Theme 2 Introduction To Language Acquisition

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Language Acquisition

Topic n.2°
Introduction to Language Acquisition
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Index
Page.
2.1. Linguistic Competence and Linguistic Performance. 3

2.2. Theories of Second Language Acquisition. 4

2.3. Domains of language Learning: cognitive, linguistic

and Social affective. 10

Complementary resources

References

Self-evaluation

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2.1. Linguistic competence and Linguistic performance

Most linguists have made a distinction between linguistic competence


which is the knowledge of the structure of a language, and linguistic
performance, what the speaker does with this knowledge. This happened since
the publication of Noam Chomsky's Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965.
Saville-Troike (2005) for example, declares that “Linguistic performance is the
ability to produce and comprehend sentences in a language.”

On the other hand, (Denham, Kristin & Lobeck, Anne, 2011) point out in
their book Linguistics for everyone that in Noam Chomsky’s theory, our
linguistic competence is our unconscious knowledge of languages similar in
some ways to Saussure's concept of langue, and linguistic performance is
what we actually produce as utterances, similar to Saussure’s parole.
Linguistic competence concerns the tacit knowledge of grammar, while
linguistic performance, the realization of this knowledge in actual performance.

Factors that Influence Linguistic Performance

Linguistic performance is determined by a combination of factors. Rudolf


P. Botha, in his book “The Conduct of Linguistic Inquiry: A Systematic
Introduction to the Methodology of Generative Grammar” cited in (Nordquist,
2020) states that Linguistic performance is determined/influenced by a
combination of several factors:

(a) the linguistic competence or unconscious linguistic knowledge of the


speaker-hearer,
(b) the nature and limitations of the speaker-hearer's speech production
and speech perception mechanisms,
(c) the nature and limitations of the speaker-hearer's memory,
concentration, attention and other mental capacities,
(d) the social environment and status of the speaker-hearer,
(e) the dialectal environment of the speaker-hearer,
(f) the idiolect and the individual style of speaking of the speaker-hearer,
(g) the speaker-hearer's factual knowledge and view of the world in
which he lives,
(h) the speaker-hearer's state of health, his emotional state, and other
similar incidental circumstances. (p. 3)

Tema n.° 2: Introduction to Language Acquisition 3


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2.2. Theories of second language acquisition

Everyone knows that learning a language can be a challenge, and many


students avoid speaking in a more communicative way because they feel they
need to be more precise in grammar, especially in front of peers, family, and
friends, which means they attach more importance to it, to precision than
fluency. This prevents them from using the language more naturally.

B. VanPatten and J. Williams (2015 introduced in Smaili, n.d.) present a


review of contemporary theories of language acquisition in the book called
“Theories in Second Language Acquisition”. An introduction, where the
researchers explain their theories from different perspectives. Main
contemporary theories are introduced as follows:

1. Universal Grammar (Linguistically oriented)


2. The Concept-Oriented approach (Functional Approach)
3. Usage-Based Approaches to SLA
4. Skill acquisition theory (Psychologically oriented)
5. Input processing in Adult SLA (Psychologically oriented)
6. The Declarative/Procedural Model (Neurobiologically Motivated Theory)
7. Processability theory (Psychologically oriented)
8. Input, interaction and output (Psychologically oriented)
9. Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Development
10. Complexity Theory. (Smaili, n.d.)

These authors, Bley-Broman en Epstein et al. (1996) in their academic


journal article mentions three types of theories:

1. Nativist Theories - Input-based Theories


2. Environmental Theories
3. Interactionist Theories

In the following lines, we will study Krashen's theory of language


acquisition where he exposes his five hypotheses. In this way, we will be able to
better understand the challenges that both teachers and students experience in
teaching and learning a new language accordingly.

Figure 5

Stephen Krashen’s biographical data

Tema n.° 2: Introduction to Language Acquisition 4


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Source. Taken from Stephen Krashen’s biographical data. ING 265 Day 4 (jara,
2012)

Krashen is a widely recognized linguist specializing in theories of


language acquisition and development. Since 1980, he has published over 100
books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at
universities throughout the United States and Canada.

