BS – PSYCHOLOGY

FOOD AND NUTRITION

COURSE PACK

COURSE INSTRUCTOR

Ms. UME-RUBBAB
 LECTURE: 01

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD AND NUTRITION

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD AND NUTRITION

To understand the subject of Food and Nutrition we must know what these words mean.
Food and Nutrition are two separate terms but are so much dependent upon each other. If we take
food, we always get some nutrition.

FOOD

Food is any edible substance that provides nourishment. It can also be defined as any solid
or liquid, which when swallowed provides the body with materials enabling it to carry out one or
more of the functions of food e.g. energy production, growth and repair, regulation of body
processes.

FUNCTIONS OF FOOD

Food is the basic need for every living organism. Without food survival is impossible and
without adequate or good food; survival remains in danger. Food performs some important
functions in our body to give us health.

1. Food supplies energy and heat for life activities.

2. Food builds up body tissues, maintains and repair them.
3. Food regulates the body process and keeps us healthy and fit.
NUTRITION

It is the science of food or science of nourishing the body properly. It studies the contents
of various foods from the point of view of their usefulness in our body for health and nourishment.

NUTRIENTS

These are the chemical components needed by the body to provide energy, to repair tissues
and to regulate life process. On the basis of quantity required by the body nutrients are divided
into two categories.

1. Macronutrients
2. Micronutrients

MACRONUTRIENTS

The macronutrients—carbohydrates, fats, and proteins—exist mainly as polymers or long

chains. They provide energy, expressed as kilocalories (kcal), plus a few other unique structures
required in human tissue. Fats and carbohydrates provide the bulk of energy, whereas proteins
provide a smaller amount. -e primary energy-providing macronutrients—carbohydrates and fats
derived from plants and animals—provide approximately 85% of energy (expressed as kilocalories
or kilojoules) intake by humankind in the Western world and perhaps 90% or more in other parts
of the world. Protein provides nearly all of the remaining energy consumed on a daily basis. In
addition to their constituent amino acids, proteins are essential because they provide nitrogen that
is needed for the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and related molecules.

MICRONUTRIENTS

The micronutrients are represented by vitamins and minerals, which have specific roles in
metabolism. The micronutrients are needed in small quantities each day. Vitamins are categorized
as water soluble or fat soluble. - e distinction between these two types of vitamins lies in their
solubility in water or in organic solvents, including fats and oils. Vitamins are needed for a large
number of cellular and extracellular chemical reactions. For example, vitamins A and D are fat-
soluble vitamins. Vitamin A plays a role in growth and vision; vitamin D, obtained from either the
diet or synthesized when exposed to the sun, has an important role in calcium metabolism.
Minerals are used in chemical reactions as well as in structural components of cells and tissues.
For example, calcium is a critical component of hard tissues such as bone and teeth and plays a
variety of other roles. Macro minerals are needed in daily amounts greater than 100 milligrams per
day. Micro minerals are needed in amounts of less than 100 milligrams per day. Water often is
considered with minerals.
IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED TO NUTRITION

MALNUTRITION

For many, the word “malnutrition” produces an image of a child in a third-world

country with a bloated belly, and skinny arms and legs. However, this image alone is not
an accurate representation of the state of malnutrition. For example, someone who is 150
pounds’ overweight can also be malnourished.
Malnutrition refers to one not receiving proper nutrition and does not distinguish
between the consequences of too many nutrients or the lack of nutrients both of which
impair overall health.
It is further divided into two types
1. Under nutrition
2. Over nutrition

Malnutrition can lead to:

• Short- and long-term health problems

• Slow recovery from wounds and illnesses
• A higher risk of infection
• Difficulty focusing at work or school

UNDER NUTRITION

Undernutrition is characterized by a lack of Nutrients and insufficient energy supply. It

occurs when the body does not get enough food. It can lead to delayed growth, low weight, or
wasting. If a person does not get the right balance of nutrients, they can also have malnutrition. It
is possible to have obesity with malnutrition. When a person has too little food, a limited diet, or
a condition that stops their body from obtaining the right balance of nutrients, it can have a severe
impact on their health. In some cases, this can become life threatening. Undernutrition or
malnutrition can affect people with: depression, dementia, schizophrenia, anorexia nervosa.
OVER NUTRITION

Over nutrition is characterized by excessive nutrient and energy intake. It can result
in obesity, a growing global health threat. Obesity is defined as a metabolic disorder that leads to
an over accumulation of fat tissue. Over nutrition happens when you take in more of a nutrient (or
nutrients) than you need every day. While many people think malnutrition means a lack of
nutrients, overconsumption is also considered malnutrition because it has negative health
consequences.

NUTRITIONAL STATUS
It is the condition of the body as a result of the intake, absorption and use of nutrition, as
well as the influence of disease-related factors.

A Nutritional Assessment can be defined as: a structured way to establish the nutritional
status and energy requirements by objective measurements accompanied by objective parameters
and in relation to specific disease indications, an adequate (nutritional) treatment can be developed
for the patient.
 LECTURE: 02

BASIC FOOD GROUPS

 Food may be defined as anything solid or liquid which when consumed meets the
requirements of energy, body building, repair, regulation and protection due to the nutrients
present in it. Food, as we all know is a basic necessity and is vital to nourish the body. It is essential
right from the womb until the tomb. Intake of the right kinds and amounts of food can ensure good
nutrition and health, which may be evident in our appearance, efficiency and emotional well-being.

FUNCTIONS OF FOOD

Food has various functions in our lives. Functions of food may be classified according to
their role in the body as physiological, social and psychological functions. Let us have a look into
the physiological function of food.

1. Physiological functions of food

• Energy yielding foods: Carbohydrates and fats
• Body building foods: Proteins
• Protective and regulatory foods: Vitamins and minerals
• Foods that help in maintenance of health

Energy yielding foods: Foods rich in carbohydrates and fats are called energy yielding
foods. They provide energy to sustain the involuntary processes essential for continuance of life,
to carry out various voluntary activities and to convert food ingested into usable nutrients in the
body. The energy needed to carry out these work is obtained from oxidation of food. Cereals, roots,
tubers, dry fruits, oils, butter and ghee are all good sources of energy. Carbohydrates and protein
provide 4 Kcal of energy per gram whereas fats and oils provide 9 Kcal of energy per gram.

Body building foods: Foods rich in protein are called body building foods. These foods
help to maintain life, to repair or replace worn out tissues and to promote growth. They also supply
energy. Milk, meat, egg and fish are rich in proteins of high biological value. Pulses and nuts are
good sources of protein but the proteins are of relatively lower biological value than animal protein.

Protective and Regulatory foods: Foods rich in protein, minerals and vitamins are known
as protective and regulatory foods. They are essential for health and regulate activities such as
maintenance of body temperature, muscle contraction, control of water balance, clotting of blood,
removal of waste products from the body, maintaining heartbeat and to improve immunity. Milk,
egg, liver, fruits and vegetables are sources of protective foods.
 Foods that help in maintenance of health: Food is a source of phytochemicals and
antioxidants which help in neutralizing deleterious free-radicals which damage the biological
tissues thus, preventing a wide array of degenerative diseases. Food plays an important role in
preventing chronic diseases like cancer, degenerative diseases and cardiovascular diseases; and in
the management of diseases such as hypertension and diabetes. Such foods can be termed as
functional foods. Few examples of foods that are rich in phytochemicals and antioxidants are green
leafy vegetables, fruits, vegetables and spices.

2. Social functions of food

Food has always been the central part of our social existence. Humans are social beings
and food has been a part of our community, culture and religion. Special foods are distributed as
benediction in religious places. Cultural changes are observed in the preparation of food and
pattern of diet in different regions of the country. Whether fasting or feasting, food has acquired
religious importance. It is a token of expressing gratitude, love, friendship and happiness. Food is
the central part of various occasions such as birth, naming ceremony, birthdays, festivals,
marriages etc. It connects our social life and symbolizes social acceptance. Hence, food is an
integral part of our social well-being.

3. Psychological functions of food

In addition to satisfying physiological and social needs, foods also satisfy certain emotional
needs of human beings. These include a sense of security, love and acceptance. For example,
preparation of delicious foods for family members is a token of love and affection. Food influences
greatly on our psychological well-being. Certain amino acids such as tryptophan, phenylalanine,
tyrosine and methionine are precursors of neurotransmitters that influence our psychological well-
being such as serotonin, dopamine, nor-adrenaline and γ-aminobutyric acid. Dietary deficiencies
of amino acids, carbohydrates and essential fatty acids have been linked to psychological disorder
such as depression.
FOOD GROUPS

A food group is a collection of foods that share similar nutritional properties or biological
classifications. Nutrition guides typically divide foods into food groups and recommend daily
servings of each group for a healthy diet. In the United States for instance, USDA has described
food as being in from 5 to 11 different groups. Food groups classify foods into categories,
depending upon their type, nutritional contribution and functions. These food groups can be used
to plan diets.
Foods have been classified into different groups depending on their nutritive value and for
the ease to plan a diet. They are grouped as basic four, basic five and basic seven food groups.

Objective of the food group system are

✓ Planning wholesome balanced menus to achieve nutritional adequacy.

✓ Assessing nutritional status- a brief diet history of an individual can disclose inadequacies
of food and nutrients from any of the five groups.

The most commonly used food group system is the five basic food groups. Foods that fall
under each group have been discussed below.

1. Cereals, Grains and Products

Cereals: - Rice, Wheat, Barley, Oats
Millets: - Ragi, Bajra, Maize, Jowar, Little millet (chota bajra)
Products: - Flakes, Flour, puffed products (grains that have been expanded through
processing such as cornflakes, corn pops).
2. Pulses
Pulses: Bengal gram, Black gram, Green gram, Red gram, lentils.
Beans: Broad bean, Field bean, Haricot bean, Shell bean, Lima bean.
Peas: Green peas.
3. Milk and Meat Products

Milk: - Curd, Skimmed Milk, Cheese, Khoa, Cream

Meat: - Chicken, Liver, Fish, Egg, Beef, Mutton, Pork

4. Fruits and Vegetables
Fruits: - Mango, Guava, Tomato, Papaya, Orange, Sweet Watermelon.

Vegetables

Green Leafy: - Spinach, Drumstick leaves (Moringa – Sohanjna), Coriander leaves,

Mustard leaves, Fenugreek leaves, Cabbage.
Roots and tubers: - Beetroot, Carrot, Onion, Potato, Radish, Sweet potato, Yam (Arvi).
Other Vegetables: - Brinjal, Ladies fingers, Capsicum, Beans, Cauliflower, Bottle
gourd (loki).
5. Fats and Sugars
Fats: - Butter, Ghee, Hydrogenated fats (fast food, baked goods), Cooking oils like
Groundnut, Mustard, Coconut.
Sugars: - Sugar, Jaggery.
How the food group system helps us?
✓ As a tool for nutritional assessment

✓ As a tool for nutrition education

✓ Planning diets for normal healthy people

✓ In providing variety to the diet

✓ Planning therapeutic diets

✓ In formulation of nutrition labels

The amount of food you need to eat from each group depends on your age, sex, and level
of physical activity. A healthy eating plan will show you how much you need from each food
group to stay within your calorie needs and promote good health.
BALANCED DIET

A balanced diet is a diet which gives your body the nutrients needed by it to function
efficiently. In order to obtain the proper nutrition from your diet, you need to obtain the majority
of your daily calories from fresh fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, lean proteins. A
balanced diet comprises of macronutrients like proteins, carbohydrates and fats along with
micronutrients which include vitamins and minerals.

