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UNIT - 5

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

For normal and healthy living a conducive environment is

required by all the living beings, including humans, livestock,
plants, micro-organisms and the wildlife. The favourable
unpolluted environment has specific composition. When this
composition gets changed by addition of harmful substances, the
environment is called polluted environment and the substances
polluting it are called pollutants. Environmental pollution can,
therefore, be defined as any undesirable change in the physical,
chemical or biological characteristics of any component of the
environment (air, water, soil), which can cause harmful effects
on various forms of life or property. Environmental pollution
could be of various types:
Air pollution: It is an atmospheric condition in which certain
substances (including the normal constituents in excess) are
present in concentrations which can cause undesirable effects on
man and his environment. These substances include gases,
particulate matter, radioactive substances etc.
Gaseous pollutants include oxides of sulphur (mostly SO2,
SO3) oxides of nitrogen mostly (NO and NO2 or NOx) carbon
monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (mostly
hydrocarbons) etc. “Particulate pollutants include smoke, dust,
soot, fumes, aerosols, liquid droplets, pollen grains etc.
Radioactive pollutants include Radon-222, iodine-131,
strontium-90, plutonium-239 etc.
Sources of air pollution
The sources of air pollution are natural and man-made
(anthropogenic).
Natural Sources: The natural sources of air pollution are volcanic
eruptions, forest fires, sea salt sprays, biological decay,
photochemical oxidation of terpenes, marshes, extraterrestial
bodies, pollen grains of flowers, spores etc. Radioactive minerals
present in the earth crust are the sources of radioactivity in the
atmosphere.
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Man-made Sources: Man made sources include thermal power

plants, industrial units, vehicular emissions, fossil fuel burning,
agricultural activities etc. Thermal power plants have become the
major sources of generating electricity in India as the nuclear
power plants couldn’t be installed as planned. The main pollutants
emitted are fly ash and SO2. Metallurgical plants also consume
coal and produce similar pollutants. Fertilizer plants, smelters,
textile mills, tanneries, refineries, chemical industries, paper and
pulp mills are other sources of air pollution.
Automobile exhaust is another major source of air
pollution. Automobiles release gases such as carbon monoxide
(about 77%), oxides of nitrogen (about 8%) and hydrocarbons
(about 14%). Heavy duty diesel vehicles spew more NOx and
suspended particulate matter (SPM) than petrol vehicle which
produce more carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
Indoor Air Pollution
Many houses in the under-developed and developing
countries including India use fuels like coal, dung-cakes, wood,
kerosene in their kitchens. Complete combustion of fuel produces
carbon dioxide which may not be toxic. However, incomplete
combustion produces carbon monoxide. Coal contains varying
amounts of sulphur which on burning produces sulphur dioxide.
Fossil fuel burning produces black soot. These pollutants i.e. CO,
SO2, soot and many others like formaldehyde, benzene (α) pyrene
(BAP) are toxic and harmful for health. Benzene (α) pyrene is
also found in cigarette smoke and is considered to cause cancer. A
house wife using wood as fuel for cooking inhales BAP equivalent
to 20 packets of cigarette a day. Radioactive Radon (Ra222) causes
indoor air pollution in concrete buildings.
Effects of air pollution: Air pollution has adverse effects on
living organisms and materials.
Effects on Human Health: Human respiratory system has a
number of mechanisms for protection from air pollution (Fig. 5.1).
Bigger particles (> 10 µm) can be trapped by the hairs and sticky
mucus in the lining of the nose. Smaller particles can reach
tracheobronchial system and there get trapped in mucus. They are
sent back to throat by beating of hair like cilia from where they
can be removed by spitting or swallowing. Years of exposure to
air pollutants (including cigarette smoke) adversely affect these
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natural defenses and can result in lung cancer, asthma, chronic

bronchitis and emphysema (damage to air sacs leading to loss of
lung elasticity and acute shortness of breath). Suspended
particulates can cause damage to lung tissues and diseases like
asthma, bronchitis and cancer especially when they bring with
them cancer causing or toxic pollutants attached on their surface.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) causes constriction of respiratory passage
and can cause bronchitis like conditions. In the presence of
suspended particulates, SO2 can form acid sulphate particles,
which can go deep into the lungs and affect severely.

Fig 5.1 (a) Human Respiratory System and cross section of

bronchial lining showing cilia (b) Lower part of respiratory system
with terminal alveoli
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Oxides of nitrogen especially NO2 can irritate the lungs

and cause conditions like chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
Carbon monoxide reaches lungs and combines with haemoglobin
of blood to form carboxyhaemoglobin. CO has affinity for
haemoglobin 210 times more than oxygen. Haemoglobin is,
therefore, unable to transport oxygen to various parts of the body.
This causes suffocation. Long exposure to CO may cause
dizziness, unconsciousness and even death.
Many other air pollutants like benzene (from unleaded
petrol), formaldehyde and particulates like polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) toxic metals and dioxins (from burning of
polythene) can cause mutations, reproductive problems or even
cancer.
Effects on Plants: Air pollutants affect plants by entering through
stomata (leaf pores through which gases diffuse), destroy
chlorophyll and affect photosynthesis. Pollutants also erode waxy
coating of the leaves called cuticle. Cuticle prevents excessive
water loss and damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost.
Damage to leaf structure causes necrosis (dead areas of leaf),
Chlorosis (loss or reduction of chlorophyll causing yellowing of
leaf) or epinasty (downward curling of leaf), and abscission
(dropping of leaves). Particulates deposited on leaves can for
incrustations and plug stomata. The damage can result in death of
the plant.
Effects on aquatic life: Air pollutants mixing up with rain can
cause high acidity (lower pH) in fresh water lakes. This affects
aquatic life especially fish. Some of the freshwater lakes have
experienced total fish death.
Effects on materials: Because of their corrosiveness, particulates
can cause damage to exposed surfaces. Presence of SO2 and
moisture can accelerate corrosion of metallic surfaces. SO2 can
affect fabric, leather, paint, paper, marble and limestone. Ozone in
the atmosphere can cause cracking of rubber. Oxides of nitrogen
can also cause fading of acetate, cotton and rayon fibres.
Control of Air Pollution
Air pollution can be minimized by the following methods:
• Siting of industries after proper Environmental Impact
Assessment studies.
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• Using low sulphur coal in industries

