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13 Kant and Rights
01A Preliminary Activity for Week 13
02A Lesson Proper for Week 13
03B Analysis, Application, and Exploration for Week 13
04A Generalization for Week 13
05A Evaluation for Week 13
06A Assignment for Week 13
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13 Kant and Rights
02A Lesson Proper for Week 13

02A Lesson Proper for Week 13

Kantian Ethics

Although it is included in all the works of Kant in his ethical theory, the concept of
Kantian ethics is defined more clearly in “Critique of Practical Reason,” “Metaphysics of
Morals,” and “Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals.” In addition to the part of the
Enlightenment tradition, theorist Immanuel Kant based his ethical theory on the belief that the
reason should be used to determine and classify how people must react. He also did not attempt
the given and specified action but provided instructions that reason must be used and executed to
determine how to behave accordingly.

“Act according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law.”

- Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)

Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is a German Philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment. He is

one of the most important thinkers of the modern Europe, considering his immense influence on
the Western thought. The starting point of his inspiration was the Idealism for the German
movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and for Kantianism, which was built around his
own existence and lifetime.

Kant is known for the following notable works, especially on the following components
about ethics, metaphysics, and epistemology. Kant also has masterworks about the “Critique of
Practical Reason” and “Critique of Pure Reason” to complete the paradigm shift and the transfer
of philosophy beyond the debate in the middle of empiricists and rationalists, which dominated
the Age of Reason and the early of the age of Enlightenment, to combine these doctrines
mentioned above that are known to be contradictory.
 His original thoughts and ideas have influenced almost all philosophical movements since
then. Kant also continued to challenge and influence philosophy in camps such as continental
and analytic philosophy even up to the present.

His view of ethics is deontological, in which the main focus is on the rightness or
wrongness of the actions themselves as opposed to the wrongness or rightness of the
consequences of those actions or the character of an individual, in which ethical rules bind
people to an ethical duty.

Deontology: Duty-Based Ethics of Immanuel Kant

Here are the following objections of Immanuel Kant to utilitarianism:

The utilitarian ethics or utilitarianism takes no account of integrity. The accidental act or done
one with evil is intended to promote or promote good ends is the good act!
Utilitarians are responsible for the possible outcomes that are neither controllable nor even
foreseeable for moral agents relative to utilitarianism.

Immanuel Kant’s Starting Point:

“Our existence has a different and far nobler end, for which and not for happiness, reason
is properly intended, and which must, therefore, be regarded as the supreme condition to which
the private ends of man must, for the most part, be postponed.”

- Immanuel Kant

Kant: Morality Based on Reason Alone

Kant’s Arguments:

We are rational because we are capable of something that are yonder mere happiness.
The so-called mis actually for the lesser creatures not gifted with rationality.
The purpose of the existence of things, considering that the whole world is ordered and has
definitive principles.
To be rational, our ability allows us to discern right from wrong apart from the pleasure and
happiness considerations.
Morality lies in the rationality domain and not happiness because we rational creatures are
intended to be capable and able to discover principles in connection to the guidelines for moral
behavior.

Kant: The Good Will

“Intentions count, and the only intention that counts is ‘the good will.” “…even if, by
some especially unfortunate fate or by the niggardly provision of step-motherly nature, this will
should be wholly lacking in power to accomplish its purpose; if with the greatest effort, it should
yet achieve nothing, and only the good will should remain…yet would it, like a jewel, still shine
by its own light as something which has full value in itself.”

Kant: Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals, 1785

What is Good Will?

It is not only limited only for any good intention. For example, it is not a utilitarian intent
to take the best outcome from one’s activities or actions.
 It is the will to execute or do one’s duty or obligation without any contradiction of details.
Good will does not regard the outcome.

The good will have three classified features:

Good will is the only thing considered and identified as unconditionally good.
The value of a good will is also considered as incomparably higher than the value of the thing,
whether in aggregate or isolation.
Good will is the condition that is indispensable for the value of other varieties or types of goods.

Kant: The Categorical Imperative

Here are the following two articulations:

“Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that
it become a universal law.”

“Act as if the maxim of thy action were to become by thy will a universal law of nature.”

The following points are the two tests for articulating moral duty.

For example: As a student, are you obligated to come to this class?

First point: As yourself, if it is okay for anybody else to act in a similar way (considering
establishing whether it is morally permissible).

Second point: Afterward, ask yourself if it would or could be a good rule that everybody
likewise situated (enrolled students in class “brick and mortar”) must or should act in the same
way (in which it becomes morally imperative) and if universalizing such a result of the decree is
incongruous with your drive.