Each of them has a vital role in maintaining the body functions. These nutrients are derived
through a combination of the five major food groups. Each person’s body is different and often
individuals require a different amount and type of nutrition. This depends on the age, gender,
illness and the rate at which one’s body works

Basics of maintaining a balanced diet and choosing the healthier option

• Eat at least five portions of fruit and vegetables a day.

• Cut down the sugar and saturated fat intake
• Drink plenty of water, six to eight glasses is the recommended amount. Add a fresh squeeze
of lemon if needed to get a bit of flavor.
• Aim for at least two portions of fish every week.
• Reduce the salt intake. It is advised to eat not more than 6 grams of salt in a day.
• Always eat breakfast, as it provides you with energy for the day.
• Use starchy foods as the base of your meals. These act as fuel for the day.
• Get active. Teenagers and adults are required to exercise moderately for 150 minutes a
week. A brisk walk of 30 minutes daily is recommended.

RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA)

RDA is estimates of nutrients to be consumed daily to ensure the requirements of all

individuals in a given population.

Fats

Fats provide energy. They store vitamins and synthesize hormones. According to NIN,
about 1/5th of our diet or 20% should be devoted to fats of all 3 kinds - polyunsaturated,
monounsaturated and omega-3 fatty acids. Vegetable oil used in day to day cooking is a major
source of visible fat in our diet. To ensure optimal fat quality the use of a combination of vegetable
oils is important. It is suggested to include a blend of various types of oils in the diet. You could
juggle between butter, ghee, olive oil, mustard oil, soybean, sesame and even groundnut oil for
different meals. Depend more on unrefined or cold pressed oils versus refined oils. In foods, there
are 2 types of fat: saturated and unsaturated.

Unsaturated fat is the ‘good fat’ this can help lower cholesterol and provide a source of
omega-3, a fatty acid that is said to be essential. Fat also helps the body absorb some vital vitamins
such as vitamin A, D and E. Nutritional experts generally recommend that unsaturated fats make
up a maximum of 35% of a person’s daily energy intake. The ‘bad’ saturated fats should not reach
more than 11 % of the daily allowance.
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of energy. In India, 70-80 % of total dietary
calories are derived from carbohydrates present in plant foods such as cereals, millets and pulses.
It is suggested that half of the total calories of the day should come from carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates from healthy sources such as whole grains (brown rice, millets and oats) which
have a high nutritive value should be incorporated in the diet.

Proteins

About 30-35 % of the diet should consist of protein. This could be in the form of milk,
pulses, leafy greens, eggs, white meat or sprouts. This is because protein is the main component
of all our body cells, as well as hair, skin and soft tissues. Moreover, we burn more calories in
digesting proteins than carbohydrates. Since men tend to be muscular and usually weigh more than
women, they require more protein. The recommended dietary allowance of protein is 60 grams/day
for men and 55 grams/ day for women. Meat, fish, beans and eggs all provide our bodies with a
good source of protein. Protein is essential for the body to develop and repair itself. While pulses
(beans, nuts and seeds) are a good source of protein, they do contain high levels of fat. Nuts are
high in fiber and are a good alternative to saturated fats. But they have to be eaten in moderation
as too much fat can be damaging.

Vitamins and Minerals

These micronutrients support metabolism, nerve and muscle function, bone maintenance
and cell production. Minerals are inorganic and so minerals from plants, meat and fish easily find
their way into the body. Vitamins are fragile compounds and it is difficult to shuttle them as they
may be destroyed during cooking or storage. They can be derived from nuts, oilseeds, fruits and
green leafy vegetables. Vitamin A, E, B12 and D are vital and so is calcium and iron. Calcium is
needed to keep our bones and teeth strong. Calcium is also needed to regulate muscle contraction
including heartbeat. It ensures that blood clots normally.

Fiber

Fiber aids in digestion. A meal is incomplete without fiber both soluble and insoluble.
Vegetables and fruits should be eaten instead of being consumed as juice. Most fruits and
vegetables (besides potato and corn) and whole grains are also foods with a low glycemic index
which means that they do not cause sudden spikes in blood sugar levels and help maintain them.

FOOD PYRAMID

A diet is optimum or balanced when it consists of foods from several food groups, provides
all the required nutrients in proper amounts and provides phyto-chemicals, antioxidants and
nutraceuticals to promote health. A balanced diet should provide 50-60% of the calories from
complex carbohydrates, 10-15% from protein and 20-30% from visible and invisible fat. A
balanced diet helps in meeting the nutrient requirements, improves immunity and cognition,
prevents diseases, reduces stress and helps in improving the overall quality of life. The food guide
pyramid was introduced in 1992 by United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) as a general
plan of what to eat each day.

The food guide pyramid is a valuable tool for planning a health promoting diet. By
incorporating the principle of balance, variety and moderation, an individual can still eat their
favorite foods while following the food guide pyramid. A balanced diet should provide 50-60% of
the calories from complex carbohydrates which is the major part of the diet thus making it the base
of the food pyramid. Therefore 6-11servings of cereals are recommended. Protective foods are
essential in providing vitamins, minerals and fiber. Therefore 3-5 servings of vegetables and 2-4
servings of fruits form the next level of food pyramid, 2-3 servings of pulses, milk and milk
products, egg, meat and fish form the next level of food pyramid to meet 10-15% of protein of the
total calories. The tip of the food pyramid has sugars, fats and oils which are to be used sparingly
since they are energy dense foods.
MY PLATE

My Plate is the current and latest nutrition guide published by the USDA, a food circle (i.e.
a pie chart) depicting a place setting with a plate and glass divided into five food groups. It replaced
the USDA's my pyramid guide on June 2, 2011, ending 19 years of USDA food pyramid diagrams.
My Plate is divided into sections of approximately 30% cereals, 40% vegetables, 10% fruits and
20% protein, accompanied by a smaller circle representing dairy, such as a glass of milk or a yogurt
cup.
 LECTURE: 03

WATER: A VITAL NUTRIENT

 WATER: A VITAL NUTRIENT

Water is the major constituent of the human body. The latter cannot produce enough water
by metabolism or obtain enough water by food ingestion to fulfil its needs. As a consequence, we
need to pay attention to what we drink throughout the day to ensure that we are meeting our daily
water needs, as not doing so may have negative health effects

Water is the main constituent of cells, tissues and organs and is vital for life. Despite its
well-established importance, water is often forgotten in dietary recommendations, and the
importance of adequate hydration is not mentioned. As a consequence, health professionals and
nutritionists are sometimes confused and question the necessity of drinking water regularly: how
much should we drink, and how to know whether patients are well hydrated or not. The purpose
of this paper is to review the main functions of water and the mechanisms of daily water balance
regulation, which constitute a clear evidence of how much water we really need.

The human body can last weeks without food, but only days without water. The body is
made up of 50-75% water. Water forms the basis of blood, digestive juices, urine and perspiration,
and is contained in lean muscle, fat and bones. As the body can’t store water, we need fresh
supplies every day to make up for losses from the lungs, skin, urine and faeces. The amount we
need depends on our body size, metabolism, the weather, the food we eat and our activity levels.

FUNCTIONS

Water is needed for most body functions, including to:

• Maintain the health and integrity of every cell in the body.

• Keep the bloodstream liquid enough to flow through blood vessels.
• Help eliminate the by-products of the body’s metabolism, excess electrolytes (for
example, sodium and potassium), and urea, which is a waste product formed through the
processing of dietary protein.
• Regulate body temperature through sweating.
• Lubricate and cushion joints.
• Reduce the risk of urinary tract infections (UTIs), such as cystitis by keeping the
bladder clear of bacteria.
 • Aid digestion and prevent constipation.
• Moisturize the skin to maintain its texture and appearance.
• Carry nutrients and oxygen to cells.
• Serve as a shock absorber inside the eyes, spinal cord and in the amniotic sac surrounding
the fetus in pregnancy.

DISTRIBUTION OF BODY WATER

Water is the main constituent of our body, as about 60% of our body weight is made of
water. This water content varies with body composition (lean and fat mass) (Dietary Reference
Intakes, 2006). In infants and children, water as a percentage of body weight is higher than in
adults. This is mainly due to higher water content in the extracellular compartment, whereas the
water content in the intracellular compartment is lower in infants than in older children and adults.
Body composition changes rapidly during the first year of life, with a decrease in the water content
of the fat free mass and an increase in the content of protein and minerals.

In adults, about two-thirds of total water is in the intracellular space, whereas one-third is
extracellular water. A 70-kg human has about 42 l of total body water, of which 28 l is intracellular
water and 14 l is extracellular fluid (ECF) (Wang et al., 1999). The constancy of the amount and
composition of ECF is a necessity for the function of cells. This constancy is due to the homeostatic
mechanisms that monitor and regulate its composition, osmotic pressure, pH and temperature
(Ganong, 2005).

SOURCES OF WATER IN THE BODY

There are three major sources of water supply in the body:

1. Daily diet supplies from 750ml to 1000ml water (25-30%) since all foods (except a few
like sugar, common salt and vegetable oils) contain appreciable quantities.
2. Water produced in the body as a result of metabolic activity supplies from 10 to 15% of
the daily intake. This water comes from oxidation (Oxidation occurs when fruits and
vegetables are cut and exposed to oxygen) of nutrients. Thus, when one gram of
carbohydrate, fat and protein are oxidized in the body, 0.6, 1.07 and 0.41g water is
 produced. When one kilocalorie heat energy is liberated in the body frim oxidation of
foods, 100 – 140 ml water is produced.
3. Water taken as drinking water, beverages, fruit juices, Tea, coffee, milk, lassi etc. account
for 50% or more of the daily intake.

WATER BALANCE: WATER INPUTS AND OUTPUTS

Under usual conditions of moderate ambient temperature (18–20 1C) and with a
moderate activity level, body water remains relatively constant. This implies a precise regulation
of water balance: over a 24-h period, intake and loss of water must be equal. It has been estimated
that water balance is regulated within 0.2% of body weight over a 24-h period.

WATER INPUTS

Water inputs are composed of three major sources: the water we drink, the water we
eat and the water we produce. The water we drink is essentially composed of water and other
liquids with a high water content (85 to 490%). The water we eat comes from various foods with
a wide range of water content (40 to 480%). The water we produce results from the oxidation of
macronutrients (endogenous or metabolic water). It is normally assumed that the contribution of
food to total water intake is 20–30%, whereas 70–80% is provided by beverages. This relationship
is not fixed and depends on the type of beverages and on the choice of foods. The adequate total
water intakes for sedentary adults are on an average between 2 and 2.5 l per day (women and men,
respectively).

WATER OUTPUTS

The main routes of water loss from the body are kidneys, skin and the respiratory tract
and, at a very low level, the digestive system. Over a 24-h period, a sedentary adult produces 1–2
l of urine. Water is lost by evaporation through the skin; this is called insensible perspiration
because it is an invisible water loss and it represents about 450 ml of water per day in a temperate
environment. Water is also lost by evaporation through the respiratory tract (250–350 ml per day).
Finally, a sedentary adult loses about 200 ml of water a day through faeces. On an average, a
sedentary adult loses 2–3 l of water per day. These water losses through the skin and lungs depend
on the climate, air temperature and relative humidity.
REGULATION OF WATER BALANCE

The intake of water is partially determined by thirst. When water losses exceed water
intake, the osmotic pressure increases. By activation of hypothalamic osmoreceptors, an
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is released from the posterior pituitary gland. Both the increased
osmotic pressure and ADH elicit the feeling of thirst. Thus, ADH can act on the kidneys to increase
water reabsorption before thirst is elicited. Thirst is often blunted in elderly subjects who are at
risk of having an insufficient water intake in conditions of elevated temperature and humidity.