• Removing sulphur from coal (by washing or with the help
of bacteria)
• Removing NOx during the combustion process.
• Removing particulate from stack exhaust gases by
employing electrostatic precipitators, bag-house filters,
cyclone separators, scrubbers etc.
• Vehicular pollution can be checked by regular tune-up of
engines, replacement of old, more polluting vehicles,
installing catalytic converters, by engine modification to
have fuel efficient (lean mixtures) to reduce CO and
hydrocarbon emissions and burning fuels slow and cooler
to reduce NOx emission (Honda Technology).
• Using mass transport system, bicycles etc.
• Shifting to less polluting fuels (hydrogen gas).
• Using non-conventional sources of energy.
• By using biological filters and bio-scrubbers.
• By planting more trees.
NOISE POLLUTION
We hear various types of sounds everyday. Sound is
mechanical energy from a vibrating source. A type of sound may
be pleasant to someone and at the same time unpleasant to others.
The unpleasant and unwanted sound is called noise.
Sound can propagate through a medium like air, liquid or
solid. Sound wave is a pressure perturbation in the medium
through which sound travels. Sound pressure alternately causes
compression and rarefaction. The number of compression and
rarefaction of the molecule of medium (i.e. air) in a unit time is
described as frequency. It is expressed in Hertz (Hz) and is equal
to the number of cycles per second.
There is a wide range of sound pressures, which encounter
human ear. Increase in sound pressure does not invoke linear
response of human ear. A meaningful logarithmic scale has been
devised. The noise measurements are expressed in Sound Pressure
Level (SPL) which is logarithmic ratio of the sound pressure to a
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reference pressure. It is expressed as a dimensionless unit, decibel

(dB). The international reference pressure of 2×10-5 Pa is the
average threshold of hearing for a healthy ear. Decibel scale is a
measure of loudness. Noise can affect human ear because of its
loudness and frequency (pitch).
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) committee
has recommended permissible noise levels for different locations.

NOISE STANDARDS RECOMMENDED BY CPCB

COMMITTEE
Area Noise level (dB)
Day Night
Industrial 75 70
Commercial 65 55
Residential 55 45
Silence Zone 50 40

Sources of Noise Pollution: The main sources of noise are

various modes of transportation (like air, road, rail), industrial
operations, construction activities and celebrations (emotional and
religious, elections etc) electric home appliances.
High levels of noise have been recorded in some of the
cities of the world. Noise level of 105 dB have been recorded in
Nanjing (China), while in Rome 90 dB, New York 88, Calcutta 85
dB, Mumbai 82 dB, Delhi 80 dB, Kathmandu 75 dB.
Effects of Noise: Noise causes the following effects:
i) Interferes with man’s communication: In a noisy area
communication is severely affected.
ii) Hearing damage: Noise can cause temporary or
permanent hearing loss. It depends on intensity and
duration of sound level. Auditory sensitivity is reduced
with noise level of over 90 dB in the midhigh frequency
for more than a few minutes.
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Different sounds and their sound levels on Decibel Scale

Sound Level (dB) Source of Sound
180 - Rocket engine
170
160
150 - Jet plane take off
Threshold of Pain - 140
130 - Maximum recorded
rock music
120 - Thunder cap
110 - Autohorn 1m away
100 - Jet fly over at 300 m,
construction work,
Newspaper press
90 - Motor cycle/8 m
away, food blender
80
70 - Vacuum cleaner,
ordinary conversation
60 - Air conditioning unit-
6m away, light traffic
noise- 30m away
50 - Average living room
40
30 - Library, soft whisper
20 - Broadcasting studio
10 - Rustling leaf
Threshold of hearing - 0 -
_____________________________________________________
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iii) Physiological and Psychological changes: Continuous

exposure to noise affects the functioning of various
systems of the body. It may result in hypertension,
insomnia (sleeplessness), changes in gastro-intestinal
(digestive) activities, peptic ulcers, blood pressure changes,
behavioural changes, emotional changes etc.
Control of Noise Pollution
1. Reduction in sources of noise: Sources of noise pollution
like heavy vehicles and old vehicles may not be allowed to
ply in the populated areas.
2. Noise making machines should be kept in containers with
sound absorbing media. The noise path will be interrupted
and will not reach the workers.
3. Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machinery.
4. Use of sound absorbing silencers: Silencers can reduce
noise by absorbing sound. For this purpose various types
of fibrous material could be used.
5. By planting more trees having broad leaves.
6. Through Law: Legislation can ensure that sound
production is minimized at various social functions.
Unnecessary horn blowing should be restricted especially
in vehicle-congested areas.
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution can be defined as alteration in physical,
chemical or biological characteristics of water making it
unsuitable for designated use in its natural state.
Sources of water pollution: Water is an essential commodity for
survival. We need water for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing,
irrigation, and for industrial operations. Most of water for such
uses comes from rivers, lakes or groundwater sources. Water has
the property to dissolve many substances in it, therefore, it can
easily get polluted. Pollution of water can be caused by point
sources or non-point sources. Point sources are specific sites near
water which directly discharge effluents into them. Major point
sources of water pollution are industries, power plants,
underground coal mines, offshore oil wells etc. The discharge
from non-point sources is not at any particular site, rather, these
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sources are scattered and individually or collectively pollute water.

Surface run-off from agricultural fields, overflowing small drains,
rain water sweeping roads and fields, atmospheric deposition are
the non-point sources of water pollution.
Ground water pollution: Ground water forms about 6.2% of the
total water available on planet earth and is about 30 times more
than surface water (streams, lakes and estuaries). Ground water
seems to be less prone to pollution as soil mantle through which
water passes helps to retain various contaminants due to cation
exchange capacity. However, there are a number of potential
sources of ground water pollution. Septic tanks, industry (textile,
chemical, tanneries), deep well injection, mining etc. are mainly
responsible for ground water pollution, which is irreversible.
Ground water pollution with arsenic, fluoride and nitrate are
posing serious health hazards.
Surface water pollution: The major sources of surface water
pollution are:
1. Sewage: Pouring the drains and sewers in fresh water
bodies causes water pollution. The problem is severe in
cities.
2. Industrial effluents: Industrial wastes containing toxic
chemicals, acids, alkalis, metallic salts, phenols, cyanides,
ammonia, radioactive substances, heat etc. are sources of
water pollution.
3. Synthetic detergents: Synthetic detergents used in
washing and cleaning produces foam and pollute water.
4. Agrochemicals: Agrochemicals like fertilizers (containing
nitrates and phosphates) and pesticides (insecticides,
fungicides, herbicides etc.) washed by rain-water and
surface run-off pollute water.
5. Oil: Oil spillage into sea-water during drilling and
shipment pollute water.
6. Waste heat: Waste heat from industrial discharges
increases the temperature of water bodies and affects
distribution and survival of sensitive species.
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EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