Krashen proposes five well-known hypotheses about second language


acquisition. This is a brief description of his theory which has had a large impact
in all areas of language research and teaching. Krashen's theory of second
language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses: (Krashen, 1982)

• The Acquisition-Learning distinction


• The Natural Order hypothesis
• The Monitor hypothesis
• The Input hypothesis
• The Affective Filter hypothesis

Figure 6

The 5 hypotheses of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Tema n.° 2: Introduction to Language Acquisition 5


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Source. Taken from Stephen Krashen's theory of Second Language Acquisition


(ThingLink, 2013)

Figure 7

Stephen Dr. Krashen quotes

Source. Quotes Taken from (TOP 25 QUOTES BY STEPHEN D. KRASHEN,


n.d.)

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1. The Acquisition-Learning distinction

This is the most widely known and fundamental of the five hypotheses.
According to Krashen (1982), “adults have two distinct and independent ways of
developing competence in a second language.' They are the acquired system'
and 'the learned system'. The first one is similar to the way a child learn the
language. It is unconscious and needs only a meaningful communicative
environment. It is informal and natural. The people surrounding the learner do
not need to teach grammar rules. The second one (the learned system) refers
to a conscious knowledge of the language. It is a formal knowledge of the
language.

2. The Natural Order hypothesis

Krashen suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows


a natural order and are predictable, and this order seemed to be independent of
the learners’ age L1 background and conditions of exposure. Krashen also
points out that (Schütz, 2019) the implication of the natural order hypothesis is
not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the
studies. He confirms it when says that grammatical sequencing should not be
followed when the goal is acquisition more than learning.

3. The Monitor hypothesis

This hypothesis declares that (Krashen, 1982) “formal rules or conscious


learning play only a limited role in second language performance”, and these
language performers can use rules only when three conditions are met even
though they are necessary but not sufficient. The monitor acts in a planning,
editing and correcting function when these conditions are:

(i) Time. In order to think about and use conscious rules effectively, a
second language performer needs to have sufficient time.
(ii) Focus on form. To use the Monitor effectively, time is not enough.
(iii) Know the rule. This is a very formidable requirement. Linguistics has
taught us that the structure of language is extremely complex. Students
are exposed only to a small part of the total grammar of the language.
(Krashen, 1982, p. 16)

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Krashen also distinguishes (Schütz, 2019) learners that use the 'monitor'
all the time (over-users) and usually are the introverted people from learners
who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge
(under-users) and usually are extroverted people, and those learners that use
the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). Lack of self-confidence is frequently
related to the over-use of the "monitor".

4. The Input hypothesis

This hypothesis suggests that language acquisition (Not language


learning), occurs along with the “natural order” when learners receive second
language messages that they can understand and that are one step beyond the
learner’s current stage of linguistic competence, a concept also known as
comprehensible input represented as i + 1, in order to allow learners to continue
to progress with their language development

The input hypothesis goes opposite to our usual pedagogical approach in


second and foreign language teaching that says that the person learns
structures first and then he/she practice them in communication. Krashen says
that (1982, p. 21) “we acquire by "going for meaning" first, and as a result, we
acquire structure!”

5. The Affective Filter hypothesis

Krashen points out that affective factors such as Motivation, Self-


confidence and anxiety are directly related to second language acquisition and
its success. He continues saying that:

Those whose attitudes are not optimal for second language acquisition
will not only tend to seek less input, but they will also have a high or
strong Affective Filter--even if they understand the message, the input
will not reach the part of the brain responsible for language acquisition, or
the language acquisition device. (Krashen, 1982. p.31)

For more information about Krashen’s theory, go to this web page

and examine the original book. Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and

practice in second language acquisition (1st ed). Pages: 10 – 32. Copy

the link from the Complementary bibliography section.

Tema n.° 2: Introduction to Language Acquisition 8


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Source: Stephen Krashen on Language Acquisition. (Mark Rounds, 2010).