Excess water taken in the body is eliminated by the kidneys as urine. Drinking plenty is
harmless; rather it may be beneficial. Some types of kidney stones are less likely to form if urine
is kept dilute by drinking enough water.

Both deficit and excess water intakes are counterbalanced by subtle hormonal changes
(ADH, aldosterone and atrial natriuretic peptide) that contribute to buffer the deleterious effects of
these abnormal conditions. The final and precise regulation of water balance is dependent on thirst
and on ADH release, with its predominant role in water reabsorption in the kidneys. Therefore,
voluntary drinking of water is a key behavior for maintaining water balance. Consequently,
drinking water before being thirsty is a good habit for maintaining a good body hydration status.

RECOMMENDED DIETARY FLUID INTAKE

The amount of fluid your body needs each day depends on several factors, such as:

• gender
• age
• how active you are
• whether you’re pregnant or breastfeeding
• lifestyle

According to the Food and Nutrition Board 2004, values for adequate intake of water coming
from liquids are the following:
 0.7 l/day for infants 0–6 months’ old

0.6/l day for infants 7–12 months’ old

0.9 l/day for children 1–3 years’ old

1.2 l/day for children 4–8 years’ old

Male adolescents aged 9–13 years need 1.8 l

l/day

14–18 years need 2.6 l/day and

male adults need 3.0 l/day.

Female adolescents aged 9–13 years need 1.6

l/day

14–18 years need 1.8 l/day and female adults

need 2.2 l/ day

These adequate intakes include all fluids, but it’s preferable that the majority of intake is
from plain water (except for infants where fluid intake is met by breastmilk or infant formula).
Some people may need less fluid than this. For example, people:

• Who eat a lot of high-water content foods (such as fruits and vegetables).
• In cold environments.
 • Who are largely sedentary.

Other people might need more fluid than the amount listed and will need to increase their
fluid intake if they are:

• On a high-protein diet, to help the kidneys process the extra protein.

• On a high-fiber diet to help prevent constipation.
• Vomiting or have diarrhea, to replace the extra fluids lost.
• Physically active, to replace the extra fluids lost through sweat.
• Exposed to warm or hot conditions, to replace the extra fluids lost through sweat.

HOW TO GET ENOUGH FLUID IN YOUR DIET?

• If the idea of having to drink lots of cups of water a day doesn’t appeal, don’t worry –
fluids include fresh water and all other liquids (such as milk, coffee, tea, soup, juice and
even soft drinks).
• Fresh water is the best drink because it does not contain energy (kilojoules) and is best
for hydrating the body. Water from the tap is also mostly free and generally available
wherever you go.
• However, milk is about 90% water and is an important fluid, especially for children. Just
remember to choose full-fat milk for children under 2 years old and low-fat and reduced-
fat varieties for everyone else.
• Tea can also be an important source of fluid. Tea can help you meet your daily fluid
recommendations, and is a source of antioxidants and polyphenols, which appear to
protect against heart disease and cancer.

If you prefer to get some of your fluids from fruit, aim to eat whole pieces of fresh fruit
instead of having fruit juice – you’ll still get the delicious fruity juice (fluids) but you’ll also
benefit from the bonus fiber and nutrients while avoiding the extra sugar found in fruit juice.

TIPS FOR DRINKING MORE WATER

• Add a squeeze or slice of lemon or lime, or some strawberries or mint leaves to plain
water to add variety.
 • Keep a bottle or glass of water handy on your desk or in your bag.
• Drink some water with each meal and snack.
• Add ice cubes made from fresh fruit to a glass of water.

LIMIT MINERAL WATER INTAKE

Commercially bottled mineral water contains salt, which can lead to fluid retention and
swelling, and even increased blood pressure in susceptible people. Limit the amount of mineral
water or choose low-sodium varieties (less than 30 mg sodium per 100 ml). If you prefer bubbly
water, think about getting a home soda water maker so you can just use tap water and make it
fresh when needed.

FLUORIDE IN WATER

An additional benefit of drinking tap (reticulated or mains) water in Victoria is that, in

most areas, fluoride is added to the water. Bottled water does not usually have good levels of
fluoride. Fluoridation of tap water helps prevent dental decay and is a safe and effective way of
providing dental health benefits to everyone.

AVOID SUGARY AND ARTIFICIALLY SWEETENED DRINKS

The Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend all Australians to limit their intake of
drinks containing added sugar. This includes:

• sugar-sweetened soft drinks and cordials

• fruit drinks
• vitamin-style waters
• flavored mineral waters
• energy and sports drinks.

Having sugary drinks provides additional energy (kilojoules) to the diet, but no other
essential nutrients. There is strong evidence of the association between having sugary dinks and
excess weight gain in both children and adults, as well as reduced bone strength and tooth decay.
Artificially sweetened drinks add very little energy (kilojoules) to the diet and therefore do not
contribute directly to weight gain. However, artificially sweetened drinks still maintain the
‘habit’ of drinking sweet drinks. They may also lead to decreased bone density (as people may
drink less milk) and contribute to tooth decay due to their acidity.

DEHYDRATION

Dehydration occurs when the water content of the body is too low. This is easily fixed by
increasing fluid intake.

SYMPTOMS OF DEHYDRATION

Symptoms of dehydration include:

• thirst
• headaches
• lethargy
• mood changes and slow responses
• dry nasal passages
• dry or cracked lips
• dark-colored urine
• weakness
• tiredness
• confusion and hallucinations.

If dehydration is not corrected by fluid intake, eventually urination stops, the kidneys fail,
and the body can’t remove toxic waste products. In extreme cases, dehydration may result in
death.

CAUSES OF DEHYDRATION

There are several factors that can cause dehydration including:

• Not drinking enough water.

• Increased sweating due to hot weather, humidity, exercise or fever.
 • Insufficient signaling mechanisms in the elderly – sometimes, older adults do not feel
thirsty even though they may be dehydrated.
• Increased output of urine due to a hormone deficiency, diabetes, kidney
disease or medications.
• Diarrhea or vomiting.
• Recovering from burns.

Water intoxication

Drinking too much water can damage the body and cause hyponatraemia (water
intoxication), although it is pretty rare in the general population. Hyponatraemia occurs when
sodium in the blood, which is needed for muscle contraction and sending nerve impulses, drops to
a dangerously low level. If large amounts of plain water are consumed in a short period of time,
the kidneys cannot get rid of enough fluid through urine and the blood becomes diluted.

Hyponatraemia can lead to:

• headaches
• blurred vision
• cramps (and eventually convulsions)
• swelling of the brain
• coma and possibly death.

For water to reach toxic levels, many litres of water would have to be consumed in a
short period of time. Hyponatraemia tends to occur in people with particular diseases or mental
illnesses (for example, in some cases of schizophrenia) endurance athletes and in infants who
are fed infant formula that is too diluted.
 LECTURE: 04

CARBOHYDRATES
 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The proportion of
hydrogen and oxygen is same as in water. The word Carbo means carbon and hydrates means
water. Carbohydrates (also called carbs) are a type of macronutrient found in certain foods and
drinks. Sugars, starches and fiber are carbohydrates. The sweet taste in some of the vegetables and
fruits is due to the presence of starch or sugar. Carbohydrates are mainly found in plant foods.
They also occur in dairy products in the form of a milk sugar called lactose. Foods high in
carbohydrates include bread, pasta, beans, potatoes, rice, and cereals.

Carbohydrates, also known as saccharides or carbs, provide energy for the body. Each gram
of carbohydrates provides 4 calories. The body breaks carbohydrates down into glucose, which is
the primary energy source for the brain and muscles. Carbohydrates are one of three
macronutrients, which are nutrients that the body needs in larger amounts.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

The chemical structures of carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
Two basic compounds make up carbohydrates: Aldehydes, which are double-bonded carbon and
oxygen atoms, plus a hydrogen atom, and ketones, which are double-bonded carbon and oxygen
atoms, plus two additional carbon atoms. Carbohydrates can combine to form polymers, or chains,
to create different types of carbohydrates. Carbohydrate can be monosaccharides, disaccharides,
or polysaccharides.
SIMPLE CARBOHYRATES

Simple carbohydrates are sugars. They consist of just one or two molecules. They
provide a rapid source of energy, but the person soon feels hungry again. Examples include
white bread, sugars, and candies.

1. Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are single units of sugar. Examples include:
• glucose, the body’s main source of energy
• galactose, which is most readily available in milk and dairy products
• fructose, which mostly occurs in fruits and vegetables
2. Disaccharides
Disaccharides are two sugar molecules joined together. Examples include:
• lactose, found in milk, which is made up of glucose and galactose
• sucrose, or table sugar, which is made up of glucose and fructose

COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES

Complex carbohydrates consist of long chains of sugar molecules. This includes whole
grains and foods that contain fiber. Examples include fruits, vegetables, beans, and whole grain
pasta. Complex carbohydrates make a person feel full for longer and have more health benefits
than simple carbohydrates, as they contain more vitamins, minerals, and fiber.

1. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are chains of many sugars. They can consist of hundreds or thousands of
monosaccharides. Polysaccharides act as food stores for plants and animals. Examples
include:
• glycogen, which stores energy in the liver and muscles
• starches, which are abundant in potatoes, rice, and wheat
• cellulose, one of the main structural components of plants
WHAT ARE STARCHES?

Starches are complex carbohydrates. Many starches (but not all) fit this category. They
provide vitamins and minerals. It takes your body longer to break down complex carbohydrates.
As a result, blood sugar levels remain stable and fullness lasts longer.

You can find starchy carbohydrates in:

• Beans and legumes, such as black beans, chickpeas, lentils and kidney beans.
• Fruits, such as apples, berries and melons.
• Whole-grain products, such as brown rice, oatmeal and whole-wheat bread and pasta.
• Vegetables, such as corn, lima beans, peas and potatoes.

WHAT IS FIBER?

Plant-based foods, such as fruits, vegetables and whole-grain products, contain fiber.
Animal products, including dairy products and meats, have no fiber. Fiber is a complex healthy
carbohydrate. Your body can’t break down fiber. Most of it passes through the intestines,
stimulating and aiding digestion. Fiber also regulates blood sugar, lowers cholesterol and keeps
you feeling full longer. Experts recommend that adults consume 25 to 30 grams of fiber every day.
Most of us get half that amount.

High-fiber foods include:

• Beans and legumes, such as black beans, chickpeas, lentils and pinto beans.
• Fruits, especially those with edible skins (apples and peaches) or seeds (berries).
• Nuts and seeds, including almonds, peanuts, walnuts, pumpkin seeds and sunflower seeds.
• Whole-grain products, such as brown rice, oatmeal, quinoa, cereal and whole-wheat
bread and pasta.
• Vegetables, such as corn, lima beans, broccoli, sprouts (the germinated seed of a
vegetable) and squash.
WHAT ARE SUGARS?

Sugars are a type of simple carbohydrate. Your body breaks down simple carbohydrates
quickly. As a result, blood sugar levels rise — and then drop — quickly. After consuming sugary
foods, you may notice a burst of energy, followed by feeling tired. There are two types of sugars:

• Naturally occurring sugars, such as those found in milk and fresh fruits.
• Added sugars, such as those found in sweets, canned fruit, juice and soda. Sweets include
things like bakery, candy bars and ice cream.