Following are some important effects of various types of
water pollutants:
Oxygen demanding wastes: Organic matter which reaches water
bodies is decomposed by micro-organisms present in water. For
this degradation oxygen dissolved in water is consumed.
Dissolved oxygen (D.O.) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a
given quantity of water at particular temperature and atmospheric
pressure. Amount of dissolved oxygen depends on aeration,
photosynthetic activity in water, respiration of animals and plants
and ambient temperature.
The saturation value of D.O. Varies from 8-15 mg/L. For
active fish species (trout and Salmon) 5-8 mg/L of D.O. is
required whereas less desirable species like carp can survive of 3.0
mg/L of D.O.
Lower D.O. may be harmful to animals especially fish
population. Oxygen depletion (deoxygenation) helps in release of
phosphates from bottom sediments and causes eutrophication
(excess plant growth).
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Compounds (Nutrients): Addition of
compounds containing nitrogen and phosphorus helps in growth of
algae and other plants which when die and decay consume oxygen
of water. Under anaerobic conditions foul smelling gases are
produced. Excess growth or decomposition of plant material will
change the concentration of CO2 which will further change pH of
water. Changes in pH, oxygen and temperature will change many
physico-chemical characteristics of water.
Pathogens: Many wastewaters especially sewage contain many
pathogenic (disease causing) and non-pathogenic micro-organisms
and many viruses. Water borne diseases like cholera, dysentry,
typhoid, jaundice etc. are spread by water contaminated with
sewage.
Toxic Compounds: Pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides,
cyanides and many other organic and inorganic compounds are
harmful to aquatic organisms.
The demand of D.O. increases with addition of
biodegradable organic matter which is expressed as biological
oxygen demand (BOD). BOD is defined as the amount of D.O.
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required to aerobically decompose biodegradable organic matter

of a given volume of water over a period of 5 days at 20°C. More
BOD values of any water sample are associated with poor water
quality. “The non-biodegradable toxic compounds biomagnify in
the food chain and cause toxic affects at various levels of food
chain.
Some of these substances like pesticides, methyl mercury
etc. move into the bodies of organisms from the medium in which
these organisms live. Substances like DDT are not water soluble
and have affinity for body lipids. These substances tend to
accumulate in the organism’s body. This process is called
bioaccumulation. The concentration of these toxic substances
builds up at successive levels of food chain. This process is called
biomagnification. Following is the example of biomagnification of
DDT in aquatic food chain-
Component DDT concentration (ppm)
Birds 10.00

Needle fish 1.0

Minnows 0.1

Zooplankton 0.01

Water 0.000001

Toxic substances polluting water ultimately affect human

health. Some heavy metals like lead, mercury and cadmium cause
various types of diseases. Mercury dumped into water is
transformed into water soluble methyl mercury by bacterial action.
Methyl mercury accumulates in fish. In 1953, people in Japan
suffered from numbness of body parts, vision and hearing
problems and abnormal mental behaviour. This disease called
Minamata disease occurred due to consumption of methyl mercury
contaminated fish caught from Minamata bay in Japan. The
disease claimed 50 lives and permanently paralysed over 700
persons. Pollution by another heavy metal cadmium had caused
the disease called Itai-Itai in the people of Japan. The disease was
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caused by cadmium contaminated rice. The rice fields were

irrigated with effluents of zinc smelters and drainage water from
mines. In this disease bones, liver, kidney, lungs, pancreas and
thyroid are affected.
Arsenic pollution of ground water in Bangladesh and West
Bengal is causing various types of abnormalities.
Nitrate when present in excess in drinking water causes
blue baby syndrome or methaemoglobinemia. The disease
develops when a part of haemoglobin is converted into non-
functional oxidized form. Nitrate in stomach partly gets changed
into nitrite which can produce cancer-causing products in the
stomach.
Excess of fluoride in drinking water causes defects in teeth
and bones.
Pesticides in drinking water ultimately reach humans and
are known to cause various health problems. DDT, aldrin, dieldrin
etc. have therefore, been banned. Recently, in Andhra Pradesh,
people suffered from various abnormalities due to consumption of
endosulphan contaminated cashew nuts.
Control of Water Pollution
It is easy to reduce water pollution from point sources by
legislation. However, due to absence of defined strategies it
becomes difficult to prevent water pollution from non-point
sources. The following points may help in reducing water
pollution from non-point sources.
i. Judicious use of agrochemicals like pesticides and
fertilizers which will reduce their surface run-off and
leaching. Avoid use of these on sloped lands.
ii. Use of nitrogen fixing plants to supplement the use of
fertilizers.
iii. Adopting integrated pest management to reduce reliance
on pesticides.
iv. Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such run-off to basin for
settlement. The nutrient rich water can be used as fertilizer
in the fields.
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v. Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be

provided to prevent overflow of sewage with rainwater.
vi. Planting trees would reduce pollution by sediments and
will also prevent soil erosion.
For controlling water pollution from point sources,
treatment of wastewater is essential before being discharged.
Parameters which are considered for reduction in such water are-
Total solids, biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical
oxygen demand (COD), nitrates and phosphates, oil and grease
and toxic metals etc.
Wastewater should be properly treated by primary and
secondary treatments to reduce the BOD, COD levels upto the
permissible levels for discharge.
Advanced treatment for removal of nitrates and phosphates
will prevent eutrophication. Before discharge of wastewater, it
should be disinfected to kill disease-causing organisms like
bacteria, viruses etc.
Proper chlorination should be done to prevent the
formation of chlorinated hydrocarbons or disinfection by ozone or
ultraviolet radiations should be done.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution can be defined as presence of waste heat
which can cause undesirable changes in the natural environment.
Causes of thermal pollution: Heat producing industries i.e.,
thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, refineries, steel mills
etc. are the major sources of thermal pollution. Power plants
utilize only 1/3 of the energy provided by fossil fuels for their
operations. Remaining 2/3 is lost in the form of heat generally to
cooling water. Cold water, generally, is drawn from some nearby
water-body passed through the plant and returned to the same
water body with temperature 10-16°C higher than the initial
temperature. Excess of heat reaching such water bodies causes
thermal pollution of water.
Effects of thermal pollution
i. The dissolved oxygen content of water is decreased as the
solubility of oxygen in water is decreased.
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ii. High temperature becomes barrier for oxygen penetration

in deep cold waters.
iii. Toxicity of pesticides, detergents, chemicals in the
effluents increases with increase in temperature.
iv. The composition of flora and fauna changes because the
species sensitive to increased temperature due to thermal
shock will be replaced by temperature tolerant species.
v. Metabolic activities of aquatic organisms increase
requiring more oxygen.
vi. Heated water discharge near shores can disturb spawning
and kill young fish.
vii. Fish migration is affected due to formation of various
thermal zones.
Control of Thermal Pollution: The following methods can be
employed for control of thermal pollution:
(i) Cooling ponds, (ii) Spray Ponds, (iii) Cooling towers
1. Cooling Ponds: Water from condensers is stored in ponds
where natural evaporation cools water which can be
recirculated or discharged in nearby water body.