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NiTsduRreug

For revising how to apply these Krashen’s hypotheses, go to this web


page: Bilash, O. (2009, June). Krashen’s Hypotheses. Best of Bilash. Improving
Second Language Education. Copy the link from the complementary
bibliography section.

Fill in the blank with the appropriate word/phrase.

acquisition, input, Learning, Natural Order, Reading, affective filter,


comprehensible input, the monitor

(1) …………. involves the subconscious acceptance of knowledge when


information is stored in the brain through the use of communication.
(2)…………. , on the other hand, is the conscious acceptance of knowledge
'about' a language. Krashen states that (3)…………. is controlled by the
learning system and is used to correct errors in the utterance. The (4)………….
hypothesis suggests that parts of language are learned in a certain sequence
that cannot be altered through deliberate teaching. The theory that language
acquisition occurs when learners receive messages they understand, known as
(5)…………. , is referred to as the (6)…………. hypothesis. Different variables
such as anxiety, self-confidence, motivation, and stress can all impact the

Tema n.° 2: Introduction to Language Acquisition 9


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(7)………….. The concept that reading in the SL will help build vocabulary and
grammar knowledge is known as the (8)…………. hypothesis.

Taken from “Krashen Hypotheses Fill-in-the-Blank”. (Bilash, 2009)

2.3. Domains of language learning: cognitive, linguistic, and


social/affective.

Linguistic, cognitive and social/affective domains provide fundamental


knowledge about both individual and collective strengths and needs in the
second language learning, and as teachers, it is helpful to consider these three
critical learning aspects.

Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities


in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic competence
(underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of
learners at various stages of acquisition.

Psychologists and psycholinguists emphasize the mental or cognitive


processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of language(s) in the
brain.

Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and


extend the scope of study to communicative competence

Complementary resources

• Bilash, O. (2009, June). Krashen’s Hypotheses. Best of Bilash. Improving


Second Language Education. https://bestofbilash.ualberta.ca/krashen.html

• Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition


(1st ed). Pergamon.

• VanPatten, B and Williams, J. (2015) Theories in Second Language


Acquisition. An Introduction (2nd ed). Michigan State University and University
of Illinois at Chicago. Routledge. New Your and London.
https://www.academia.edu/29865431/Theories_In_Second_Language_Acqu
isition_facebook_com_LinguaLIB

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References (according to APA style last edition)
Arung, F. (2016). Language Acquisition and Learning on Children. Journal of

English Education, 1, 1–9.

Bilash, O. (2009, June). Krashen’s Hypotheses. Best of Bilash. Improving Second

Language Education. https://bestofbilash.ualberta.ca/krashen.html

Bley-Broman, en E. et al. (1996). TOPIC 5: Models and Theories that explain

L2/FL Acquisition. 7.

Denham, Kristin, V., & Lobeck, Anne. (2011). Linguistics for everyone: An

introduction. Language in Society, 40, 521–522.

https://doi.org/10.2307/23011855

Green Ph.D., L. C. (2004, April). Bilingual Word Power – Research-Based

Vocabulary Strategies for English Language Learners. IDRA Newsletter.

https://www.idra.org/resource-center/bilingual-word-power/

GRIN - The role of First Language (L1) and Second Language (L2) in the literacy

development of early grade learners. (n.d.). Retrieved March 9, 2021, from

https://www.grin.com/document/935179

Hill, J. & Björk, C. L. (2008). Classroom Instruction That Works with English

Language Learners Participant’s Workbook.

https://www.bridgeportedu.net/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?modulein

stanceid=14055&dataid=12988&FileName=Stages%20of%20Second%2

0Language%20Acquisition%20-%205%20Stages.pdf

Hoque, M. (2017). An Introduction to the Second Language Acquisition (pp. 1–

23).

Tema n.° 2: Introduction to Language Acquisition 11


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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335690866_An_Introduction_to

_the_Second_Language_Acquisition

jara. (2012, July 9). ING 265 Day 4. SlideServe.

https://www.slideserve.com/jara/pragmatics-language-in-context

Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition

(1st ed). Pergamon.