Your body processes all sugars the same. It can’t tell the difference between natural and added
sugars. But along with energy, foods with natural sugars provide vitamins, minerals and sometimes
fiber. Sugar goes by many names. On food labels, you may see sugar listed as:

• Agave nectar.
• Cane syrup or corn syrup.
• Dextrose, fructose or sucrose.
• Honey.
• Molasses.
• Sugar.

Limiting sugar is essential to keep blood sugar levels in the healthy range. Plus, sugary foods
and drinks are often higher in calories that can contribute to weight gain. Limit refined foods and
foods that contain added sugar, such as white flour, desserts, candy, juices, fruit drinks, soda pop
and sweetened beverages. The American Heart Association recommends:

• No more than 25g (6 teaspoons or 100 calories) per day of added sugar for most women.
• No more than 36g (9 teaspoons or 150 calories) per day of added sugar for most men.
CARBOHYDRATE RICH FOODS

1. Sugars and honey are 100% carbohydrate

2. Cereals: wheat, rice, corn, rye, maize, barley are 75 – 90% carbohydrate
3. Fruits and vegetables: bananas, grapes, peas, potatoes, green leafy vegetables are 5
- 20% carbohydrates.
4. Milk has about 5 – 7% carbohydrates.

HIGH-CARB FOODS TO LIMIT OR AVOID

For a healthful diet, people should limit or avoid refined carbohydrates with little or no
nutritional content. High-carb foods that people should try to avoid include:

• Candy
• sugary breakfast cereals
• white pasta
• white bread
• white rice
• cookies, muffins, and other baked products
• flavored and sweetened yogurt
• potato chips
• sugary juices
• sodas
• foods and drinks with a high fructose corn syrup content
• foods and drinks high in refined sugar
• processed foods
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES WITHIN THE BODY

1. It provides heat and energy.

2. It spares proteins. If carbohydrates are not supplied in sufficient amount in the food,
proteins will be used to provide heat and energy. But proteins are an expensive source of
food energy so they should be spared for their important function to build and repair body
tissues.
3. Carbohydrate has an important effect in the metabolism of fat. When the body attempts to
burn fat in the absence of carbohydrates, the fat burns incompletely and leaves behind a
poisonous residue which brings on a condition known as acidosis (a condition in which
there is too much acid in the body fluids).
4. Carbohydrates (Cellulose) provide bulk and roughage for ease in elimination.
5. Carbohydrate in excess of body need is stored in the liver as glycogen. First the Blood
sugar is kept constant, then if the sugar level in the blood is maintained at fairly constant
level (70-100 mg. per 100 c.c.), it is used for producing energy, the excess is stored in the
liver as glycogen.
6. Carbohydrate in excess of what is burnt for energy and what is stored in the liver as
glycogen is stored as body fat.

RECOMMENDED ALLOWANCE

The smallest amount of carbs you should get each day is 130 grams, the recommended
dietary allowance established by the Institute of Medicine. This amount is based on the fact that
carbs are the body's primary energy source. In other words, 130 grams keeps you alive but isn't
necessarily ideal for peak health or an active lifestyle. In addition to lacking glucose for your daily
activity, a limit of 130 grams means you're probably not eating enough food to get all the nutrients
you need from healthy complex carbohydrates.

The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range, or AMDR, defines the normal carb
intake as determined by the Institute of Medicine. It recommends getting 45 to 65 percent of your
total daily calories from energy-providing carbohydrates.

So if you eat 2,000 calories per day, aim for 225 to 325 grams of carbohydrates each day.
LECTURE: 05

FATS & OILS

 FATS AND OILS
Fats are triglycerides that are solid or semi-solid at room temperature, oil are also
triglycerides that are liquid or clear liquid at room temperature, however their chemistry is
determined by the degree of solubility. Fat and oil makes the major three classes of food after
carbohydrate and proteins. They are good source of nutrient and could supply about (9 k calories)
of energy in a metabolic pool.

Oils and fats are important nutrients in a healthy diet. Structurally, they are esters of
glycerol with three fatty acids. As such, they are scientifically called triacylglycerol’s but are
commonly referred to in the food industry as triglycerides. Although the terms 'oils' and 'fats' are
often used interchangeably, they are usually used to distinguish triglycerides in the liquid state at
ambient temperatures (oils) from those in the solid state (fats).

They are commonly of vegetable origin (e.g. palm oil, rapeseed oil, soyabean oil, olive oil,
cocoa butter, etc) or animal origin (e.g. pork lard, beef tallow, fish oils) as well as from animal
milk fats. The fatty acids found in most commonly consumed oils and fats are composed of long
carbon and hydrogen chains, typically containing from 8 to 20 carbon atoms, mainly with even
numbers of carbon atoms, although animal fats also contain significant levels of odd-chain fatty
acids

TYPES OF FATS

Fats are either saturated or unsaturated, and most foods with fat have both types.

1. SATURATED FATS

Saturated fat is solid at room temperature, which is why it is also known as "solid fat."
In saturated fats, the carbon atoms are totally covered, or "saturated," with hydrogen atoms. This
makes them solid at room temperature. It is mostly in animal foods, such as milk, cheese, and meat.
Poultry and fish have less saturated fat than red meat. Saturated fat is also in tropical oils, such as
coconut oil, palm oil, and cocoa butter. You'll find tropical oils in many snacks and in non-dairy
foods, such as coffee creamers and whipped toppings. Foods made with butter, margarine, or
shortening (cakes, cookies, and other desserts) have a lot of saturated fat. Saturated fat can raise
your cholesterol.
 A diet rich in saturated fats can drive up your total cholesterol, which can lead to blockages
in arteries in your heart and other parts of your body. In general, the American Heart Association
recommends that you get no more than 5% or 6% of your daily calories from saturated fat. So if you
eat 2,000 calories a day, limit saturated fat to 120 of those calories or 13 grams of saturated fat per day.

2. UNSATURATED FATS

Unsaturated fat is liquid at room temperature. It is mostly in oils from plants. If you eat
unsaturated fat instead of saturated fat, it may help improve your cholesterol levels. Try to eat
mostly unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats come mainly from vegetables, nuts, and fish. They're liquid
at room temperature. Because these fats are good for your heart and the rest of your body, experts
recommend that you eat them in place of saturated. Unsaturated fats come in two forms:

a. MONOUNSATURATED FATS
Monounsaturated fats have one unsaturated chemical bond. Oils that have these fats
are liquid at room temperature, but they turn solid when you refrigerate them. This fat is in
avocado, nuts, and vegetable oils, such as canola, olive, and peanut oils. Eating foods that
are high in monounsaturated fats may help lower your cholesterol. But eating more
unsaturated fat without cutting back on saturated fat may not lower your cholesterol.
b. POLYUNSATURATED FATS
Polyunsaturated fats have many unsaturated chemical bonds. Polyunsaturated oils
stay liquid at room temperature and in the refrigerator. This type of fat is mainly in vegetable
oils such as safflower, sunflower, sesame, soybean, and corn oils. Polyunsaturated fat is
also the main fat found in seafood.

The two types of polyunsaturated fats are omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.

I. Omega-3 fatty acids are found in foods from plants like soybean oil, canola oil,
walnuts, and flaxseed. They are also found in fatty fish and shellfish. Studies show that
eating fish high in omega-3 fatty acids lowers your risk of cardiovascular disease. Yet
taking omega-3 supplements may not have the same benefit. Researchers are also looking
at whether omega-3s might help prevent or slow Alzheimer's disease and other forms
of dementia. You need to get these essential fats from food because your body doesn't make
 them. To get enough omega-3 fatty acids in your diet, eat fish like salmon, mackerel, and
herring at least two times a week.
II. Omega-6 fatty acids are found in foods like leafy green vegetables, seeds, nuts, and
vegetable oils. Doctors used to think that omega-6 fatty acids contributed to heart disease.
Now, evidence suggests that these fatty acids are actually good for your heart. The
American Heart Association recommends that you get 5% to 10% of your daily calories
from omega-6 fatty acids. Most people already get this amount in their diet.

3. TRANS FAT
This is a fat that has been changed by a process called hydrogenation. This process
increases the shelf life of fat and makes the fat harder at room temperature. Some animal-based
foods have small amounts of naturally occurring trans fats. Most trans-fat comes from partially
hydrogenated oils (PHOs). PHOs cannot be used in food sold in Canada. Trans fat can raise your
cholesterol, so eat as little trans-fat as possible.
Small amounts of trans fats happen naturally in animal-based foods like meat and milk. But
most trans fats are made in an industrial process. Companies add hydrogen to liquid vegetable oils to
make them solid at room temperature, so foods last longer. It also gives them a satisfying taste and
texture. You may find trans fats in these foods:

• French fries and other fried foods

• Cakes, pies, biscuits, cookies, crackers, doughnuts, and other baked goods
• Stick or tub margarines
• Microwave popcorn
• Frozen pizza

Trans fat might taste good, but it's not good for you. This unhealthy type of fat raises
your cholesterol level, making you more likely to have heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes. The
American Heart Association recommends that you get no more than 1% of your daily calories from
trans fats. Some places have banned trans fats altogether.
SOURCES OF FATS AND OILS

Fats and oil may be of vegetable, animal and marine origin. Vegetable fats include the solid
fat cocoa batter and the oils such as corn oil, sun flower oil, soybean oil, cotton soil, peanut oil,
olive oil, canola oil, pumpkin seed oil, safflower oil, grape seed oil, sesame oil bran oil, argan oil,
palm oil, linseed oil, coconut oil. Typically, common vegetable oils including soybean. Sunflower,
safflower, mustard, olive, sesame is low in saturated fats. While palm oil, palm kernel oil, coconut
oil, tallow and butter fat are high in saturated fats. Animal fats include lard tallow and butterfat
while fish oils include cod liver oil, whale oil and salmon oil.

ANIMAL FATS

Butterfat: This is usually obtained from cow’s milk. It is a mixture of butterfat, water and salt.
Butter list is an important source of vitamin A and to be lesser extent of vitamin D. It comprised
of 29-32% monounsaturated, 2-4% polyunsaturated and (12-32%) saturated fatty acids [4]. Its
distinct flavor and yellow color are important factors in its popularity.

Lard: Lard is a fat rendered from the fatty tissues of pig. Lard is composed of 46.2% saturated
fatty acids. 45.2% monounsaturated fatty acids. 11.0% polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Tallow: Edible tallow is obtained primarily from beef cattle. At room temperature, it is harder and
firmer than lard. Tallow comprises of 54.9% saturated fully acids. 40.9% unsaturated fatty acids.
4.2% polyunsaturated fatty acids.

FISH OILS

Fish oils can be obtained li’on1 the bodies or livers of several fish including cod fish.
Whale, salmon. etc. Fatty acid composition varies not only from species to species, hut often to an
even greater extent from one fish to another of the same species.

Cod liver oil: This is derived from liver of cod fish. As with most fish oils, it has high levels of
the omega-3 fatty acids. Cod liver oil also contains vitamin A and vitamin D.
VEGETABLE OILS

Soybean oil: This is obtained from the seed of the soybean plant. It is the oil produced in largest
quantity. It is the dominant edible oil in the United States. It is composed of 61% polyunsaturated
fatty acids, 25% monounsaturated fatty acid and 15% saturated linty acids [5]. The essential fatty
acids linolenic and α-linolenic acids account for 89 and 11% of the total essential fatty acids from
this source. About 48% of soybean oil is used in margarine, shortening, cooking and salad oils,
mayonnaise.