Fig. 5.2: Dissipation of heat by Cooling Ponds.

2. Spray Towers: The water from condensers is received in
spray ponds. Here the water is sprayed through nozzles
where fine droplets are formed. Heat from these fine
droplets is dissipated to the atmosphere.
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Fig. 5.3: Dissipation of heat by spray towers

3. Cooling Towers:
(a) Wet cooling tower: Hot water is sprayed over
baffles. Cool air entering from sides takes away the
heat and cools water. This cool water can be
recycled or discharged. Large amount of water is
lost through evaporation and in the vicinity of wet
cooling tower extensive fog is formed which is not
good for environment and causes damage to
vegetation.

Fig. 5.4: Cooling Towers : Wet and dry.

(b) Dry cooling tower: The heated water flows in a

system of pipes. Air is passed over these hot pipes
with fans. There is no water loss in this method and
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installation and operation of dry cooling tower is

many times higher than wet cooling tower.
MARINE POLLUTION
The main sources of marine pollution are (i) rivers, which
bring pollutants from their drainage basins, (ii) Catchment area i.e.
coastline where human settlements in the form of hotels, industry,
agricultural practices have been established, and (iii) oil drilling
and shipment.
Most of the rivers ultimately joint the ocean. The
pollutants which these rivers carry from their drainage basin are
finally poured in the sea. These include sewage sludge, industrial
effluents, synthetic detergents, agrochemicals, solid wastes,
plastics, metals, waste heat released by industries as discussed
earlier.

Fig. 5.5: (a) Floating containment barrier (boom); (b) Weirs for
removal of oil.
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In the sea the pollutants get diluted and as in river water

the organic matter is further broken down. Still many pollutants
specially recalcitrant ones remain unchanged or partially degraded
and cause marine pollution. These pollutants get biomagnified and
affect fisheries and other marine life. Another important source of
marine pollution is the leaking toxic substances, radioactive
wastes etc. which are stored in large containers and dumped in
deep sea considering sea to be a better disposal site than land.
Tankers and other shipping means, industries (petroleum
refinery, lubricating oil using industry, metal industry, paint
industry), automotive wastes, refineries, ship-accidents, off shore
production. Tankers transporting oil contribute to oil pollution
significantly. After delivering oil through sea-route, earlier the
empty tankers used to be filled with water called ballast-water to
maintain balance. The ballast-water containing residual oil from
tankers was released into the sea on completion of return journey.
Now-a-days the oil floating on the ballast water is removed in the
newly designed ‘load-on-top-tankers’ before ballast-water is let-
off.
Oil in sea water can spread over a large area of the sea,
remain dispersed or get adsorbed on sediments. It can cause
adverse effects on marine life.
Oil in the sea water affects sensitive flora and fauna.
Phytoplankton, zooplankton, algal species, various species of
invertebrates, coral reefs, fish, birds and mammals are affected by
oil pollution. Fishes show mortality (death) became the fish gills
get laden with oil after the slimy mucus of gills is affected. Oil
disrupts the insulating capacity of feathers. Death occurs due to
loss of buoyancy and subsequent drowning of birds. Leakage from
oil tanker near Alaska in 1989 caused damage to coral reefs and
resulted in death of about 390 thousand birds. Some important
cases of bird mortality due to oil are at Brittany, France where 20
thousand birds died due to more than 220 tonnes of oil spillage in
1978. At Elbe, Germany 500 thousands birds died in 1955. During
the 1991 Gulf War 200 million gallons of oil spread in the Persian
Gulf badly affecting marine ecosystem.
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Control of marine pollution

i. Toxic pollutants from industries and sewage treatment
plants should not be discharged in coastal waters.
ii. Run off from non-point sources should be prevented to
reach coastal areas.
iii. Sewer overflows should be prevented by having separate
sewer and rain water pipes.
iv. Dumping of toxic, hazardous and sewage sludge should be
banned.
v. Developmental activities on coastal areas should be
minimized.
vi. Oils and greases from service stations should be
reprocessed for reuse.
vii. Oil ballast should not be dumped into sea.
viii. Protecting ecologically sensitive coastal areas by not
allowing drilling.
SOIL POLLUTION
Soil is the upper layer of the earth crust which is formed by
weathering of rocks. Organic matter in the soil makes it suitable
for living organisms. Dumping of various types of materials
especially domestic and industrial wastes causes soil pollution.
Domestic wastes include garbage, rubbish material like glass,
plastics, metallic cans, paper, fibres, cloth rags, containers, paints,
varnishes etc. Leachates from dumping sites and sewage tanks are
harmful and toxic.
Industrial wastes are the effluents discharged from
chemical industries, paper and pulp mills, tanneries, textile mills,
steel industries, distilleries, refineries, pesticides and fertilizer
industries, pharmaceutical industries, food processing industries,
cement industries, thermal and nuclear power plants, mining
industries etc. Thermal power plants generate a large quantity of
‘Fly ash’.
Pesticides are used to kill pests that damage crops. These
pesticides ultimately reach soil and persist there for a long time.
Pesticides which are persistent are chlorinated hydrocarbon
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insecticides e.g. DDT, HCH, endrin, lindane, heptachlor,