A few important points:

The imperative categorical is actually not predicated on an outcome conditioned similar

to a hypothetical imperative, such as a simple illustration of “if you want x, then do y.”

Universalizing categorical imperative does not ask about the probable costs or benefits in
a calculus consequentialist similar to Bentham or Mill but the whole context of the idea of
logical contradictions as a consequence.

Example: Peron, who is lying, promises to repay his loan. This sentence indicates and
represents a contradiction of one’s own intentions to obtain a loan.

Universalizing one’s actions does not require everyone else to agree with you or only
obey your will. It does not affect your duty even if no one acts or might practice morality. In this
way, Immanuel Kant also emphasizes the significance and importance of autonomy or
independence, as well as integrity.

Kant: Respect for Persons

“So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other in every
case as an end withal, never as means only.” – Immanuel Kant

Who is a person?

Person technically includes man and any rational being.

Men who can act only according to their natural feelings and wants are not persons.
Rational individuals have freedom of will.
Individuals or persons are the end of themselves. They have several common interests and
projects; even their own goals that are seemingly important to them by the virtue of their actual
rational nature and also to add their value are considered intrinsic.
Youngsters or kids, although they are not fully considered as rational, are still potential
individuals, although we may decide for them. We cannot only use them as objects or tools but
even dispose of them or fail to provide enough care and compassion.

Kant: Are We Ever Permitted to Lie?

Oliver North justified his lying to the Congress about trading arms for hostages during
the Iran Contra Hearings as follows: “Sometimes one must choose between lies and lives.”

Kant’s Response: NO!

Kant: Why Cannot We Ever Lie?

According to Kant, we cannot lie for two reasons:

Lying is actually a paradox or contradiction of categorical imperative. It cannot be universalized

as it would render the act of collaborating and wanting to be believed and understood
meaningless.
Lying also is a contradiction and inconsistency of the practical imperative; it can also lead to
inconsistency in treating people with respect. Lying is considered as a form of manipulation.

Problem with Inquiring Murderer

In Kant’s career, one of the major oppositions was the first challenge to Kant’s reasoning
and argument that came from Benjamin Constant, a Swiss philosopher who asserted that telling
the truth might be considered and must be or should be universal. As stated by the theory of
Kant, a well-known murderer must (if asked) tell or disclose the location of his victim.
Kant’s Response to Benjamin Constant

“…For instance, if you have by a lie hindered a man who is even now planning a murder,
you are legally responsible for all the consequences. But if you have strictly adhered to the truth,
public justice can find no fault with you, be the unforeseen consequence what it may. It is
possible that while you have honestly answered Yes to the murderer’s question, whether his
intended victim is in the house, the latter may have gone out unobserved and so not have come in
the way of the murderer, and the deed therefore have not been done; whereas, if you lied and said
he was not in the house, and he had really gone out (though unknown to you) so that the
murderer met him as he went, and executed his purpose on him, then you might with justice be
accused as the cause of his death. If you had spoken the truth as well as you knew it, perhaps the
murderer, while seeking for his enemy in the house, might have been caught by neighbors
coming up, and the deed has been prevented. Whoever then tells a lie, however good his
intentions may be, must answer for the consequences of it, even before the civil tribunal, and
must pay the penalty for them, however unforeseen they may have been, because truthfulness is
a duty that must be regarded as the basis of all duties founded on contract, the laws of which
would be rendered uncertain and useless if even the least exception to them were admitted.”

Kant: On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives

Kant on Happiness:

Immanuel Kant argued that morality must be derived from the so-called “pure practical
reason.” Kant also added that being morally worthy of being happy as a practical reason is more
important than being merely happy.

However, happiness, in reality, plays and contributes a role in morality:

 “…To secure one’s own happiness is a duty, at least indirectly; for discontent with one’s
condition, under a pressure of many anxieties and amidst unsatisfied wants, might easily become
a great temptation to transgression of duty.”

Kant, Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals, 1898

Kant’s Kingdom of Ends:

As stated by Kant, the concept that every rational will is a will that must be or should be
regarded itself as an enacting law that is binding at all rational will, which is closely connected
and directed to another concept. The entire set of CI formulations indicates that we must “act in
accordance with the maxims of a member giving universal laws for a merely possible kingdom
of ends” (4:439), which is combined with others in the following:

It requires that we must conform our actions to the maxims of the legislator of the laws.

Those laws are considered “a merely possible kingdom,” and each member possesses this status
equally as the lawmakers of universal laws. However, it must be treated continuously as an end
itself.