Palm oil: This is produced from the fruits of palm trees. lt is the most efficient oil-producing plant.
It now takes second place in the list of oils produced worldwide. Palm oil has been balanced fatty
acid composition in which the level of saturated fatty acids is almost equal to that of the unsaturated
fatty acids. It is used in cooking/frying oils, margarines and spray dried products

Canola oil: This is edible oil obtained from it relatively new variety of rape seed plant. lt occupies
the third position in order of production of oils and fats. Canola oil has a low level of saturated
fatty acids (about 6%). Making it the second most important source of vegetable oil. lt is used
majorly shortening (Shortening is any fat that is a solid at room temperature and used to make
crumbly pastry and other food products.), margarine cooking and frying.

FUNCTIONS OF FAT

1. Fat serves as a concentrated source of energy. One g of fat gives 9 calories of heat and
energy. It supplies two times more calories than carbohydrates.
2. Fat serves as a medium through which the fat soluble vitamins, vitamin A, D, E and K are
made available to the body.
3. There are certain fatty acids which are essential to growth and maintenance of body
functions.
4. Fat provides satiety (satisfying value). It stays in the stomach for a longer time, thus giving
satisfaction for longer periods of time.
5. Fat gives flavor to the food.
6. Fat helps in protein metabolism.
7. Fat helps in the elimination of waste products from the intestinal tract.
FAT RICH FOODS

There are visible and invisible fats.

• Visible fats are those which are seen from the outside as fat e.g. ghee, butter etc.
• Invisible fats are the disguised sources of fat. They are found inside some other food
which do not appear as fat e.g. nuts, seeds, egg yolk, liver etc.

RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE

Keep total fat intake between 20% and 35% of calories, with most fats coming from
unsaturated fat (fish, nuts and vegetable oils). Cutting back on fat can help you consume fewer
calories. Replace saturated and trans fat with unsaturated (polyunsaturated and monounsaturated)
fatty acids. Use liquid vegetable oils instead of solid shortening or lard. Replace solid with liquid.

• Consume a diet with less than 10% calories from saturated fat.
• Limit cholesterol intake to fewer than 300 mg/day.
• Consume a diet low in trans fats. Use soft tub margarine instead of stick margarine.
• Consume at least 8 ounces per week of a variety of seafood. Eat seafood baked or broiled
rather than fried.
• When selecting and preparing meat, poultry, dry beans, and milk and milk products, choose
lean, low-fat or fat-free.
• Eat more vegetables, fruits and whole-grain products instead of cakes, cookies and French
fries.
LECTURE: 06

PROTEINS
 PROTEINS

Proteins are complex organic compounds. The basic structure of protein is a chain of amino
acids. They provide energy for the body. The word protein comes from a Greek word meaning “of
primary importance”. Protein is an important component of every cell in the body. Along with fat
and carbohydrates, protein is a “macronutrient,” meaning that the body needs relatively large
amounts of it. But unlike fat and carbohydrates, the body does not store protein, and therefore has
no reservoir to draw on when it needs a new supply.

Protein is found throughout the body—in muscle, bone, skin, hair, and virtually every other
body part or tissue. It makes up the enzymes that power many chemical reactions and the
hemoglobin that carries oxygen in your blood. At least 10,000 different proteins make you what
you are and keep you that way.

Proteins, like carbohydrates and fats, contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but they also
contain nitrogen, a component of the amino chemical group (NH 2), and in some cases sulfur.
Proteins serve as the basic structural material of the body as well as being
biochemical catalysts and regulators of genes. Aside from water, protein constitutes the major part
of muscles, bones, internal organs, and the skin, nails, and hair. Protein is also an important part
of cell membranes and blood (e.g., hemoglobin). Enzymes, which catalyze chemical reactions in
the body, are also protein, as are antibodies, collagen in connective tissue, and many hormones,
such as insulin.

AMINO ACIDS

Amino acids are compounds that combine to make proteins. When a person eats a food that
contains protein, their digestive system breaks the protein down into amino acids. The body then
combines the amino acids in various ways to carry out bodily functions. The body needs 20
different amino acids to maintain good health and normal functioning. People must obtain nine of
these amino acids, called the essential amino acids (those that cannot be manufactured by our
body and are essential for growth) through food. Good dietary sources include meat, eggs and
dairy. A healthy body can manufacture the other 11 amino acids, so these do not usually need to
enter the body through the diet. They are therefore called non-essential amino acids (if not
supplied by food our body can make them from the raw material supplied by the food). The word
non-essential refers to the fact that it is not essential to be present in the food in a ready form for
use.

Amino acids build muscles, cause chemical reactions in the body, transport nutrients,
prevent illness, and carry out other functions. Amino acid deficiency can result in decreased
immunity, digestive problems, depression, fertility issues, lower mental alertness, slowed growth
in children, and many other health issues.

Proteins may be either complete or incomplete. Complete proteins are proteins that
contain all essential amino acids. Animal-based foods; for example, meat, poultry, fish, milk, eggs,
and cheese are considered complete protein sources. Incomplete proteins are proteins that do not
contain all essential amino acids. Most plant foods are incomplete proteins, including beans, nuts,
and grains. People can combine incomplete protein sources to create a meal that provides all
essential amino acids. Examples include rice and beans, or peanut butter on whole wheat bread.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS

Proteins can be classified as:

1. Simple proteins. On hydrolysis they yield only the amino acids and occasional small
carbohydrate compounds. Examples are: albumins, globulins, glutelins, albuminoids,
histones and protamines.

2. Conjugated proteins. These are simple proteins combined with some non-protein material
in the body. Examples are: nucleoproteins, glycoproteins, phosphoproteins, haemoglobins
and lecithoproteins.

3. Derived proteins. These are proteins derived from simple or conjugated proteins by
physical or chemical means. Examples are: denatured proteins and peptides.
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN IN THE BODY

1. The main function of protein is to build new body tissues and repair the worn out tissues.

2. Proteins can also supply heat and energy. One gram of protein gives 4 calories of heat.

3. Proteins play a large role in the resistance of the body to diseases. They are important for

building antibodies that help suppress off infections.

4. Most of the vital body compounds are composed of proteins e.g.

a. the enzymes which are important for the chemical reaction of food

b. some of the hormones, the chemical regulator of body processes and the hemoglobin

of the blood is a conjugated protein.

c. The genes which are the controller of heredity are also a particular kind of protein.

Sweat and urine are the only protein free body fluids.

5. Proteins have regulatory functions. They influence the osmotic pressure (the pressure

which is needed to transfuse one liquid to another through a thin membrane). They maintain

the water balance of the body.

6. Proteins maintain the acid-base balance of blood or tissues.

7. Protein is important for growth and development, especially during

childhood, adolescence, and pregnancy.

PROTEIN RICH FOODS

According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015–2020 Trusted Source, a healthful
eating pattern includes a variety of foods containing protein. Both animal and plant foods can be
excellent sources of protein. The guidelines classify the following foods as protein foods:

• seafood

• lean meats and poultry

 • eggs

• legumes, which include beans and peas

• nuts

• seeds

• soy products

Dairy products, such as milk, cheese, and yogurt, also contain protein. Whole grains and
vegetables contain some protein, but generally less than other sources. Animal products tend to
contain higher amounts of protein than plant foods, so people following a vegetarian diet or a
vegan diet may need to plan their meals to ensure they meet their protein needs.

RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE

Few nutrients are as important as protein. Not getting enough of it will affect your health
and body composition. However, opinions regarding how much protein you need vary. Most
official nutritional organizations recommend a fairly modest protein intake. The DRI (Dietary
Reference Intake) is 0.36 grams of protein per pound (0.8 grams per kg) of body weight. This
amounts to: It’s recommended that 10–35% of your daily calories come from protein.

• 56 grams per day for the average sedentary man

• 46 grams per day for the average sedentary woman

This may be enough to prevent deficiency, but the amount you need depends on many factors,
including your activity level, age, muscle mass, physique goals, and overall health.
LECTURE: 07

VITAMINS
 VITAMINS

The discovery of the vitamins begun in the year 1912 by a Polish American biochemist
Casimir Funk. Based on his research and discoveries on vitamins, their sources, functions and
deficiency disorders, he is considered as the father of vitamins and vitamin therapy.

The vitamins are natural and essential nutrients, required in small quantities and play a
major role in growth and development, repair and healing wounds, maintaining healthy bones and
tissues, for the proper functioning of an immune system, and other biological functions. These
essential organic compounds have diverse biochemical functions. There are thirteen different types
of vitamins and all are required for the metabolic processes

Vitamins are defined as organic compounds, other than any of the amino acids, fatty
acids and carbohydrates that are necessary in small amounts in the diet of higher animals
for growth, maintenances of health and reproduction. Vitamins cannot be synthesized by our
body. Therefore, we need to get them from the food we consume or in extreme cases supplements
to keep ourselves healthy.

Vitamins also assist in the formation of hormones, blood vessels, nervous system chemicals
and genetic materials. They generally act as catalysts, combining with proteins to create
metabolically active enzymes that are essential for life reactions. Without enzymes, many of the
reactions essential to life would slow down or cease.

All animals need vitamins, but not every vitamin that has been discovered is needed in the
diet of each animal species. E.g. humans and guinea pigs need Vitamin C, but dogs, rats, do not
need vitamin C in their diet because they can synthesis this vitamin in their bodies.

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS

Vitamins are classified according to their ability to be absorbed in fat or water.

1. Fat Soluble Vitamins

The fat-soluble vitamins, A, D, E, and K, are stored in the body for long periods of
time and generally pose a greater risk for toxicity than water-soluble vitamins when
consumed in excess. Eating a normal, well-balanced diet will not lead to toxicity in
 otherwise healthy individuals. However, taking vitamin supplements that contain mega
doses of vitamins A, D, E and K may lead to toxicity.
While diseases caused by a lack of fat-soluble vitamins are rare in the United States,
symptoms of mild deficiency can develop without adequate amounts of vitamins in the
diet. Additionally, some health problems, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD),
chronic pancreatitis, and cystic fibrosis, may decrease the absorption of fat, and in turn,
decrease the absorption of vitamins A, D, E and K.

Characteristics of Fat-soluble vitamins

• Metabolize along with fats

• Resistance to heat
• Stored in the liver and adipose tissue
• Slow to develop deficiency syndrome
• Present only in certain foods, mostly in animal products, oily foods, yellow and green
vegetable
• Excess can be toxic to the body

2. Water Soluble Vitamins

Water-soluble vitamins are those that are dissolved in water and readily absorbed
into tissues for immediate use. Because they are not stored in the body, they need to be
replenished regularly in our diet.

Any excess of water-soluble vitamins is quickly excreted in urine and will rarely
accumulate to toxic levels. With that being said, certain types of water-soluble vitamin,
such as vitamin C, can cause diarrhea if taken in excess. The water-soluble vitamins
include the B-complex group and vitamin C.
Characteristics of water soluble vitamins

• They are widely distributed in natural foods

• B12 is found only in animal products
• Soluble in water and absorbed in the intestine
• Excess will be excreted, thus not toxic.
• Most functions of these vitamins are as co-enzymes
• They are important for energy production
 FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN A (RETINOL)

Vitamin A, also called retinol, has many functions in the

body. In addition to helping the eyes adjust to light changes, vitamin
A plays an important role in bone growth, tooth development,
reproduction, cell division, gene expression, and regulation of the
immune system. The skin, eyes, and mucous membranes of the
mouth, nose, throat and lungs depend on vitamin A to remain moist.
Vitamin A is also an important antioxidant that may play a role in the
prevention of certain cancers.