endosulfan etc.
Industrial wastes contain organic and inorganic compounds
some of which are refractory and non-biodegradable. Industrial
sludge may contain various salts, toxic substances, metals like
mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic etc. Agrochemicals released with
the wastes of pesticide and fertilizer factories or during
agricultural practices reach the soil and pollute it.
Soil also receives excreta from animals and humans. The
sewage sludge contains many pathogenic organisms, bacteria,
viruses and intestinal worms which cause pollution in the soil.
The sources of radioactive substances in soil are explosion
of radioactive devices, radioactive wastes discharged from
industries and laboratories, aerial fall-out etc. Isotopes of radium,
uranium thorium, strontium, iodine, caesium and of many other
elements reach soil and persist there for a long time and keep on
emitting radiations.
Effects of Soil Pollution
Sewage and industrial effluents which pollute soil
ultimately affect human health. Various types of chemicals like
acids, alkali, pesticides, insecticides, weedicides, fungicides,
heavy metals etc. in the industrial discharges affect soil fertility by
causing changes in physical, chemical characteristics and
biological properties.
Some of the persistent toxic chemicals inhibit the non-
target organisms, soil flora and fauna and reduce soil productivity.
These chemical accumulate in food chain and ultimately affect
human health. Indiscriminate use of pesticides specially is a matter
of concern.
Sewage sludge has many types of bacteria, viruses,
intestinal worms which may cause various types of diseases.
Decomposing organic matter in soil produces toxic vapours.
Radioactive fallout on vegetation is the source of radio-
isotopes which enter the food chain in the grazing animals. Some
of these radio isotopes replace essential elements in the body and
cause abnormalities e.g. strontium-90 instead of calcium gets
deposited in the bones and tissues. The bones become brittle and
prone to fracture.
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Radio isotopes which attach with the clay become a source

of radiations in the environment.
Nitrogen and phosphorus from the fertilizers in soil reach
nearby water bodies with agricultural run-off and cause
eutrophication. Chemicals or their degradation products from soil
may percolate and contaminate ground-water resources.
Control of Soil Pollution:
i. Effluents should be properly treated before discharging
them on the soil.
ii. Solid wastes should be properly collected and disposed off
by appropriate method.
iii. From the wastes, recovery of useful products should be
done.
iv. Biodegradable organic waste should be used for generation
of biogas.
v. Cattle dung is used for methane generation. Night-soil
(human faeces) is also used in the biogas plant to produce
inflammable methane gas.
vi. Microbial degradation of biodegradable substances is also
one of the scientific approaches for reducing soil pollution.
NUCLEAR HAZARDS
Radioactive substances are present in nature. They undergo
natural radioactive decay in which unstable isotopes
spontaneously give out fast moving particles, high energy
radiation or both at a fixed rate until a new stable isotope is
formed.
The isotopes release energy either in the form of gamma
ray (high energy electromagnetic radiation) or ionization particles
i.e. alpha particles and beta particles. The alpha particles are fast
moving positively charged whereas beta particles are high speed
electrons. All these ionization radiations have considerably
variable penetration power. Alpha particles can be interrupted by a
sheet of paper while beta particle can be blocked by a piece of
wood or a few millimeter of aluminium sheet. The gamma rays
can pass through paper, wood but can be stopped by concrete wall,
lead slabs, or water.
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Fig. 5.6: (a) Variable penetration power of ionisation radiations

emitted by radio isotopes; (b) Newtron (n) triggered fission of
uranium-235.

Sources of Radio activity

Various sources of radioactivity can be grouped into (i)
Natural sources (ii) Anthropogenic (man made) sources of
radioactivity.
i) Natural Sources: Sources of natural ionization include
cosmic rays from outer space, radioactive radon-222, soil,
rocks, air, water and food.
ii) Anthropogenic sources: These sources are nuclear power
plants, nuclear accidents, x-rays, diagnostic kits, test
laboratories.
Effects of Radiations : Ionisation radiations can affect by causing
(i) genetic damage (ii) Somatic damage
i) Genetic Damage is caused by radiations by causing
mutations in DNA and affecting genes and chromosomes.
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Damage is seen in the offsprings and may be transmitted

upto several generations.
ii) Somatic Damage includes burns, miscarriages, eye
cataract, cancer (bone, thyroid, breast, lungs and skin).
Scientists think that due to the body’s ability to repair
some of the damage only, radiations show effects beyond a
threshold level. However, the other group believes that even the
small dose over a period of time may cause adverse effects. They
believe that the permissible limits should be further reduced.
Damage caused by different types of radiations depends on
penetration power and source (inside or outside the body). Alpha
particles lack penetration power but they have more energy than
beta. They will be therefore, dangerous when they enter the body
by inhalation or through food. Alpha particles can not penetrate
skin to reach internal organs whereas beta particles can damage
the internal organs. Greater threat is posed by radioisotopes with
intermediate half lives as they have long time to find entry in the
human body.
Radioisotopes which enter the environment during mining
of uranium, the radioactivity in the earth’s crust enters crops
grown there and ultimately in human beings. Radionuclides enter
water on its coming in contact with the soil or rock.
I131 (labeled iodine) accumulates in thyroid gland and
causes cancer. Similarly strontium – 90 accumulates in the bones
and causes leukemia (cancer of bone marrow).
Control of nuclear pollution
i) Siting of nuclear power plants should be carefully done
after studying long term and short term effects.
ii) Proper disposal of wastes from laboratory involving the
use of radioisotopes be done.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Higher standards of living of ever increasing population
has resulted in an increase in the quantity and variety of waste
generated. It is now realized that if waste generation continues
indiscriminately then very soon it would be beyond rectification.
Therefore, solid waste management becomes important in order to
minimize the adverse effects of solid wastes. Solid waste (waste
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other than liquid or air) can be classified as municipal, industrial,

agricultural, medical, mining and sewage sludge.
Sources of Urban and Industrial Wastes
Urban waste consists of medical waste from hospitals;
municipal solid wastes from homes, offices, markets (Commercial
waste) small cottage units, and horticulture waste from
parks/gardens.
• Waste from homes (Domestic waste) contains a variety of
discarded materials like polyethylene bags, empty metal and
aluminium cans, scrap metals, glass bottles, waste paper,
diapers, cloth/rags, food waste, etc.
• Wastes from shops mainly consist of waste paper, packaging
material, cans, bottles, polyethylene bags, peanut shells,
eggshells, tea leaves etc.
• Biomedical wastes includes anatomical wastes, pathological
wastes, infectious wastes etc.
• Construction/demolition waste includes debris and rubbles,
wood, concrete.
• Horticulture waste leaves and waste from slaughter houses
include remains of slaughtered animals and vegetable residues
etc.
Some of these solid urban waste materials that can be
degraded by micro-organisms are called biodegradable
wastes. Examples of this type of waste are vegetable
wastes, stale food, tea leaves, egg shells, peanut shells, dry
leaves etc. Wastes that can not be degraded by micro-
organisms are called non-biodegradable wastes. For
example, polyethylene bags, scrap metal, glass bottles etc.
• Industrial waste- Industrial waste consists of a large number
of materials including factory rubbish, packaging material,
organic wastes, acids alkalis and metals etc. During some
industrial processing large quantities of hazardous and toxic
materials are also produced. The main sources of industrial
wastes are chemical industries, metal and mineral processing
industries. Radioactive wastes are generated by nuclear power
plants. Thermal power plants produce fly ash in large
quantities. Solid wastes from other types of industries include
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scrap metal, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints,