Five Challenges to Kant’s Deontology:

It supposes that one should act even if the given consequences are shocking.
Example: Consequences that have no reference to the worth of the moral of an act.
Duties that can be in conflict with one another.
Example: The prisoner of war not actually lying versus not permitting the murder of his troops.
As argued by Kant, they are both moral commands, but doing both is impossible. This conflict
cannot be resolved completely.
Temptation to write loopholes for ourselves.
Example: That person named Claudia and has grey-colored hair may do x.
Having difficulty with clear measures for what amounts as wisdom.
Kant allows no exceptions even when it can be rational to do so.

Duty and Respect to Moral Law

According to the theory of Kant, duty and respect refer to a singular motivation by duty
that actually consists of bare respect for the moral law. What we use to come to our mind
naturally is the following kind of setup: duties are rules or laws that are combined with
constraints felt or incentives in our choices.

For instance, in the scenario that the bylaws of a club lay down duties for its respective
offices and enforce them with given sanctions, the city and state laws will establish the duties of
the citizens and enforce them given that they have coercive legal power. Thus, our motivation is
respected in the sense that the code makes it our duty.

Right

A right is defined as an entitlement or reasonable claim to a specific type of positive and

negative treatment from others, assistance from others, or noninterference from others. A positive
right is also entitlement. For example, the right to free expression entitles one to voice opinions
publicly. A negative right is a right to be free of bodily interference. Most rights are positive and
negative.

Main Features of Rights

Rights exist only in society. These are the products of social living.
Rights are the claims of individuals for their development in society.
Rights are recognized by society as the common claims of all people.
Rights are people’s rational and moral claims on their society.
Given that rights are here only in society, these cannot be exercised against society.
Rights are to be exercised by the people for their development, that is, their development in
society by promoting social good.
Rights are equally available to all people.
With the passage of time, the substance of rights changed.
Absolute rights do not exist. These rights are always subject to constraints judged necessary for
protecting public health, security, order, and morality.
Rights are inseparably related to duties.
Rights need enforcement; only then can the people use these rights.

Legal Rights

Legal rights are those that are accepted and enforced by the state. Any defilement of any
legal right is punishable by law.

Three Types of Legal Rights:

Civil rights – rights that provide the opportunity for each person to lead a civilized social life.
Political rights – rights by virtue of which the people get a share in the political process.
Economic rights – rights that provide economic security to the people.

Differences Between Natural and Legal Rights

Many researchers have faith in natural rights. They claim that people inherit several rights
from nature. These researchers appreciate certain natural rights, such as the right to life, liberty,
and property rights. Natural rights are a component of human nature and reason. Natural right in
classical political philosophy refers to the objective rightness of the right things, whether by
virtue of a soul, the correctness of an action, or the quality of a regime.

Moral or human, and legal rights have several differences. First, legal rights require the
justification of an existing system of law. However, human or moral rights must gain their
validity through sources other than legal rights because people can appeal to human or moral
rights to criticize the law or advocate changes in the laws, and the people cannot do this if moral
rights are based upon the law.

Moral rights – based on human consciousness. These rights are supported by the moral
force of the human mind and are not assisted by the force of law.

Moral rights infringement – when you have not been properly named or credited when
your work is used. If someone has treated your work in a way that hurts your reputation, then this
is called derogatory treatment. You have the right to protect yourself against moral rights
infringements.

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14 Utilitarianism
01A Preliminary Activity for Week 14
02A Lesson Proper for Week 14
03B Analysis, Application, and Exploration for Week 14
04A Generalization for Week 14
05A Evaluation for Week 14
06A Assignment for Week 14
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02A Lesson Proper for Week 14

02A Lesson Proper for Week 14

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism deals with a form of consequentialism. The term consequentialism refers to

the moral rightness or wrongness that is considered as an act that depends on the possible
consequence. The grounds for consequentialist estates, the inaction and actions on which
negative consequences are considered, overshadow the positive or good side of consequences
that will be morally wrong. Meanwhile, the so-called actions and inactions with positive
consequences can outweigh the harmful consequences and be deemed immoral.

We discussed that the harm and benefit utilitarianism could actually characterize in any
more may be considered. Classical utilitarians Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart
Mill (1806–1873) defined terms such as happiness and unhappiness and also the art of pleasure
and pain. In this view, the action and inaction that can cause minimal pain or unhappiness and
additional pleasure or happiness that the alternative action and inaction can provide can be
deemed right morally. Meanwhile, such action and inaction can cause unhappiness or pain and
less happiness or so-called pleasure or happiness that the alternative action and inaction can be
morally wrong.