FOOD SOURCES FOR VITAMIN A

Eating a wide variety of foods is the best way to ensure that the body gets enough vitamin
A. The retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid forms of vitamin A are supplied primarily by foods of
animal origin such as dairy products, fish and liver. Some foods of plant origin contain the
antioxidant, beta-carotene, which the body converts to vitamin A. Beta-carotene, comes from fruits
and vegetables, especially those that are orange or dark green in color. Vitamin A sources also
include carrots, pumpkin, winter squash, dark green leafy vegetables and apricots, all of which are
rich in beta-carotene.

HOW MUCH VITAMIN A DO WE NEED?

The recommendation for vitamin A intake is expressed as micrograms (mcg) of retinol

activity equivalents (RAE). Retinol activity equivalents account for the fact that the body converts
only a portion of beta-carotene to retinol. One RAE equals 1 mcg of retinol or 12 mcg of beta-
carotene (Table 1). The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for vitamin A is 900 mcg/ day
for adult males and 700 mcg/day for adult females.
 Compared to vitamin A containing foods, it takes twice the amount of carotene rich foods
to meet the body’s vitamin A requirement, so one may need to increase consumption of carotene
containing plant foods to meet the RDA for vitamin A. Studies indicate that vitamin A requirement
may be increased due to hyperthyroidism, fever, infection, cold, and exposure to excessive
amounts of sunlight. Those who consume excess alcohol or have renal disease should also increase
intake of vitamin A

VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY

Vitamin A deficiency in the United States is rare, but the disease that results is known as
xerophthalmia (abnormal dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea of the eye) which can lead to
blindness if untreated. It most commonly occurs in developing nations usually due to malnutrition.
Since vitamin A is stored in the liver, it may take up to 2 years for signs of deficiency to appear.
Night blindness and very dry, rough skin may indicate a lack of vitamin A.

Other signs of possible vitamin A deficiency include decreased resistance to infections,

faulty tooth development, and slower bone growth. Vitamin A deficiency is also a known risk
factor for severe measles. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Vitamin A
supplementation can significantly reduce mortality rates for children with measles who live in
areas with a high prevalence of Vitamin A deficiency. The effectiveness of vitamin A
supplementation to treat measles in countries, such as the United States, where vitamin A intakes
are generally adequate, is uncertain.

TOO MUCH VITAMIN A

In the United States, toxic or excess levels of vitamin A are more of a concern than
deficiencies. The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults is 3,000 mcg RAE (Table 2). It
would be difficult to reach this level consuming food alone, but some multivitamin supplements
contain high doses of vitamin A. Retinol is the form of vitamin A that causes the greatest concern
for toxicity. If you take a multivitamin, check the label to be sure the majority of vitamin A
provided is in the form of beta-carotene, which appears to be safe.
 Some medications used to treat acne, psoriasis (a skin disease that causes red, itchy scaly
patches, most commonly on the knees, elbows, trunk and scalp) and other skin conditions
contain compounds that mimic retinol in the body. Much like excessive intake of dietary retinol,
these medications have been shown to negatively impact bone health and result in delayed growth
in children and teens. Symptoms of vitamin A toxicity include dry, itchy skin, headache, nausea,
and loss of appetite. Signs of severe overuse over a short period of time include dizziness, blurred
vision and slowed growth. Vitamin A toxicity can also cause severe birth defects and may increase
the risk for bone loss and hip fractures.

VITAMIN D (CALCIFEROL)

Vitamin D plays a critical role in the body’s use of calcium and

phosphorous. It works by increasing the amount of calcium absorbed from the
small intestine, helping to form and maintain bones. Vitamin D benefits the
body by playing a role in immunity and controlling cell growth and may
protect against osteoporosis, high blood pressure, cancer, and other diseases.
Children especially need adequate amounts of vitamin D to develop strong
bones and healthy teeth.

FOOD SOURCES FOR VITAMIN D

The primary food sources of vitamin D are milk and other dairy products fortified with
vitamin D. Vitamin D is also found in oily fish (e.g., herring, salmon and sardines) as well as in
cod liver oil. In addition to the vitamin D provided by food, we obtain vitamin D through our skin
which produces vitamin D in response to sunlight.

HOW MUCH VITAMIN D DO WE NEED?

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for vitamin D appears as micrograms (mcg)
of cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) (Table 1). From 12 months to age fifty, the RDA is set at 15 mcg.
Twenty mcg of cholecalciferol equals 800 International Units (IU), which is the recommendation
for maintenance of healthy bone for adults over fifty. Table 1 lists additional recommendations for
various life stages. Exposure to ultraviolet light is necessary for the body to produce the active
form of vitamin D. Ten to fifteen minutes of sunlight without sunscreen on the hands, arms and
face, twice a week is sufficient to receive enough vitamin D. This can easily be obtained in the
time spent riding a bike to work or taking a short walk with arms and legs exposed. In order to
reduce the risk for skin cancer one should apply sunscreen with an SPF of 15 or more, if time in
the sun exceeds 10 to 15 minutes.

VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY

Symptoms of vitamin D deficiency in growing children include rickets (long, soft bowed
legs) and flattening of the back of the skull. Vitamin D deficiency in adults may result in
osteomalacia (muscle and bone weakness), and osteoporosis (loss of bone mass). Vitamin D
deficiency has been associated with increased risk of common cancers, autoimmune diseases,
hypertension, and infectious disease. Research shows that vitamin D insufficiency affects almost
50% of the population worldwide; an estimated 1 billion people. The rising rate of deficiency has
been linked to a reduction in outdoor activity and an increase in the use of sunscreen among
children and adults. In addition, those who live in inner cities, wear clothing that covers most of
the skin, or live in northern climates where little sun is seen in the winter are also prone to vitamin
D deficiency.

Since most foods have very low vitamin D levels (unless they are enriched) a deficiency
may be more likely to develop without adequate exposure to sunlight. Adding fortified foods to
the diet such as milk, and for adults including a supplement, are effective at ensuring adequate
vitamin D intake and preventing low vitamin D levels. In the absence of adequate sun exposure,
at least 800 to 1,000 IU of vitamin D3 may be needed to reach the circulating level required to
maximize vitamin D’s benefits.

WHO IS AT RISK

These populations may require extra vitamin D in the form of supplements or fortified foods:

Exclusively breast-fed infants: Human milk only provides 25 IU of vitamin D per liter. All
breast-fed and partially breastfed infants should be given a vitamin D supplement of 400 IU/day.

Dark Skin: Those with dark pigmented skin synthesize less vitamin D upon exposure to sunlight
compared to those with light pigmented skin.

Elderly: This population has a reduced ability to synthesize vitamin D upon exposure to sunlight,
and is also more likely to stay indoors and wear sunscreen which blocks vitamin D synthesis.
Covered and protected skin: Those that cover all of their skin with clothing while outside, and
those that wear sunscreen with an SPF factor of 8, block most of the synthesis of vitamin D from
sunlight.

Disease: Fat malabsorption syndromes, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and obesity are all
known to result in a decreased ability to absorb and/or use vitamin D in fat stores.

TOO MUCH VITAMIN D

The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for vitamin D is set at 100 mcg (4000 IUs) for
people 9 years of age and older (Table 2). High doses of vitamin D supplements coupled with large
amounts of fortified foods may cause accumulations in the liver and produce signs of poisoning.
Signs of vitamin D toxicity include excess calcium in the blood, slowed mental and physical
growth, decreased appetite, nausea and vomiting. It is especially important that infants and young
children do not consume excess amounts of vitamin D regularly, due to their small body size.

VITAMIN E (TOCOPHEROL)

Vitamin E benefits the body by acting as an

antioxidant, and protecting vitamins A and C, red blood
cells, and essential fatty acids from destruction. Research
from decades ago suggested that taking antioxidant
supplements, vitamin E in particular, might help prevent
heart disease and cancer. However, newer findings indicate
that people who take antioxidant and vitamin E
supplements are not better protected against heart disease
and cancer than non-supplement users.

Many studies show a link between regularly eating an antioxidant rich diet full of fruits
and vegetables, and a lower risk for heart disease, cancer, Alzheimer’s Disease, and several other
diseases. Essentially, research indicates that to receive the full benefits of antioxidants and
phytonutrients in the diet, one should consume these compounds in the form of fruits, vegetables,
nuts, and seeds, not as supplements.
FOOD SOURCES FOR VITAMIN E

About 60 percent of vitamin E in the diet comes from vegetable oil (soybean, corn,
cottonseed, and safflower). This also includes products made with vegetable oil (margarine and
salad dressing). Vitamin E sources also include fruits and vegetables, grains, nuts (almonds and
hazelnuts), seeds (sunflower) and fortified cereals

HOW MUCH VITAMIN E DO WE NEED?

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for vitamin E is based on the most active
and usable form called alpha-tocopherol (Table 1). Food and supplement labels list alpha-
tocopherol as the unit international units (IU) or micrograms (mcg), not in milligrams (mg). One
microgram of alpha-tocopherol equals to 1.5 International units (IU). RDA guidelines state that
males and females over the age of 14 should receive 15 mcg (22.5 IUs) of alpha-tocopherol per
day. Consuming vitamin E in excess of the RDA does not result in any added benefits

VITAMIN E DEFICIENCY

Vitamin E deficiency is rare. Cases of vitamin E deficiency usually only occur in premature
infants and in those unable to absorb fats. Since vegetable oils are good sources of vitamin E,
people who excessively reduce their total dietary fat may not get enough vitamin E.

TOO MUCH VITAMIN E

The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for vitamin E. Vitamin E obtained from food
usually does not pose a risk for toxicity. Supplemental vitamin E is not recommended due to lack
of evidence supporting any added health benefits. Mega doses of supplemental vitamin E may
pose a hazard to people taking blood-thinning medications such as Coumadin (also known as
warfarin) and those on statin drugs.
VITAMIN K (PHYLLOQUINONE)

Vitamin K is naturally produced by the bacteria in the intestines,

and plays an essential role in normal blood clotting, promoting bone
health, and helping to produce proteins for blood, bones, and kidneys.
Unlike many other vitamins, vitamin K is not typically used as a dietary
supplement.

Vitamin K is actually a group of compounds. The most important of

these compounds appears to be vitamin K1 and vitamin K2. Vitamin K1 is
obtained from leafy greens and some other vegetables. Vitamin K2 is a group of compounds largely
obtained from meats, cheeses, and eggs, and synthesized by bacteria.

FOOD SOURCES FOR VITAMIN K

Good food sources of vitamin K are green, leafy-vegetables such as turnip spinach,
cauliflower, cabbage and broccoli, and certain vegetables oils including soybean oil, cottonseed
oil, canola oil and olive oil. Animal foods, in general, contain limited amounts of vitamin K.

HOW MUCH VITAMIN K DO WE NEED?

