MODE OF OCCURENCE

Mode of occurence - Minerals bear a genetic relationship with the rocks types in association with
which they are formed.

•modes of occurence of minerals on how they are formed

1. Igneous occurence
2. Sedimentary occurence
3. Metamorphic occurence
4. hydrothermal occurence
5. Ore genesis

1. Igneous occurence
-rocks and minerals are formed through cooling and solidification of magma or lava
a. Intrusive (Plutonic): When magma solidifies below the Earth's surface Examples include
granite and gabbro.

b. Extrusive (Volcanic): When magma reaches the Earth's surface and cools rapidly. Examples
include basalt and obsidian.

c. Volcanic Conduits and Dikes: Magma can also flow through fractures in the Earth's crust,
forming conduits and dikes. These structures can host valuable mineral deposits, such as gold
and copper.

2. Sedimentary Occurrence:

- Sedimentary rocks and minerals are formed from the accumulation and cementation of
mineral and organic particles over time. Sedimentary occurrence can be categorized as:

a. Stratiform: Sediments accumulate in layers, forming stratiform deposits. These can be

further classified into clastic, carbonate, and evaporite sediments. Examples include limestone,
sandstone, and shale.

b. Structure-controlled: Sedimentary deposits can be concentrated around structural features

such as faults, folds, and unconformities. These deposits can be rich in minerals like uranium,
copper, and gold.
c. Disseminated: Minerals can be dispersed throughout sedimentary rocks, forming
disseminated deposits. Examples include iron formations and banded iron deposits.

3. Metamorphic Occurrence:

- Metamorphic rocks and minerals form when existing rocks undergo physical and chemical
changes due to heat, pressure, or mineral exchange. Metamorphic occurrence can be observed in:

a. Contact Metamorphism: When igneous rocks intrude sedimentary or metamorphic rocks,

the heat and pressure cause the surrounding rock to metamorphose. Examples include marble
(metamorphosed limestone) and skarn deposits (metamorphosed mineral deposits).

b. Regional Metamorphism: Over vast regions, heat and pressure from tectonic processes
transform pre-existing rocks. This can lead to the formation of metamorphic deposits such as
quartzite, schist, and gneiss.

c. Regional-Contact Metamorphism: A combination of both regional and contact

metamorphism can result in unique mineral deposits, such as the formation of amphibolite belts
and calc-silicate metamorphic rocks.

4. Hydrothermal Occurrence:

- Hydrothermal processes involve the movement of hot, mineral-rich fluids through the
Earth's crust. These fluids can deposit valuable minerals in various modes, including:

a. Vein Deposits: Minerals precipitate along fractures and faults, forming vein-type deposits.
Examples include gold veins and quartz veins hosting copper deposits.

b. Porphyry Deposits: Large-scale hydrothermal systems can create porphyry deposits, which
are characterized by a central stock of intrusive igneous rock surrounded by a halo of
mineralization. Examples include porphyry copper and porphyry molybdenum deposits.
c. Skarn and Replacement Deposits: Hydrothermal fluids can replace pre-existing minerals or
form new deposits in metamorphic rocks, creating skarn and replacement deposits. Examples
include iron skarn deposits and hydrothermal replacement gold deposits.

5. Ore Genesis:

- Understanding the mode of occurrence is crucial for predicting and discovering mineral
deposits. Ore genesis is the study of the processes that lead to the formation of mineral deposits.
It encompasses various aspects such as:

ore - is an accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements.

a. Magmatic Ore Genesis: Minerals formed from magmatic processes, such as igneous
intrusions and volcanic exhalates.

b. Hydrothermal Ore Genesis: Minerals formed through the action of hot, mineral-rich fluids,
as described earlier.

c. Sedimentary Ore Genesis: Minerals formed through the accumulation and concentration of
minerals in sedimentary environments.

d. Metamorphic Ore Genesis: Minerals formed through the transformation of pre-existing

rocks due to heat, pressure, or mineral exchange.

•modes of occurence of minerlas on where they occur

o Veins and lodes: In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks,
crevices, faults or joints. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes.
Examples are minerals like tin, copper, zinc, lead etc.

o Beds or layers: In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals occur in beds or layers. They
have been formed as a result of deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal layers
of the rock. Coal, some forms of iron ore, gypsum, potash, sodium salts etc.

o Decomposition of surface rocks: When the decomposition of surface rocks occurs with the
removal of soluble constituents, it leaves a residual mass of weathered material containing
mineral ores. Bauxite is formed in this way.
o Alluvial deposits/ placer deposits: Some minerals are found in sands of valley floors and
the base of hills. These deposits are also called as ‘placer deposits’. They are not corroded by
water. Examples are: gold, silver, tin and platinum.

o Ocean waters: The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, but most of these are
spread over a wide area. Therefore they are economically not viable. However, common salt,
magnesium and bromine are largely derived from ocean waters.

Prospecting

Prospecting is an important tool and is. defined as a branch of geological science which. on its
application is search for minerals/ores that. can lead to the location of mineral deposit on. surface
or underneath the earth's crust.

PROSPECTING TECHNIQUE

1.) Geophysical prospecting -Exploring for minerals or mineral fuels, or determining the nature
of earth materials by measuring a physical property of the rocks, and interpreting the results in
terms of geologic features or the economic deposits sought.
- there are five geophysical methods:magnetic,gravimetric,geoelectric, radiometric, and seismic

2.) Geochemical prospecting - In geochemical prospecting the search for anomalies is based on
the systematic measurement of trace elements or chemically influenced properties.
-Samples of soils, lake sediments and water, glacial deposits, rocks, vegetation and humus,
animal tissues, microorganisms, gases and air, and particulates are collected and tested so that
unusual concentrations can be identified.

3.) Geobotanical prospecting- refers to prospecting based on indicator

plants like metallophytes and the analysis of vegetation.
•For example, the Viscaria Mine in Sweden was named after the plant Silene
suecica (syn. Viscaria alpina) that was used by prospectors to discover the ore deposits.[1]

•A "most faithful" indicator plant is Ocimum centraliafricanum, the "copper plant" or "copper
flower" formerly known as Becium homblei, found only on copper (and nickel) containing soils
in central to southern Africa.
GROUND WATER

Groundwater hydrology defined as the science of the occurrence, distribution and movement of
water below the surface of the earth. Ground water is the underground water that occurs in the
saturated one of variable thickness and depth below the earth's surface. Groundwater is an
important source of water supply throughout the world. Its use in irrigation, industries, urban and
rural home continues to increase.

- Groundwater is the largest reservoir of liquid fresh water on Earth and is found in aquifers,
porous rock and sediment with water in between. Water is attracted to the soil particles and
capillary action, which describes how water moves through a porous media, moves water from
wet soil to dry areas.

AQUIFER

aquifer - is an underground layer of water-bearing material, consisting of permeable or fractured

rock, or of unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Aquifers vary greatly in their
characteristics. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is
called hydrogeology.

To be a good aquifer, the rock in the aquifer must have good:

Porosity: small spaces between grains

Permeability: connections between pores

WORKS OF GROUND WATER

Civil-engineering construction works often have a significant impact on groundwater

conditions. Such an impact can range from the derogation of water sources by dewatering works,
to the creation of barriers and pathways for groundwater flow formed by foundations or ground-
improvement processes.