Explanation of Utilitarian Theory

Normative categories
Tannsjo T. (2002) Understanding Ethics

An Introduction to Moral Theory

To understand utilitarianism further, suitable terminologies to the task should be

understood and adopted. Among the existing utilitarians, several terms that are related to
morality and a sense of technicality are commonly used and considered. The sharp distinction is
made in the middle of right and wrong. If the action is neither right nor correct, then it will be
considered as wrong. If the action is not wrong, then it will be regarded as right. When used by a
utilitarian, the terminology “right” has a relatively weaker commendatory force than when used
as an ordinary language or term.

As illustrated in the figure or picture shown above, what does it mean when we say that a
particular action is given and promulgated as obligatory or must or should be done? Then, not
performing the given action would be wrong. We are here speaking on behalf of the particular
and given actions, such as the action a specific agent performs at a given time (e.g., my writing
this right now), and not generic actions (or types or kinds of actions), such as theft, dishonest,
and murder.

Objections to Utilitarianism

There are objections to utilitarianism. Utilitarianism can be trivially true. Who can actually
object to the mandate that we must or should maximize welfare? Who can argue that we ought to
act in a particular way occasionally that does not maximize its welfare? However, the theory is
far from the truth. The end also justifies the means, and there is no trivial truth. The most
relevant and significant objections that are related to the theory should be examined, and we also
indicated how a utilitarian would attempt to answer them. Generally, whether the answers to the
objections are convincing is up to the reader or the examiner.

The following are the objections to utilitarianism:

At some point, utilitarianism is impossible to apply.

Utilitarianism is considered a threat to close friendships and relationships.
Utilitarianism is extremely demanding.
Utilitarianism is extremely permissive.
Utilitarianism does not take the equality questions seriously.
Consequentialism deals with an action’s goodness, which is determined exclusively by its
consequences.

Utilitarianism – It is a given particular type of consequentialist ethical theory.

The classical utilitarians and creators of the traditions include John Stuart Mill and Jeremy
Bentham.
The act of utilitarianism refers to an action that is morally required if and only if it maximizes the
utility. Generally, the term utilitarianism refers to the act or action that is relative to
utilitarianism.
The term optimific describes and illustrates actions that maximize utility.
Utility, which is also known as “greatest good for the greatest number,” deals precisely with the
highest balance net of happiness over unhappiness and does not signify happiness without
considering the suffering involved.
Utility calculus – In utility calculus, we can add up the units of positive and good utility, subtract
all the units of negative utility, and obtain an exact number of and numerous units of utility that
are produced by the given action.

How to apply reasoning related to consequentialist:

Identify what is good intrinsically

Identify what is bad intrinsically
Identify all the available options
In every available option and identify the value of its possible results
Execute an action that yields the highest ratio of good results to bad ones.
Attractions of utilitarianism

Impartiality – The interests of everyone are equally considered.

Justifies conventional moral wisdom – Murder, rape, and slavery are considered wrong as it
results in extremely unhappy people.
Conflict resolution – Utilitarianism provides a procedure for creating hard and difficult moral
decisions.
Moral flexibility – It explains why moral prohibitions against lying, stealing, etc., may be
occasionally broken.
The general form of utilitarianism explains many of our most basic intuitions regarding right and
wrong actions.

Moral community
The moral community is made up of persons whose interests must be considered morally for
their own sake.
The utilitarian moral community consists of all beings that are capable of suffering.
As stated by Bentham, “the question is not, Can they reason? Nor can they talk? But, can they
suffer?”
Utilitarians were far ahead of their time when it came to women’s and animal rights.

Agent neutrality

The concept of consequentialism is agent neutrality. That is, it does not give any
preference to the agents’ desires, their happiness, preferences, or even life. The agent may be
obliged to consider sacrificing any or all items mentioned above.

Assessing actions and intentions with a utilitarian framework

Actions are evaluated on the actual basis of consequences.

The right action is the action that maximizes the utility on an actual basis.
The right intention is the intention that maximizes the utility on an expected basis.
The intentions are evaluated on the expected consequences and not on the actual consequences.
You can execute an action that can be wrong but still is praiseworthy morally.
Example: You see a drowning old lady and decide to save her life. This is considered as a
morally praiseworthy action that can turn out to be wrong because the drowning old lady is
actually Hitler.

Example: You decide to steal someone’s SUV car. This is a morally blameworthy action that
actually turns out to be the action right, as that person will kill and hit someone while drunk
driving.

How do we measure and compare preferences or happiness?

Epistemic problem:

There is a specific epistemological problem or issue relative to the fact that utilitarianism
tells us we can never know what the possible actions is are, but this Is not a huge problem
because we can evaluate the intentions of the person following the expected consequences.

