1

What Is Language?

When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the “human
essence,” the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man.

NOAM CHOMSKY, Language and Mind, 1968

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Linguistic Knowledge
Do we know only what we see, or do we see what we somehow already know?
CYNTHIA OZICK, “What Helen Keller Saw,” New Yorker, June 16 & 23, 2003
1

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 2 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language?

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Knowledge of the Sound System

When I speak it is in order to be heard.
ROMAN JAKOBSON

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 Linguistic Knowledge 3

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Knowledge of Words
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VRXQGVUHODWHWRVSHFLILFPHDQLQJVDQGZKLFKGRQRW

Arbitrary Relation of Form and Meaning

The minute I set eyes on an animal I know what it is. I don’t have to reflect a moment; the
right name comes out instantly. I seem to know just by the shape of the creature and
the way it acts what animal it is. When the dodo came along he [Adam] thought it was a
wildcat. But I saved him. I just spoke up in a quite natural way and said, “Well, I do declare
if there isn’t the dodo!”
MARK TWAIN, Eve’s Diary, 1906

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 4 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language?

HERMAN®/LaughingStock Licensing Inc., Ottawa, Canada

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 Linguistic Knowledge 5

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The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge

All humans are artists, all of us . . . Our greatest masterpiece of art is the use of a language
to create an entire virtual reality within our mind.
DON MIGUEL RUIZ, 2012

Albert: So are you saying that you were the best friend of the woman who was married to
the man who represented your husband in divorce?
André: In the history of speech, that sentence has never been uttered before.
NEIL SIMON, The Dinner Party, 2000

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 6 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language?

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 Linguistic Knowledge 7

Knowledge of Sentences and Nonsentences

A person who knows a language has mastered a system of rules that assigns sound and
meaning in a definite way for an infinite class of possible sentences.
NOAM CHOMSKY, Language and Mind, 1968

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 8 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language?

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FKDSWHUV

Linguistic Knowledge and Performance

“What’s one and one and one and one and one and one and one and one and one and
one?” “I don’t know,” said Alice. “I lost count.” “She can’t do Addition,” the Red Queen
interrupted.
LEWIS CARROLL, Through the Looking-Glass, 1871

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 What Is Grammar? 9

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What Is Grammar?
We use the term “grammar” with a systematic ambiguity. On the one hand, the term refers
to the explicit theory constructed by the linguist and proposed as a description of the
speaker’s competence. On the other hand, it refers to this competence itself.
NOAM CHOMSKY AND MORRIS HALLE, The Sound Pattern of English, 1968

Descriptive Grammars
There are no primitive languages. The great and abstract ideas of Christianity can be
discussed even by the wretched Greenlanders.
JOHANN PETER SUESSMILCH, in a paper delivered before the Prussian Academy, 1756

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OLQJXLVWLFNQRZOHGJH,WH[SODLQVKRZLWLVSRVVLEOHIRU\RXWRVSHDNDQGXQGHU
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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 10 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language?

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KDYHPRUHWRVD\DERXWGLDOHFWVLQFKDSWHU

Prescriptive Grammars
It is certainly the business of a grammarian to find out, and not to make, the laws of a
language.
JOHN FELL, Essay towards an English Grammar, 1784

Just read the sentence aloud, Amanda, and listen to how it sounds. If the sentence sounds
OK, go with it. If not, rearrange the pieces. Then throw out the rule books and go to bed.
JAMES KILPATRICK, “Writer’s Art” (syndicated newspaper column), 1998

Any fool can make a rule

And every fool will mind it
HENRY DAVID THOREAU, journal entry, 1860

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EDVHGRQ/DWLQJUDPPDUDQGPDGHOLWWOHVHQVHIRU(QJOLVK%HFDXVH/RZWK

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 What Is Grammar? 11

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 12 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language?

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Teaching Grammars
I don’t want to talk grammar. I want to talk like a lady.
G. B. SHAW, Pygmalion, 1912

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 What Is Grammar? 13

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QRWDJUDPPDWLFDOFRQVWUXFWLRQLQWKHQHZODQJXDJHWKHLUDLPLVGLIIHUHQW
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WKHGLVFXVVLRQRIVWDQGDUGDQGQRQVWDQGDUGGLDOHFWV

Universal Grammar
In a grammar there are parts that pertain to all languages; these components form what is
called the general grammar. In addition to these general (universal) parts, there are those
that belong only to one particular language; and these constitute the particular grammars
of each language.
CÉSAR CHESNEAU DU MARSAIS, c. 1750

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 14 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language?

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HQWHUSULVH

The Development of Grammar

How comes it that human beings, whose contacts with the world are brief and personal
and limited, are nevertheless able to know as much as they do know?
BERTRAND RUSSELL, Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits, 1948

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PDWLFDOUXOHVRQO\WKRVHWKDWDUHVSHFLILFWRWKHLUSDUWLFXODUODQJXDJH7KH

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 What Is Grammar? 15

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HQGRZPHQW,QFKDSWHUZHZLOOGLVFXVVODQJXDJHDFTXLVLWLRQLQPRUH
GHWDLO

Sign Languages: Evidence for Language Universals

It is not the want of organs that [prevents animals from making] . . . known their
thoughts . . . for it is evident that magpies and parrots are able to utter words just like
ourselves, and yet they cannot speak as we do, that is, so as to give evidence that they
think of what they say. On the other hand, men who, being born deaf and mute . . . are
destitute of the organs which serve the others for talking, are in the habit of themselves
inventing certain signs by which they make themselves understood.
RENÉ DESCARTES, Discourse on Method, 1637

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 16 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language?

What Is Not (Human) Language

It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even
excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a
statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is
no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do
the same.
RENÉ DESCARTES, Discourse on Method and Meditation on First Philosophy

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RWKHUVSHFLHVEHWDXJKWDKXPDQODQJXDJH"

The Birds and the Bees

Teach me half the gladness
That thy brain must know;
Such harmonious madness
From my lips would flow,
The world should listen then, as I am listening now.
PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY, 1792–1822, To a Skylark

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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 What Is Not (Human) Language 17

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Patrick McDonnell/King Features Syndicate

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 18 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language?

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IRRG7KH\ODFNWKHGLVSODFHPHQWSURSHUW\$VH[SHULPHQWVKDYHVKRZQZKHQ

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 What Is Not (Human) Language 19

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VSHFLILFDOO\FDQDQLPDOVOHDUQKXPDQODQJXDJH"

Can Animals Learn Human Language?

It is a great baboon, but so much like man in most things. . . . I do believe it already
understands much English; and I am of the mind it might be taught to speak or make signs.
ENTRY IN SAMUEL PEPYS’S DIARY, 1661

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RQ,QGHHGLQ*HUPDQSV\FKRORJLVWVUHSRUWHGRQD%RUGHUFROOLHQDPHG

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 20 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language?

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 Language and Thought 21

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Language and Thought

It was intended that when Newspeak had been adopted once and for all and Oldspeak
forgotten, a heretical thought—that is, a thought diverging from the principles of IngSoc—
should be literally unthinkable, at least so far as thought is dependent on words.
GEORGE ORWELL, appendix to 1984, 1949

The limits of my language mean the limits of my world.

LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, 1922

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WKHPLVPRVWFORVHO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHOLQJXLVW(GZDUG6DSLUDQGKLVVWXGHQW

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 22 CHAPTER 1 What Is Language?

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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SHUIRUPDQFH <RXKDYHWKHFRPSHWHQFHWRSURGXFHDPLOOLRQZRUGVHQWHQFH

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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