth, thickness and thermal properties of the igneous
occurred. intrusion, and the type of source rock. Although localized
Volcanic activity and the effects of magmatism have often small-scale advective processes will occur in permeable and
been considered detrimental to the prospectivity. In the fractured rock, the effects of these processes on source rock
northern Taranaki Basin and other intra-arc basins, magmatism maturity are expected to be limited to areas within, and
adds more complexity to the petroleum system, but it can have immediately adjacent to, the fractured feeder-dyke zone.
266 V. Stagpoole and R. Funnell

Indeed, comparison of 1D conductive and 2D fluid flow Angivine, C. L. & Turcotte, D. L. 1983. Porosity reduction by pressure
models indicates that the low permeability of the predominant solution: a theoretical model for quartz arenites. Geological Society of America
Bulletin, 94, 1129–1134.
siltstone, mudstone and marl lithology in the Taranaki Basin Arco Petroleum Nz Ltd, 1988. Final well report PPL38447, Kora-1 and
limits heat transfer by any mechanism other than conduction. Kora-1A. Unpublished Open file Petroleum Report 1374, Ministry of
Conductive models appear to be adequate for providing Economic Development, New Zealand.
regional-scale estimates of hydrocarbon generation from Armstrong, P. A., Chapman, D. S., Funnell, R. H., Allis, R. G. & Kamp,
igneous intrusions in the northern Taranaki Basin. P. J. J. 1996. Thermal modelling, and hydrocarbon generation in an active
Using the Kora volcano in the northern Taranaki Basin as an margin basin: Taranaki Basin, New Zealand. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, 80, 1216–1241.
example, modelling predicts magmatic intrusions emplaced Armstrong, P. A., Kamp, P. J. J., Allis, R. G. & Chapman, D. S. 1997.
within the basement will cause overlying Late Cretaceous Thermal effects of intrusion below the Taranaki basin (New Zealand):
terrestrial source rocks to be rapidly heated and reach high Evidence from combined apatite fission track age and vitrinite reflectance
levels of maturity, expelling hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons data. Basin Research, 9, 151–170.
generated during magmatism may have migrated into reservoir Bergman, S. C., Atkinson, C. D., Talbot, J. & Gordon, T. L. 1990. Nature and
reservoir potential of Miocene sedimentary and volcanic rocks, western
formations that were domed upwards to form traps beneath the North Island, New Zealand: A reconnaissance field and laboratory study.
volcanoes. Hydrocarbon accumulations may exist in situations Unpublished Open file Petroleum Report 1581, Ministry of Economic
where trap formation occurred at the same time as, or just prior Development, New Zealand.
to, hydrocarbon generation. Renewed burial associated with the Bergman, S. C., Talbot, J. & Thompson, P. R. 1992. The Kora Miocene
progradation of the Giant Foresets Formation in the northern submarine andesite stratovolcano hydrocarbon reservoir, Taranaki
Taranaki Basin caused a second period of hydrocarbon Basin 1991 New Zealand Oil Exploration Conference Proceedings. Ministry of
Economic Development, New Zealand, 178–206.
generation and expulsion from about 4 Ma. Modelling indicates Bjørlykke, K. & Egeberg, P. K. 1993. Quartz cementation in sedimentary
that generation after 4 Ma would not have occurred from basins. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 77, 1538–1548.
Late Cretaceous terrestrial source rocks in areas affected by Browne, P. R. L. 1978. Hydrothermal alteration in active geothermal fields.
magmatism, because these were already fully mature. Overlying, Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 6, 229–250.
Tertiary marine source rocks are modelled to still be generating Burnham, A. K. & Sweeney, J. J. 1989. A chemical kinetic model of vitrinite
and expelling hydrocarbons to the present day. Therefore, maturation and reflectance. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 53, 2649–2657.
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more significant hydrocarbon source for the recent charge convection which includes boiling. Economic Geology, 72, 804–826.
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Taranaki Basin where Cretaceous terrestrial source rocks have Cook, R. A. 1988. Interpretation of the geochemistry of oils of Taranaki
been unaffected by volcanic activity. and West Coast region, western New Zealand. Energy, Exploration and
Results from the northern Taranaki Basin models are Exploitation, 6, 201–212.
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and help in preparation of this paper. We thank Doug Waples, Petroleum Systems of SE Asia and Australasia Conference, Jakarta, Indonesia, May,
Stuart Burley and Gary Couples for helpful reviews. We gratefully 1997. Indonesia Petroleum Association, Jakarta, 799–813.
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Received 4 January 2000; revised typescript accepted 9 January 2001