In-depth problem:

How can we define or compare preferences? We can do this when we accept the
nonhedonistic views that it will become increasingly difficult to make a comparison, and
utilitarianism can lose so much of its attractiveness because of its simplicity.

Utilitarianism is extremely demanding

This module will tackle and discuss the three areas that are relatively connected to the
subtopic that utilitarianism is extremely demanding.

The three areas are as follows:

Deliberation
Motivation
Action

Deliberation
Utilitarianism requires an excessive amount of deliberation in all aspects to determine the right
action because the right action is the one with the best accumulated consequences overall. Until
the end, it will consider how it affects every sentiment of organism on the entire planet.

Motivation

In the utilitarian perspective, the amount of the right motivations is the one that produces the
most happiness.
Utilitarianism suggests and recommends that one needs to have the motivations of a saint to be
always motivated to utilize at the maximum.
Action

Utilitarianism violates principles that are generally accepted in moral reasoning that must be
implied.
Utilitarianism indicates that the right life is a life of full, constant, and extreme sacrifice.
The ordinary way of thinking about the actions that we used to think of is considered
supererogatory, praiseworthy, and admirable but not required. However, in accordance with
utilitarianism, all right actions are considered required and a must.
Utilitarianism indicates we are always doing and executing the wrong thing because the given
standard of the right action is extremely high.

Impartiality objection

This objection indicates that focusing on caring for one’s family is generally optimific if we
consider all consequences. As a result, caring for one’s family is typically the proper and correct
thing to do, according to utilitarianism.

Utilitarianism requires one to be completely impartial. However, many people feel they have
special duties to a certain person or individual, such as
Spouses
Countrymen
Humans
Children
Parents

No intrinsic wrongness

In this view, nothing is absolutely and considered consistently wrong, including the following:
Murder
Genocide
Slavery
Torture
Rape

Integrity objection

The following are examples of simple arguments that might or can capture one’s intuitions about
the role of integrity in ethics.

Utilitarianism is correct that acting with integrity is not considered morally relevant to the
morality of an action.
The morality of an activity is ethically significant to acting with integrity.
Thus, utilitarianism is not considered correct.

Bernard Williams several relevant examples of utilitarianism critique

A man is told by a dictator who is extremely evil that if he considers executing one innocent
individual or people, then the lives of nine other people will be spared; if he refuses, all ten will
be executed.
A poor and terrible scientist who is struggling to maintain himself and his family is given a rich
contract to create weapons out of several types of lethal chemicals, and the weapons will be
created with or without his assistance.
Conclusion:

It is often unethical to behave with integrity and refuse to harm an innocent person in order
to build or make weapons from lethal chemical components in both examples of utilitarianism.

Injustice objection

The following examples are relatively connected to injustice objection:

Lonesome stranger: framing a lonesome stranger for a specific crime to prevent harm.
Organ-harvesting doctor: a doctor who goes around harvesting numerous organs of homeless
people or individuals to save the lives of well-loved and important people in the community.
Conclusion:

This objection is mainly due to rights. Utilitarianism cannot account for rights. Bentham largely
designed this objection, stating that rights were nonsense on stilts.

Shaffer Landau’s injustice argument against utilitarianism:

Utilitarianism occasionally requires everybody to commit serious injustices.

The correct and exact moral theory will never push us to commit serious injustices.
Therefore, in general, utilitarianism is not a correct moral theory.

How can a utilitarian respond to this argument?

Given that the argument is valid, a utilitarian can either deny that the first premise is true
or that the second part premise is true.

A note about utilitarianism and political philosophy

Individual rights are considered as the most basic foundation of society until you receive rights
that you do not actually have in a society or community.
Given that utilitarianism does not counter human or individual rights, forming a stable
community or society according to utilitarian principles is impossible.
Political philosophy is related to utilitarianism. All political philosophers accepted the theory of
utilitarianism; these political philosophers include
Robert Nozick
John Rawls.
They are two political philosophers of the 20th century or the present era, notwithstanding
their widely diverging approaches to political philosophy. Nozick and Rawls also drew
inspiration from Kant and the social tradition contract.

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Novaliches, Quezon City, Philippines
BCP Bulacan Campus
Quirino Hwy, San Jose del Monte City
Bulacan, Philippines
Bestlink College of the Philippines’ Learning and School Management System is powered by
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Mobile : +63 (02) 8417 4355
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Justice and Fairness

“The justice and fairness approach focuses on the fair and equitable distribution of good
and harm and/or the social benefits and social costs across the spectrum of society.”