Experts do not have enough evidence to recommend a specific intake of vitamin K suitable
to meet the needs of 97-98% of healthy individuals. Instead, they recommend an adequate intake
(AI)Trusted Source, an amount assumed to provide nutritional adequacy, as follows:

VITAMIN K DEFICIENCY

Without sufficient amounts of vitamin K, hemorrhaging can occur. Vitamin K deficiency

may appear in infants or in people who take anticoagulants, such as Coumadin (warfarin), or
antibiotic drugs. Newborn babies lack the intestinal bacteria to produce vitamin K and need a
supplement for the first week.
 Those on anticoagulant drugs (blood thinners) may become vitamin K deficient, but should
not change their vitamin K intake without consulting a physician. People taking antibiotics may
lack vitamin K temporarily because intestinal bacteria are sometimes killed as a result of long-
term use of antibiotics. Also, people with chronic diarrhea may have problems absorbing sufficient
amounts of vitamin K through the intestine and should consult their physician to determine if
supplementation is necessary.

TOO MUCH VITAMIN K

Although no Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) has been established for vitamin K,
excessive amounts can cause the breakdown of red blood cells and liver damage. People taking
blood-thinning drugs or anticoagulants should moderate their intake of foods with vitamin K,
because excess vitamin K can alter blood clotting times. Large doses of vitamin K are not advised.

Fat-soluble vitamins are essential for overall health. Most people can obtain enough of each
vitamin from a varied and healthful diet.

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

B-COMPLEX VITAMINS

Eight of the water-soluble vitamins are known as the vitamin B-complex group: thiamin
(vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin B3), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), folate (folic
acid), vitamin B12, biotin and pantothenic acid. The B vitamins are widely distributed in foods,
and their influence is felt in many parts of the body. They function as coenzymes that help the
body obtain energy from food. The B vitamins are also important for normal appetite, good vision,
healthy skin, functioning nervous system, and red blood cell formation.

THIAMIN: VITAMIN B1

Thiamin, or vitamin B1, helps to release energy from foods, promotes normal appetite, and
plays a role in muscle contraction and conduction of nerve signals.

FOOD SOURCES FOR THIAMIN.

Sources include pork, legumes, fish, peas, and liver. Most commonly, thiamin is found in
whole grains and fortified grain products such as cereal, and enriched products like bread, pasta,
rice, and tortillas. The process of enrichment adds back nutrients that are lost when grains are
processed. Among the nutrients added during the enrichment process are thiamin (B1), niacin (B3),
riboflavin (B2), folate and iron.

HOW MUCH THIAMIN

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for thiamin is 1.2 mg/day for adult males
and 1.1 mg/day for adult females (Table 1). Thiamin Deficiency. Under-consumption of thiamin
is rare in the United States due to wide availability of enriched grain products. However, certain
groups may be at risk for thiamin deficiency including people with alcohol dependence, people
with HIV/AIDS, people who have undergone bariatric surgery, and those with low dietary intake,
like older adults.

Alcoholics are especially prone to thiamin deficiency because alcohol reduces thiamin
absorption and storage, and excess alcohol consumption often replaces food or meals. Symptoms
of thiamin deficiency include: mental confusion, muscle weakness, wasting, water retention
(edema), enlarged heart, and the disease known as beriberi. Thiamin deficiency is currently not a
problem in the United State.

TOO MUCH THIAMIN

No problems with overconsumption are known for thiamin.

RIBOFLAVIN: VITAMIN B2

Riboflavin, or vitamin B2, helps to release energy from foods, and is also important for the
growth, development and function of the cells in the body. It also helps to convert the amino acid
tryptophan (which makes up protein) into niacin.

FOOD SOURCES FOR RIBOFLAVIN

Sources include eggs, organ meats (liver and kidney), dark green vegetables, milk, and
whole and enriched grain products. Ultraviolet light is known to destroy riboflavin, which is why
most milk is packaged in opaque containers instead of clear.
HOW MUCH RIBOFLAVIN

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for riboflavin is 1.3 mg/day for adult males
and 1.1 mg/day for adult females (Table 1). Riboflavin Deficiency. Under consumption of
riboflavin is extremely rare in the United States. Groups at risk of riboflavin inadequacy include
vegan athletes and pregnant and breastfeeding women and their babies. Symptoms of deficiency
include skin disorders, cracks at the corners of the mouth, hair loss, itchy and red eyes, reproductive
problems, and cataracts.

TOO MUCH RIBOFLAVIN

No problems with overconsumption are known for riboflavin.

NIACIN: VITAMIN B3, NICOTINAMIDE, NICOTINIC ACID

Niacin, or vitamin B3, is involved in energy production and critical cellular functions.

FOOD SOURCES FOR NIACIN

Niacin is present in a wide variety of foods including animal and plant sources.

HOW MUCH NIACIN

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for niacin is 16 mg/day for adult males and
14 mg/day for adult females.

NIACIN DEFICIENCY

Niacin deficiency is not a problem in the United States and is mostly limited to people who
eat very limited diets and diets low in protein. Pellagra is the disease state that occurs as a result
of severe niacin deficiency. Symptoms include skin problems, digestive issues, and mental
confusion.

TOO MUCH NIACIN

Consuming large doses of niacin supplements beyond 35mg/day may cause flushed skin,
rashes, hypotension symptoms, or liver damage. Overconsumption of niacin is not a problem if it
is obtained through food.
VITAMIN B6: PYRIDOXINE, PYRIDOXAL, PYRIDOXAMINE

Vitamin B6, otherwise known as pyridoxine, pyridoxal or pyridoxamine, aids in protein

metabolism, red blood cell formation, and behaves as an antioxidant molecule. It is also involved
in the body’s production of chemicals such as neurotransmitters and hemoglobin.

FOOD SOURCES FOR VITAMIN B6

Sources include legumes, organ meats, fish, meats, starchy vegetables, and whole grains
and fortified cereals. How much Vitamin B6. The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for
vitamin B6 is 1.3 mg/day for adult males and females through age fifty. The RDA for male and
females over fifty years of age is 1.7 mg and 1.5 mg, respectively.

VITAMIN B6 DEFICIENCY

Vitamin B6 deficiency is uncommon and usually associated with low concentrations of

other B-complex vitamins, like vitamin B12 and folic acid. Deficiency symptoms include
dermatitis, swollen tongue, peripheral neuropathy, anemia, depression and confusion, and
weakened immune function. A vitamin B6 deficiency in infants can cause irritability, acute hearing
issues, and convulsive seizures.

TOO MUCH VITAMIN B6

Over consumption from food sources have not been reported to cause adverse health
effects, but chronic excess doses of vitamin B6 from supplements have been known to result in
nerve damage. The Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) has established an upper limit of 100 mg/day
for adults.

FOLATE: FOLIC ACID, FOLACIN

Folate, also known as folic acid or folacin, aids in protein metabolism, promoting red blood
cell formation, and lowering the risk for neural tube birth defects. Folate may also play a role in
controlling homocysteine levels, thus reducing the risk for coronary heart disease.

FOOD SOURCES FOR FOLATE

Sources of folate include liver, kidney, dark green vegetables, meats, legumes, fish, whole
grains, and fortified grains and cereals. Check the nutrition label to see if folic acid has been added.
HOW MUCH FOLATE

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for folate is 400 mcg/day for adult males
and females. Pregnancy will increase the RDA for folate to 600 mcg/da

FOLATE DEFICIENCY

Folate deficiency affects cell growth and protein production, which can lead to overall
impaired growth. Anemia is the primary clinical sign of folate deficiency and includes symptoms
like fatigue, headache, and heart palpitations. A folate deficiency in women who are pregnant or
of child bearing age may result in the delivery of a baby with neural tube defects, such as spina
bifida.

TOO MUCH FOLATE

Over consumption of folate offers no known benefits, and may mask B12 deficiency as
well as interfere with some medications. For this reason, an upper limit for folate from supplements
or fortified foods of 1000 mcg/day was established.

VITAMIN B12: COBALAMIN

Vitamin B12, also known as cobalamin, aids in the building of genetic material, production
of normal red blood cells, and maintenance of the nervous system.

FOOD SOURCES FOR VITAMIN B12

Vitamin B12 can only be found naturally in foods of animal origin such as meats, liver,
kidney, fish, eggs, milk and milk products, oysters, shellfish. Some fortified foods, like breakfast
cereals and nutritional yeast may also contain vitamin B12.

HOW MUCH VITAMIN B12

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for vitamin B12 is 2.4 mcg/day for adult
males and females. Many adults over the age of fifty do not get enough vitamin B12, the dietary
guidelines recommend consuming foods fortified with vitamin B12, such as fortified cereals.
VITAMIN B12 DEFICIENCY

Vitamin B12 deficiency most commonly affects vegans, infants of vegan mothers, and the
elderly. Symptoms of deficiency include anemia and neurological changes, such as numbness and
tingling in the hands and feet. In order to prevent vitamin B12 deficiency, a dietary supplement
should be taken. Some people develop a B12 deficiency because they cannot absorb the vitamin
through their stomach lining. This can be treated through vitamin B12 injections.

TOO MUCH VITAMIN B12

No problems with overconsumption of vitamin B12 are known.

BIOTIN

Biotin helps release energy from carbohydrates and aids in the metabolism of fats, proteins
and carbohydrates from food.

FOOD SOURCES FOR BIOTIN

Sources of Biotin include liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk, most fresh vegetables, yeast breads
and cereals.

HOW MUCH BIOTIN

The Adequate Intake (AI) for Biotin is 30 mcg/day for adult males and females.

BIOTIN DEFICIENCY

Biotin deficiency is uncommon. A few of the symptoms of biotin deficiency include hair
loss, skin rashes, and brittle nails, and for this reason biotin supplements are often promoted for
hair, skin, and nail health. However, these claims are only a few case reports and small studies.

TOO MUCH BIOTIN

No problems with overconsumption are known for Biotin.

PANTOTHENIC ACID: VITAMIN B5

Pantothenic Acid, also known as vitamin B5, is involved in energy production, and aids in
the formation of hormones and the metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates from food.

FOOD SOURCES FOR PANTOTHENIC ACID

Almost all plant- and animal- based foods contain pantothenic acid in varying amounts.
Richest dietary sources include fortified breakfast cereals, liver, kidney, meats, and seeds.

HOW MUCH PANTOTHENIC ACID

The Adequate Intake (AI) for Pantothenic Acid is 5 mg/day for both adult males and
females. Pregnancy will increase the AI for Pantothenic Acid to 6mg /day.

PANTOTHENIC ACID DEFICIENCY

Pantothenic Acid deficiency is uncommon due to its wide availability in most foods.

TOO MUCH PANTOTHENIC ACID

No problems with overconsumption are known for Pantothenic Acid. Rarely, diarrhea and
gastrointestinal distress will occur with excessive amounts.

VITAMIN C: ASCORBIC ACID, ASCORBATE

The body needs vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid or ascorbate, to remain in proper
working condition. Vitamin C benefits the body by holding cells together through collagen
synthesis; collagen is a connective tissue that holds muscles, bones, and other tissues together.
Vitamin C also aids in wound healing, bone and tooth formation, strengthening blood vessel walls,
improving immune system function, increasing absorption and utilization of iron, and acting as an
antioxidant. Vitamin C works with vitamin E as an antioxidant, and plays a crucial role in
neutralizing free radicals throughout the body. Through its antioxidant activity, studies suggest
vitamin C may help prevent or delay the development of certain cancers, heart disease, and other
diseases in which oxidative stress plays a causal role. Research continues to document the degree
of these effects.
FOOD SOURCES FOR VITAMIN C

Many fruits and vegetables contain vitamin C, the best sources are citrus fruits, peppers,
kiwi, strawberries, and broccoli. For example, one orange, one kiwi, 6 oz. (3/4 cup) of grapefruit
juice, or 1/3 cup of chopped sweet red pepper each supply enough vitamin C for one day.