Mark Rounds. (2010, October 15). Stephen Krashen on Language Acquisition.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NiTsduRreug

Morausky. (2020, May 26). What are L1 and L2 in Language Learning? – Speak

to learn English [Blog]. UNIGLO. https://howdoyou.do/what-are-l1-and-l2-

in-language-learning/

Nordquist, R. (2020, August 28). Linguistic Performance. ThoughtCo.

https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-linguistic-performance-1691127

Saville-Troike, M. (Ed.). (2005). Introducing Second Language Acquisition. In

Introducing Second Language Acquisition (pp. 1–6). Cambridge University

Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511808838.002

Schütz, R. E. (2019). Stephen Krashen’s Theory of Second Language

Acquisition. https://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash-english.html

Scottsdale. (n.d.). Should I Worry if My Child is Delayed in Speech and Language

Development?: Scottsdale Pediatric Behavioral Services: ABA Therapy.

Retrieved March 20, 2021, from

https://www.scottsdalepbs.com/blog/should-i-worry-if-my-child-is-

delayed-in-speech-and-language-development

Tema n.° 2: Introduction to Language Acquisition 12


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Smaili, A. (n.d.). Theories In Second Language Acquisition—Facebook com

LinguaLIB. Retrieved March 17, 2021, from

https://www.academia.edu/29865431/Theories_In_Second_Language_A

cquisition_facebook_com_LinguaLIB

ThingLink. (2013). Stephen Krashen’s theory of Second Language Acquisition by

Novo English. https://www.thinglink.com/scene/403756946726846466

TOP 25 QUOTES BY STEPHEN D. KRASHEN. (n.d.). A-Z Quotes. Retrieved

March 20, 2021, from https://www.azquotes.com/author/81092-

Stephen_D_Krashen

Ute’s International Lounge. (2017, June 7). Language Acquisition and Language

Learning – Ute’s International Lounge.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V--eu2d10Cg

Zaščerinska, J. (n.d.). LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LANGUAGE

LEARNING. 8.

Tema n.° 2: Introduction to Language Acquisition 13


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Self-evaluation

Topic 2

1. Language Acquisition is based on …………..


A. sociology processes
B. literary aspects of language
C. the neuro-psychological processes

2. Which of the following is true about language learning?


A) It only occurs during childhood
B) It relies solely on explicit instruction
C) It involves conscious effort and study

3. In language learning……..
A. activities and methods are designed.
B. the teacher does not control de pace in an intentional process
C. teaching is not presupposed

4. In L1, ………..
A. verbal and non-verbal communication is given and children repeat what
they hear.
B. students interact with other students in a language class.
C. the child is forced to repeat what parents teach him/her.

5. What is the critical period hypothesis?


A. The idea that adults learn languages more effectively than children
B. The notion that language acquisition is only possible during early childhood
C. The belief that formal instruction is necessary for language learning

6. Which of the following is a characteristic of language learning?


A. Rapid and effortless process
B. Dependent on the development of motor skills
C. Conscious awareness of grammatical rules and structures

7. Which of the following supports the argument for the importance of


language acquisition?
A. The success of language learning software programs
B. The fact that adults can learn languages faster than children
C. The existence of native-like fluency among immigrants who arrive in a new
country at a young age

8. During the Preproduction stage, …………


A. students may not produce any speaking of the language.
B. students should produce their first words.
C. students use single words

Tema n.° 2: Introduction to Language Acquisition 14


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9. Linguistic performance
A. is our unconscious knowledge of languages.
B. is what we actually produce as utterances.
C. the nature of the speaker production and speech perception
mechanisms.

10. The input hypothesis goes opposite to our usual pedagogical procedures
when teaching a language. It means that….
A. the person learns structures first and then he/she practice them in
communication.
B. the person practices meaning first and then he/she learns the structures.
C. the person practices structures and meaning at the same time.

Tema n.° 2: Introduction to Language Acquisition 15

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