asphalt, tars, dyes, scrap leather, ceramics, abrasives, slag,
heavy metals, asbestos, batteries. In Europe and North
America the environmental laws and safety law are becoming
more stringent due to which disposal of hazardous wastes is
becoming a problem. Cost of disposal of such waste is
increasing. Therefore, these wastes are being exported to
developing countries who do not have sufficient knowledge or
technique for their disposal.
Effects of Solid Wastes
Municipal solid wastes heaps up on the roads due to
improper disposal system. People clean their own houses and litter
their immediate surroundings which affects the community
including themselves. This type of dumping allows biodegradable
materials to decompose under uncontrolled, and unhygeinic
conditions. This produces foul smell, breeds various types of
insects, becomes source of infectious organisms, besides spoiling
the aesthetics of the site.
Industrial solid wastes are sources of toxic metals,
hazardous wastes which may spread on land and can cause
changes in physico-chemical and biological characteristics thereby
affecting productivity of soils. Toxic substances may
leach/percolate to contaminate ground water.
In refuse mixing the hazardous wastes are mixed with
garbage and other combustible waste. This makes segregation and
disposal all the more difficult and risky. Various types of wastes
like cans, pesticides, cleaning solvents, batteries (zinc, lead or
mercury) radioactive materials, plastics are mixed up with paper,
scraps and other non-toxic materials which could be recycled.
Burning of some of these materials produce dioxins, furans and
polychlorinated biphenyls, which have the potential to cause
various types of ailments including cancer.
Management of Solid Waste: For wastes management we stress
on ‘three R’s’—Reduce, reuse and recycle before destruction and
safe storage of wastes.
1. Reduction in use of raw materials: Reduction in the
use of raw materials will correspondingly decrease the
production of waste. Reduced demand for any metallic
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product will decrease the mining of their metal and less

production of waste.
2. Reuse of waste materials: The refillable containers
which are discarded after use can be reused. Villagers
make casseroles, silos from waste paper and other
waste materials. Making rubber rings from the
discarded cycle tubes which are used by the newspaper
vendors, instead of rubber bands thereby decreasing the
waste generation during manufacturing of rubber
bands. Because of financial constraints poor people
reuse their materials to the maximum.
3. Recycling of materials: Recycling is the reprocessing
of discarded materials into new useful products.
i. Formation of some old type products e.g. old
aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted
and recast into new cans and bottles.
ii. Formation of new products: Preparation of
cellulose insulation from paper, preparation of
fuel pellets from kitchen waste. Preparation of
automobiles and construction materials from
steel cans.
The process of reducing, reusing and recycling saves
money, energy, raw materials, land space and also reduces
pollution. Recycling of paper will reduce cutting of trees for
making fresh paper. Reuse of metals will reduce mining and
melting of ores for recovery of metals from ores and prevent
pollution.
For discarding wastes the following methods can be
adopted:
1. Sanitary landfill: In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread
out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay or
plastic foam.
In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an
impermeable linear, usually several layers of clay, thick plastic
and sand. The liner protects the ground water from being
contaminated due to percolation of leachate. Leachate from
bottom is pumped and sent for treatment. When landfill is full it is
covered with clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of
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water. Several wells are drilled near the landfill site to monitor if
any leakage is contaminating ground water. Methane produced by
anaerobic decomposition is collected and burnt to produce
electricity or heat.
Composting: Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger
cities, the biodegradable yard waste (keep separate from the
municipal waste) is allowed to degrade/decompose in oxygen rich
medium. A good quality nutrient rich environmental friendly
manure is formed which improves the soil conditions and fertility.
Incineration: Incinerators are burning plants capable of burning a
large amount of materials at high temperature. The initial cost is
very high. During incineration high levels of dioxins, furans, lead
and cadmium may be emitted with the fly ash of incinerator.
Dioxin level may reach many times more than in that
environment. For incineration of materials, it is better to remove
batteries containing heavy metals and plastic containing chlorine
before burning the material. Removal of plastics will reduce
dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Role of individual in prevention of pollution
The role of every individual in preventing pollution is of
paramount importance because if every individual contributes
substantially the effect will be visible not only at the community,
city, state or national level but also at the international level as
environment has no boundaries. It is the responsibility of the
human race which has occupied the commanding position to
protect the earth and provide conducive environment for itself and
innumerable other species which evolved on this earth. A small
effort made by each individual will have pronounced effect at the
global level. This justifies the proverb- “Think globally act
locally”.
Each individual should change his/her life style in such a
way so as to reduce environmental pollution. It can be done by
following some of the following suggestions.
• Help in pollution prevention more than pollution control.
• Use ecofriendly products.
• Cut down the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) as these
destroy ozone layer. Do not use polystyrene cups that have
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chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) molecules in them which

destroy ozone layer.
• Use the chemicals derived from peaches and plums to
clean computer chips and circuit boards instead of CFCs.
• Use CFC free refrigerators.
The manufacture and operation of such devices that don’t
pollute should be encouraged. If they cost more then their higher
prices may be offset by including environmental, the social costs
of pollution in the price of such products which pollute
environment.
Air pollution can be prevented by using really clean fuel i.e.
hydrogen fuel. Hydrogen for that matter should not be produced
by passing current in water as for generation of this current, again
the environment will be polluted. So solar powered hydrogen fuel
is the need of the hour.
• Reduction in the dependency on fossil fuel especially coal
or oil.
• Save electricity by not wasting it when not required
because electricity saved is electricity generated without
polluting environment. Put on warm cloths than switching
on a heater.
• Adopt and popularize renewable energy sources.
• Improve energy efficiency. This will reduce the amount of
waste energy, i.e. more is achieved with less energy.
• Increase reuse, recycling, and reduce the production of
wastes.
• Use mass transport system. For short-visits use bicycle or
go on foot. Decrease the use of automobiles.
• Use pesticides when only absolutely necessary and that too
in right amounts. Wherever possible alternate pest control
methods (biological control) should be used.
• Use rechargeable batteries. Rechargeable batteries will
reduce metal pollution.
• Use less hazardous chemicals wherever possible. Baking
soda, vinegar and borax can help in cleaning and cloth
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bleaching and softening. Baking soda can replace modern