HOW MUCH VITAMIN C

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for Vitamin C is 90 mg/day for adult males
and 75 mg/day for adult females. For those who smoke cigarettes, the RDA for vitamin C increases
by 35 mg/day, in order to counteract the oxidative effects of nicotine. Vitamin C recommendations
also increase during pregnancy and lactation.

VITAMIN C DEFICIENCY

Although rare in the United States, severe vitamin C deficiency may result in the disease
known as scurvy, causing fatigue and a loss of collagen strength throughout the body. Loss of
collagen results in loose teeth, bleeding and swollen gums, and improper wound healing.

The following conditions have been shown to increase vitamin C requirements

• Environmental stress, such as air and noise pollution

• Tissue healing of wounds
• Growth (children from 0- 12 months, and pregnant women)
• Fever and infection Smoking

TOO MUCH VITAMIN C

Despite being a water soluble vitamin that the body excretes when in excess, vitamin C
overdoses an increase the risk of adverse health effects, like kidney stones, diarrhea, rebound
scurvy, and increased oxidative damage. For this reason, the FNB has established an upper limit
of 2000 mg/ day.
LECTURE: 08

MINERALS
 MINERALS

Minerals are micronutrients that are essential to human health and can be obtained in our
diet from different types of food. Minerals are abundant in our everyday lives. From the soil in
your front yard to the jewelry you wear on your body, we interact with minerals
constantly. Minerals are inorganic elements in their simplest form, originating from the Earth.
They can’t be broken down or used as an energy source, but like vitamins, serve essential functions
based on their individual characteristics. Living organisms can’t make minerals, so the minerals
our bodies need must come from the diet. Plants obtain minerals from the soil they grow in.
Humans obtain minerals from eating plants, as well as indirectly from eating animal products
(because the animal consumed minerals in the plants it ate). We also get minerals from the water
we drink. The mineral content of soil and water varies from place to place, so the mineral
composition of foods and water differs based on geographic location.

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

Minerals are classified as either major/micro minerals or trace minerals, depending on the
amount needed in the body.

• Major/Macro minerals are those that are required in the diet in amounts larger than 100
milligrams each day. These include sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, and sulfur. These major minerals can be found in many foods. While
deficiencies are possible with minerals, consuming a varied diet significantly improves an
individual’s ability to meet their nutrient needs. We’ll discuss the concern of both
deficiencies and toxicities of specific minerals later in this unit.

• Micro/Trace minerals are classified as minerals required in the diet in smaller amounts,
specifically 100 milligrams or less per day. These include iron, copper, zinc, selenium,
iodine, chromium, fluoride, manganese, and molybdenum. Although trace minerals are
needed in smaller amounts, a deficiency of a trace mineral can be just as detrimental to
your health as a major mineral deficiency.
Macro minerals

There are seven macro minerals; calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, sodium,
potassium, and chloride. As well as being needed in amounts greater than 100 milligrams per day,
each of the macro minerals makes up more than 0.01% of the body’s weight.

CALCIUM

Calcium is by far the most prevalent mineral in the body. About 98% of the 1200 grams
(2.5 pounds) of calcium in the average adult body is found in the bones. Small amounts of calcium
(1%) are also found in the extracellular fluid, certain intracellular structures, and cell membranes.

Function

• Calcium is one of the minerals needed for the growth and strength of the bones.
• Calcium is needed for muscle contraction
• Calcium ions are essential for blood clotting.
• Calcium is needed for the functioning of neuro transmitters.
Food sources

Milk and milk products are among the best sources of calcium, other sources of calcium
include leafy greens, firm tofu, and small fish with bones, such as sardines.

Deficiency

A severe deficiency of calcium leads to the condition hypocalcemia resulting in rickets in

children and osteomalacia in adults.

PHOSPHORUS

Approximately 85% of the 700 grams of phosphorus in the adult body is present in the
bones. The ratio of calcium to phosphorus in the bones is 2: 1. After calcium, phosphorus is the
second most common mineral in the body by weight.

Function

• Phosphorus is involved in a variety of chemical reactions in the body, many of which are
related to energy metabolism.
• Mineralization of bones and teeth
• Facilitation of energy transaction
• Absorption and transport of nutrients
• Regulation of protein activity
• Component of essential body compounds.

Food sources

In general, good sources of protein are also good sources of phosphorus. Meat, poultry,
fish and eggs are rich in phosphorus. Milk and milk products, nuts, legumes, cereals and grams
are good sources.

Deficiency

A phosphorus deficiency is characterized by weakness, lack of appetite, fatigue and muscle pain
MAGNESIUM

About 60% of the body’s magnesium is contained in the bones; most of the remaining
magnesium is present in the muscles and other tissues, with about 1% circulating extracellular
fluids.

Function

• The activity of hundreds of enzymes depends on magnesium

• Magnesium also helps maintain calcium and potassium homeostasis.

Food sources

Nuts, legumes, dark green leafy vegetables, soya beans and milk are good sources.

Deficiency

Symptoms of magnesium deficiency include weakness, confusion, lack of appetite, nausea,

and lack of coordination.

SODIUM

Sodium is the principal cation of extracellular fluid. Human body has approximately 1.8 g
of sodium per kilogram of body weight. The body regulates the sodium concentration in the
extracellular fluid within narrow limits.

Function

In addition to its role in maintaining the body’s water balance, sodium functions in
maintaining extracellular fluid volume and in regulating the body’s acid – base balance.

Food sources

The major dietary source of sodium is sodium chloride, more commonly called table salt.
One teaspoon of table salt supplies 2132 milligrams of sodium.
Deficiency

Excessive sodium loss, not a low dietary intake; is the usual cause of sodium deficiency.
Trauma, long – term diarrhea, vomiting and kidney disease may also lead to excessive sodium
losses.

A sodium deficiency, with fluid levels remaining constant or increasing, leads to a decrease
in the extracellular sodium concentration. As a result, water migrates into cells, leading to water
intoxication. Water intoxication causes loss of appetite, muscle twitching, mental apathy, coma,
and seizures.

POTASSIUM

The electrolyte potassium is found mainly in the intracellular fluid

Functions

• The main function of potassium, like sodium, is to maintain water balance.

• Potassium is required for maintaining a normal heartbeat.

Food sources

This mineral is widely distributed in foods, but fruits and vegetables are generally the most
nutrient – dense sources of potassium.

Deficiency

As with sodium, deficiencies of potassium are usually caused by excessive losses, not low
intakes. Losses occur primarily via the urine; lesser amounts are lost in sweat. Excessive potassium
losses via the kidneys may result from use of potassium – depleting diuretics, which are often
prescribed to treat high blood pressure. High levels of activity in hot, humid climates may lead to
excessive potassium losses via perspiration. Much potassium can also be lost through long-term
vomiting or prolonged diarrhea.
 Symptoms of a potassium deficiency include weakness, loss of appetite, nausea,
listlessness, apprehension, fatigue, irrational behavior, muscle weakness, and muscle cramping. A
severe deficiency may cause an abnormal heartbeat and possibly death.

CHLORIDE

The electrolyte chloride is found primarily in the extracellular fluid.

Functions

• Chloride’s major functions are maintaining the body’s water and electrolyte balance.
• Chloride is mainly a component of hydrochloric acid, which is secreted in the stomach and
helps in the digestion of protein.

Food sources

The main dietary sources of chloride are sodium chloride, that is, table salt. Chloride is
also found in many processed foods that contain added salt.

Deficiency

As with the other two electrolytes, chloride deficiency rarely results from poor dietary
intake. Rather, chloride deficiencies are typically caused by excessive losses due to diarrhea or
vomiting, heavy perspiration, trauma, or kidney disease.

MICRO MINERALS

We require intakes of the essential trace minerals, or micro minerals, in amounts of less
than 100 milligrams per day. The essential trace minerals are iron, zinc, copper, iodine, manganese,
fluoride, chromium, selenium, and molybdenum.

IRON

About 30% of the iron in the body is stored in the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. Iron is
a constituent of haemoglobin and myoglobin, which are iron-binding proteins found in red blood
cells and muscle, respectively. Iron also function as a cofactor for a number of enzymes and is
required for their activity.

Food sources

Meat, Eggs, Beans, Baked Potato, Dried Fruits, Green Leafy Vegetables, Whole and Enriched
Grains

Deficiency

Iron deficiency develops in stages; the last stage is iron-deficiency anemia.

ZINC

Most zinc in the body is found in the bones and muscles. This trace mineral is necessary
for optimal activity of many enzymes and for various bodily processes, including the following:

• Protein metabolism, wound healing, and growth

• Metabolism of DNA, the genetic material
• Development of sexual organs and bones
• Immune responses
• Memory formation
• Particularly high needs for zinc occur during growth and development.

Food sources

Meat, fish, eggs, milk and nuts are rich sources.

Deficiency

A zinc deficiency impairs protein synthesis, collagen formation, and energy production; it also
decreases alcohol tolerance.
COPPER

The trace mineral copper is required for proper use of iron by the body and for the activity
of certain enzymes. This trace mineral also aids in the production of connective tissue, blood
vessels, phospholipids, and melanin (a skin pigment).

Food sources

The main dietary sources of copper are shellfish, whole grains, legumes, and nuts.

Deficiency

Symptoms include decreased blood levels of copper, fewer white blood cells, anemia, bone
demineralization, deterioration of the nervous system.

IODINE

The micro mineral iodine is a necessary component of two hormones produced by the
thyroid gland (thyroxine and triiodothyronine). These thyroid hormones are critical in regulating
the body’s metabolic rate.

Food sources

The amount of iodine present in a particular food depends on the amount of iodine in the
environment in which that food was raised. Therefore, food from the sea lobsters, oysters, sardines
etc.

Deficiency

A prolonged deficiency of iodine causes enlargement of the thyroid gland, known as goiter.

FLUORIDE

Although some scientists have doubted that fluoride is an essential nutrient for humans,
this trace mineral is currently considered essential. The main function of fluoride is to harden the
bones and teeth.
Food sources

The only good dietary sources of fluoride are fluoridated water, seafood, seaweed, and tea.
Some natural water sources are also high in fluoride.

Deficiency

Deficiency of fluoride results in the development of dental caries.

MANGANESE

The trace mineral manganese is required for normal brain function. This micro mineral also
aids in the synthesis of collagen, urea, fatty acids, and cholesterol. Manganese is involved in bone
growth and is required for the digestion of protein.

Food sources

Manganese is present in many vegetable foods, and our diets supply plenty to meet the
requirement, which is minimal.

Deficiency

For the above reason, deficiency of this trace mineral has not been observed in humans,
although it can be induced in experimental animals.

SELENIUM

The best understood role of the micro mineral selenium is its involvement in an enzyme
system that helps to protect cell membranes against oxidative damage. Thus selenium has an effect
similar to that of the antioxidant vitamin E.

Food sources

Selenium is widely distributed in both animals and plant foods.

Deficiency

Deficiency resulting from low dietary intake is unlikely because of its wide distribution in
animals and plant foods.

MOLYBDENUM

Molybdenum is required for several enzyme systems in the body. One of these enzyme
systems involved in the formation of uric acid, a waste product of protein metabolism is excreted
in the urine.

Food sources

The molybdenum of plant foods depends on the type of soil in which they are grown.
(Neutral or alkaline soil).

Deficiency

Molybdenum deficiency has not been observed in human beings or any other species.
 LECTURE: 09
NUTRITIONAL DEFICINECY DISORDERS