In other words, this approach gives a person his or her due. This approach is based on what
Aristotle said: that “equals should be treated equally and non-equals unequally (n.d.).” This is the
principle of justice.

Those who are unequal because of significant distinctions should be handled differently in
a fair, proportionate, or corresponding manner.
 An example would be paying a group of employees at different compensation levels based
on how much their work effort contributes to the corporation’s profitability. If a man doing the
same work as a woman is paid higher because he happens to be a man, then there is injustice.

When individuals disagree about what should be provided or when judgments regarding
how advantages and obligations should be distributed among a group of people must be made,
concerns of justice or fairness always emerge (Velasquez et al., 2014).

Different Kinds of Justice

The following are different kinds of justice:

Retributive
Compensatory
Distributive.

Retributive justice

Refers to the degree to which sanctions are reasonable and fair. In general, penalties are
considered just to the degree that they consider relevant factors, such as the gravity of the offense
and the criminal’s intent, and disregard irrelevant criteria, such as race. It would be heinously
unfair (Velasquez et al., 2014).

Illustration
 This sort of justice is demonstrated by cutting off a person’s hand for stealing a cent or
inflicting the death sentence on a person who wounded another party by accident and without
negligence (Velasquez et al., 2014).

Compensatory justice

Refers to the extent to which individuals who have damaged others are appropriately
rewarded for their injuries; just recompense equals the loss caused to a person. (Velasquez et al.,
2014).

This is the sort of justice at issue in disputes about worker health hazards in coal mines.
Some claim that mine owners should pay workers whose health has suffered as a result of their
labor. Others claim that employees freely accepted this danger by choosing to work in mines
(Velasquez et al., 2014).

Distributive justice refers to how society’s structures guarantee that its members allocate
advantages and liabilities fairly and justly. This type of justice assumes considerable fairness in
the distribution of goods.

Fair allocation normally considers the overall amount of items to be allocated, the
distribution technique, and the distribution pattern of those outcomes. (Maiese & Burgess, 2020).

Equal work should be provided to individuals with an equal outcome regarding goods
acquired or the ability to acquire goods.

Forsyth (2006) defines five distributive norms as follows:

“Equality – regardless of their contribution, all group members should receive an equal part of
the rewards/costs. Equality advocates that someone who provides 20% of the group’s resources
should receive the same amount as someone who contributes 60%.
Equity – members’ outcomes should be based upon their input. Therefore, an individual who has
invested a large amount of input should receive more from the group than someone who has
contributed a small amount. The members of a large group prefer to base reward and cost
allocations on equity.
Power – Those in positions of more power, status, or control over the group should be
compensated more than those in lower-level positions.
Need – Those in the greatest need should be given the resources required to satisfy their
requirements. Regardless of their contribution, these folks should be provided more resources
than others who currently have them.
Responsibility – others in the group with the most resources should share them with others who
have less.

Importance of Distributive Justice

The notion that everyone begins life from a zero point when they are born, and that they must
earn their way through life by using their abilities and effort to acquire riches.
The concept that each individual is entitled to what his parents had from birth, regardless of his
or her accomplishments in life.

When people perceive that their condition or outcome is out of balance with the conditions
of others in comparable situations, they develop a sense of unfairness.

When people do not receive their fair share or find themselves at an unfair disadvantage,
they will call for fairness. They may even challenge the system. The fundamental question to ask
is, “Is equality possible?”

Thompson (2018) answered this question by arguing that achieving justice based on what
people deserve is Impossible because people never agree about what each deserves. Thompson
did not say that people should have unequal shares, but expecting such equality is impractical.
According to Reamer (2015), historically, social workers and others have based their allocation
decisions on four key concepts:

Need
Equality
Compensation
Contribution.
Occasionally, these criteria are used independently of one another and in combination.

Theories of Just Distribution

The concept of distributive justice accepts the idea of Aristotle that “equals should be
treated equally and unequal, unequal.” Three theories explain how distributive justice is applied
in society.

Egalitarianism – Moral egalitarianism is the position that equality is central to justice, all
individuals are entitled to equal respect, and all humans have equal fundamental worth or moral
status. This concept generally shows no relevant differences among the members of society to
justify unequal treatment. As a political doctrine, egalitarianism indicates that all people should
be treated as equal from birth, thereby indicating having equality under the law and in society at
large.

Types of Egalitarianism (philosophybasics.com, n.d.)