deodorants.
• The solid waste generated during one manufacturing
process can be used as a raw material for some other
processes.
• Use low phosphate or phosphate-free or biodegradable dish
washing liquid, laundry detergent and shampoo. This will
reduce eutrophication of water bodies.
• Use organic manure instead of commercial inorganic
fertilizers.
• Do not put pesticides, paints, solvents, oils or other
harmful chemicals into the drain or ground water.
• Use only the minimum required amount of water for
various activities. This will prevent fresh water from
pollution.
• When building a home, save (don’t cut) as many as
possible trees in the area.
• Plant more trees.
• Check population growth.
POLLUTION CASE STUDIES
Air Pollution Episodes: A series of air pollution disasters from
Meuse Valley, Belgium (1930) to Chernobyl nuclear disaster in
the erstwhile USSR (1986) have occurred. Some of the important
ones are given below-
1. Donora air pollution disaster: Donora of Pennsylvania
(in USA) is a small mill town dominated by steel mill, zinc
smelter and sulphuric acid plant. A four day fog occurred
from October 25-31, 1948. Due to anticyclonic weather
conditions there was no air movements and temperature
inversion had set in due to sea breeze conditions. Donora
lies in a horse shoe shaped valley on the Monongahela
river, south of Pittsburgh with steep rising hills on each
side of the river.
Fog which formed due to accumulation of cold air at the
bottom of river valley persisted for 4 consecutive days.
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This condition, when cold layer is trapped below the warm

layer, is called inversion. The top fog layer reflected solar
radiations during day time. So the heat received by the
valley was not sufficient to break the inversion. During
night time the top layer had been loosing heat and further
cooling the layer to stabilize. Wind speed in the inversion
layer was also slow. The deadly pollutants emitted by steel
mill, zinc smelter and sulphuric acid plant got trapped and
concentrated in the stable weather conditions of the valley
and remained there for four days. About 6000 of town’s
14,000 inhabitants fell it. Twenty of them died.
2. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy: The world’s worst industrial
accident recurred in Bhopal, M.P., India on the night of
2nd and morning of 3 rd December, 1984. It happened at
Union Carbide Company which used to manufacture
Carboryl (Carbamate) pesticide using Methyl isocyanate
(MIC). When water accidentally entered the tank, its
caused reaction mixture to overheat and explode because
it’s cooling system failed. Other safety devices also did not
work or were not in the working condition. Forty tons of
MIC leaked into the atmosphere which may have
contained 40 kg of phosgene as an impurity. MIC gas at
lower concentrations affects lungs, eyes, skin and causes
irritation in the skin. Higher amounts remove oxygen from
lungs and cause death. In the winter night there were fog
like clouds over south and east of the plant. The gas spread
over 40 km2. About 5100 persons were killed (2600 due to
direct exposure to MIC and other 2500 due to after-effects
of exposure) according to Indian officials. About 2,50,000
persons got exposed to MIC. 65,000 suffered from severe
eye, respiratory, neuromuscular, gastrointestinal,
gynecological disorders. About 1000 persons became
blind. Without counting the damage of human lives, it cost
about $ 570 million in clean up and damage settlement.
This tragedy could have been averted had the company
spent about $ 1 million on safety improvement.
The Love Canal Tragedy
The Love canal tragedy occurred in a suburb of Niagara
Falls, New York. A love canal was built by William Love which
was dug up and was used to dump sealed steel drums of chemical
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wastes by Hooker Chemicals and Plastics Corporation between

1942-1953. In 1953, the dump site was covered with clay and
topsoil by the company and was sold to the city Board of
Education which built an elementary school on that site. Houses
were also built near the school. In 1976, the residents started
complaining of foul smell. Children playing in the canal area
received chemical burns.
In 1977, the corroded steel containers started leaking the
chemicals into storm sewers, basement of homes and the school
playground. About 26 toxic organic compounds were identified.
The dump site was covered with clay and the leaking wastes were
pumped to new treatment plant. The affected families were
relocated.
There could be many more dump sites similar to Love
canal especially in the third world countries. Who knows what
amount of harm such dump sites are causing to the underground
aquifers?

Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster

Chernobyl nuclear accident is the worst nuclear disaster in
the history which occurred at Chernobyl, Ukraine in the erstwhile
USSR (now CIS). On 26 April, 1986 the accident occurred at
reactor of the Chernobyl power plant designed to produce 1000
MW electrical energy. The reactor had been working continuously
for 2 years. It was shut down on April 25, 1986 for intermediate
repairs. This period coincided with the period when people
including the top executives were busy in preparation for national
holiday, The May Day. Due to faulty operations of shutting down
the plant, an explosion occurred in the reactor at 01.23 hrs. on
April 26, 1986. Three seconds later another explosion occurred.
The explosion was so severe that the 1000 tonne steel
concrete lid of reactor 4 blew off. Fire started at the reactor due to
combustion of graphite rods. The reactor temperature soared to
more than 2000°C. Fuel and radioactive debris spew out in a
volcanic cloud of molten mass of the core and the gases. The
debris and gases drifted over most of the northern hemisphere.
Poland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway were affected.
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On first day of the accident 31 persons died and 239 people