Economic egalitarianism – is a society in which all members have equal position and access to
all economic resources regarding economic power, wealth, and contribution.
Moral egalitarianism – is the position that equality is central to justice, all individuals are entitled
to equal respect, and all humans have equal fundamental worth or moral status.
Legal egalitarianism is the notion that everyone is subject to the same laws. There are no unique
legal rights or groups or classes for any individual, group, or class. The evidence of all witnesses
is given equal weight.
Political egalitarianism – is where the members of society are of equal standing regarding the
political power of influence.
Luck egalitarianism is a view of distributive justice seeking to distinguish between outcomes that
result from brute lack and those that are the consequence of conscious options.
Gender egalitarianism – is a type of society in which men and women have equal authority or a
family arrangement in which both parents have equal power.
Racial egalitarianism – is the absence of racial segregation.
Opportunity egalitarianism is the idea that equality is possible by redistributing resources,
generally in the form of a capital grant provided at the age of maturity.
Christian egalitarianism – indicates that all people are equal before God and Christ and
specifically teaches gender equality in Christian Church leadership and marriage.”
Socialism – Social justice, like equality, is a core principle of socialism. In its most basic form,
social justice tries to secure the greatest possible distribution of resources based on a subjective
assessment of what is deemed fair. The concept of social justice assigns specific responsibilities
to various institutions of society. All socialists believe that the state can create a more egalitarian
society than those that exist under capitalism.
Capitalism – is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production
for profit. In a capitalist market economy, making decisions and investments are determined by
how the distribution of goods will bring in additional profits” (FIU.edu, 2017).

Three Arguments for Capitalism (FIU.edu, 2017)

“Capitalism is a system that ensures that an individual is rewarded in proportion to their

productive effort.
Capitalism is a system on a foundation of respect for individual rights to private property and
free exchange.
Capitalism is the most beneficial system of distribution, motivating the most talented and
creative to compete and innovate and provide goods at low prices, thereby securing large market
shares.”
Critiques of these Arguments (FIU.edu, 2017)

“There is nothing in the system that guarantees that individuals will be rewarded according to
their productive effort.
First, critics of libertarianism would be unmoved by this defense. However, additional nuanced
critiques are present here. These “free exchanges” are presumed to be between individuals in a
symmetric relationship, that is, in the positions of relatively equal power.
Most will acknowledge that capitalism spurs economic growth, innovation, and development.
However, nothing in capitalism assures that all or most members of society will see these
benefits.”

Taxation

“One of the inherited powers of the state is the power of taxation. It refers to the inherited
power of the state to enforce contribution to any person, property, or rights to generate revenue
for government use (Qdoc.tips, n.d.).”

Limitation on Power of Taxation:

Constitutional limitations
Inherited limitation

Constitutional Limitations (Peña, n.d.):

A. Due process of the law – Due process means a law that hears before it condemns, which
proceeds to inquiry and renders judgment only after the trial.
 B. Equal protection of the law – Equal protection of the law means a law that prevents any
taxpayer, a person, or a class from being singled out as a special subject of hostile or
discriminating tax legislation.

C. Non-imprisonment for the nonpayment of a debt or a poll tax – No person shall be

imprisoned for failure to pay a debt unless guilty of estafa.

D. Non-impairment of the provision on obligations of contracts – Any tax law that introduces
charges into the express terms of a contract or its legal construction, its validity, its discharge, or
the remedy for its enforcement impairs the contract.

D. Rule of taxation shall be uniform and equitable – Tax can be equitable if it is based on
the ability to pay a reasonable amount considering certain factors.

E. No public money/property shall be appropriated for a religious or private purpose – The

constitution forbids the use, benefits, or support of any sect, church, denomination,
sectarian institution, or religious system or of any priest, preacher, minister, or other
religious teacher or dignitary as such, except when such person is assigned to the Armed
Forces of the Philippines or any penal institution or government orphanage or
leprosarium.

F. Exemption from the taxation of the educational, religious, and charitable organization –
Charitable institutions, churches, parsonages, convents, or appurtenant to that, mosques,
nonprofit cemeteries, as well as all lands, buildings, and improvements used exclusively
for religious, educational, or charitable purposes, shall be from taxation.

G. No law granting any tax exemption shall be passed without the concurrence of a
majority of all members of the Congress – Tax exemption is a grant of immunity, express
or implied to a particular person, right on property, from a particular tax to which other
persons generally within the same class, taxing authority or territory.
 H. Non-impairment of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court on tax cases – The Supreme
Court has the authority to examine, revise, alter, or confirm, as the statutes or regulations
of the court may require, an appeal or certiorari, a final decision, and orders of lower
courts in all instances regarding the legitimacy of any tax, impost, or toll, or any penalty
imposed in relation to that.