were hospitalized. Since the plume was rich in Iodine-131,
Cesium-134 and Cesium-137, it was feared that some of the
576000 exposed people would suffer from cancer specially thyroid
cancer and leukemia. Children were more susceptible as Iodine-
131 is ingested mainly through milk and milk products. Since
children consume more milk and their thyroid glands are in the
growing stage, an increase in thyroid cancer in children from areas
near Chernobyl was registered. More than 2000 people died.
People suffered from ulcerating skin, loss of hair, nausea, anemia.
Agriculture produce was damaged for years, intense
radiations killed several fields, trees, shrubs, plants etc. Sweden
and Denmark banned Russian produce. Flora and fauna were
destroyed. Blood abnormalities, hemorrhagic diseases, changes in
lungs, eye diseases, cataract, reproductive failure and cancer cases
increased.
The nuclear energy is cheap, inexhaustible and non-
polluting source of energy. However, in the absence of proper care
and caution, disasters like Chernobyl can rock the society.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Geological processes like earthquakes, volcanoes, floods
and landslides are the normal events which have resulted in the
formation of the earth that we have today. They are, however,
feared as they result in severe consequences when they affect
human population. Humans have witnessed many such natural
hazards and have tried to learn to control these processes.
Earthquakes: Earthquakes occur due to sudden movements of
earth’s crust. The earth’s crust have several tectonic plates of solid
rock which slowly move along their boundaries. When friction
prevents these plates from slipping, stress builds up and results in
sudden fractures which can occur along the boundaries of the
plates or fault lines (planes of weakness) within the plates. This
causes earthquakes, (the violent, short-term vibrations in the
earth). The point on a fault at which the first movement occurs
during an earthquake is called the epicenter. The severity of an
earthquake is generally measured by its magnitude on Richter
Scale.
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Richter Scale Severity of earthquake

Less than 4 Insignificant
4 - 4.9 Minor
5 – 5.9 Damaging
6 - 6.9 Destructive
7 – 7.9 Major
More than 8 Great

The largest earthquake ever recorded occurred on May 22,

1960 in Chile with the estimated magnitude of 9.5 on Richter
Scale, affecting 90,000 square miles and killing 6,000 people.
Earthquakes that hit various parts of our country with the
magnitude on Richter Scale are given below.
The devastating earthquake which hit Bhuj Town in
Gujarat had cause devastation killing 20,000-30,000 people and
left many injured. It had an energy equivalent to a 5.3 megaton
hydrogen bomb.
Earthquake-generated water waves (may also be generated
by volcanic eruptions) called tsunamis can severely affect coastal
areas. These giant sea swells can move at a speed upto 1000 km/hr
or faster. When approaching sea shore may often reach 15m or
more (upto 65 m) and cause devastation in coastal areas. In China
it killed 8,30,000 people in 1556 and 50,000 in 1976.
Human activities called seismic activities can also cause or
increase earthquake activities. These activities may cause minor
earthquakes. Three such identified activities include.
a) Added load of water in lake behind dam.
b) Under ground nuclear testing.
c) Deep well disposal of liquid waste.
Damage to property and causalities can be prevented by
constructing building in the earthquake prone zones which can
withstand tremors. The structures can be heavily reinforced.
Strategically placing weak spots in the building that can absorb
vibrations from the rest of the building. To have pads or floats
beneath the building on which it can shift harmlessly with ground
motion. Wooden houses are preferred in earthquake prone areas.
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Floods
Generally, the stream channels accommodate average
maximum stream flow. However, due to heavy rains or sudden
snow melt the quantity of water in streams exceeds their capacity
and water overflows the banks and causes inundation of the
surrounding land. This situation is called flood.
A flood generally doesn’t damage property or cause
causalities as compared to other natural disasters. However, it
causes a great economic loss as it causes widespread
contamination. Virtually anything the flood water touches gets
contaminated.
The main reasons of increasing severity and frequency of
floods are human activities. Constructing roads, parking space and
buildings cover earth’s surface and doesn’t allow infiltration of
water into the soil. This speeds up the runoff. Clearing forests for
agriculture also increases floods.
In India, Uttar Pradesh is considered to be among the worst
flood hit states of the country. It has nearly 20% of the total 40
million hectares of flood prone zone in the country.
Flood plains, the low lying areas which get inundated
during floods help to reduce floods. With the building up of the
flood control structures like building of flood walls, deepening of
river channels just transfers the problems downstream. Building
walls prevents spilling out the flood water over flood plains.
Rather it increases the velocity of water to affect the areas
downstream with force.
To check floods, many people are of the opinion that
money should be spent to restore wetlands, replace ground cover
on water-courses, build check-dams on small streams, move
buildings off the flood plains etc. Instead of raising buildings on
flood plains, it is suggested that floodplains should be used for
wildlife habitat, parks, recreational areas and other uses, which are
not susceptible to flood damage.
Landslides
Landslide occurs when coherent rock of soil masses move
downslope due to gravitation pull. Slow landslips don’t cause
much worry but sudden rockslides and mudslides are dangerous.
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Water and vegetation influence landslides. Chemical action

of water gradually cause chemical weathering of rock making it
prone to landslides. Vegetation consolidates the slope material,
provides cohesion by its root system also retards the flow of water
and its erosion capacity.
However, this can be masked by many other exerting
factors like:
i) Earthquakes, vibration etc.
ii) Disturbances in resistant rock overlying rock of low
resistance.
iii) Saturation with water of the unconsolidated sediments.
iv) Unconsolidated sediments exposed by logging road or
house building.
Landslides are governed by the forces which tend to pull
earth material down slope (move in case of slopes with steeper slip
plane) and resisting forces which tend to resist such movements.
It is difficult to control landslides. However these can be
minimized by stabilizing the slope by:
i) Draining the surface & subsurface water.
ii) Providing slope support like gabions (wired stone
blocks)
iii) Concrete – support at the base of a slope.
Cyclones
Cyclones are recurring phenomena in the tropical coastal
regions. Tropical cyclones in the warm oceans are formed because
of heat and moisture. One of the requirements for formation of
tropical cyclones is that the sea surface temperature (SST) should
be above 26°C. Tropical cyclones move like a spinning top at the
speed of 10-30 km per hour. They can last for a week or so and
have a diameter varying between 100 to 1500 km. Since in the
western parts of the main ocean no cold currents exist, tropical
cyclones originate there. Tropical cyclones are called hurricanes
in the Atlantic, Caribbean and north eastern Pacific, typhoons' is
the western Pacific; 'cyclones' in the Indian Ocean and 'willy
willies' in the sea around Australia.
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More storms form in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian

Sea. Of 5-6 storms that forms in the year about half of them are
severe. Hurricane winds (74 miles per hour or more) rains and
storm surge (often 50-100 miles wide dome of water) often
devastate the area where it strikes on land. The devastation is more
when storm surge and normal astronomical tide coincide. Sea
water with combined force rushes inlands and inundates the low
lying areas.
Management: It is difficult to stop the recurrence of cyclones.
Some long term defence measures can help to protect us from
devastation. Such measures include, planting more trees on the
coastal belt, construction of dams, dykes, embankments, storm
shelter, wind breaks, proper drainage, wide roads for quick
evacuation.