I. The Philippine President can approve or veto a tax bill approved/passed by the
Philippine Congress – The President may be authorized by Congress to fix within defined
limits and subject to such limitations and restrictions.

Inherited Limitations:

Taxes may be levied only for a public purpose;

Nondelegation of the power to tax except to local government;
Exceptions from the taxation of government entities;
must be within the state’s territorial jurisdiction;
Tax law must be subjected to international comity, conventions, or agreements; and
Prohibition of double taxation

Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion (TRAIN LAW):

Known as the TRAIN Law

To update the Tax Code of 1997

Tax Schedule for Individuals

Effective January 1, 2018 until December 31, 2022

Effective January 1, 2023 onward

For Married Individuals

The husband and wife shall compute their taxes separately based on their total taxable income.
Minimum Wage Earner

The minimum wage earners shall be exempted from the payment of income tax on their taxable
income.
The prior point should be followed, provided that the holiday pay received by such minimum
wage earners shall likewise be exempted.
Self-Employed Individual and/or Professionals

Shall have the option to avail 8% tax on gross sales or gross receipt and other non-operating
income above P250,000 instead of the graduated income tax rate.

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15 Academic Writing-Part 2
01A Preliminary Activity for Week 15
02A Lesson Proper for Week 15
03B Analysis, Application, and Exploration for Week 15
04A Generalization for Week 15
05A Evaluation for Week 15
06A Assignment for Week 15
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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16 Research Proposal
01A Preliminary Activity for Week 16
02A Lesson Proper for Week 16
03B Analysis, Application, and Exploration for Week 16
04A Generalization for Week 16
05A Evaluation for Week 16
06A Assignment for Week 16
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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16 Research Proposal
02A Lesson Proper for Week 16

02A Lesson Proper for Week 16

Proposal serves to persuade your readers about the significance of your research. Hence, your
research proposal must be supported by adequate data and information. The format of research
proposal varies among fields, but most proposals should contain at least the following elements:

J. Title
A catchy yet informative title attracts readers. The title communicates what to expect in
your study and indicates your research question. Thus, the research title should be
concise. It is advisable to avoid using general phrases or perspectives when creating titles
such as “an investigation of…,” “a review of…,” etc. Make the title concise and well-
defined.

II. Abstract
The abstract summarizes your research that is approximately 100–250-word long, and
includes the research question, hypothesis of your research (if there is any), the research
methodology, and findings.

III. Introduction
The introduction of your paper includes the background information about your
research and a framework that would help the audience understand how your research is related
to other studies (Wilkinson, 1991). Furthermore, the writer should make the reader interested in
the topic, include a foundation for the problem of the study, place the study in the context of the
scholarly literature, and reach a target audience (Creswell, 1994).

In addition, this section discusses the following four relevant ideas of the research
study:
Topic or subject matter. Define your topic before discussing it. Elaborate by using other
paragraph developments, such as classification, description, giving examples, process,
comparison, contrast, and a combination of these methods.
Importance of the topic. You may cite the role the issue plays in one’s life and the benefits
derived from it. You may cite legal bases, such as laws, decrees, and constitutional provisions,
related to the topic or highlight its historical background.
Reason for choosing the topic. Emphasize what motivated you to choose the topic; for example,
a problem or an unsatisfactory condition that you experienced or observed in the environment,
and you feel the need to improve this present situation. Your strong curiosity on a common or
uncommon circumstance may also be one of it or something about to prove an expert’s theory or
opinion.
Purpose of the study. Your goal or objective must guide you. What do you want to find out,
investigate, look into, determine, or probe? It may also incorporate the rationale for the study.
Include a sentence that begins with “The purpose of this study is…” It will give you clarity about
the purpose and inform the reader directly and explicitly.
Statement of the Problem

According to Creswell (1994), “a problem might be defined as the issue that exists in
the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study” (p.50). Furthermore, the
problem statement indicates the context of your study and how you will approach your analysis
(Wiersma, 1995). In your statement of the problem, the context has to be included and explained,
which includes the discussion of the conceptual and theoretical framework (Pajares, n.d.).

You may also state the research purpose and enumerate the research questions or
subproblems that the study intends to answer. However, the general problem contained in the
research title cannot be a subproblem.

Significance of the Research

In this section, you have to include how your study can benefit the current body of
knowledge regarding the topic and society (Writing a research, n.d.). Think about implications,
that is, how the study results may affect scholarly research, theory, practice, educational
interventions, curricula, counseling, and policy. Most studies have two potential audiences, that
is, practitioners and professional peers.

For the significance of your research, you should ask yourself the following guide questions (The
elements, n.d.).
“What will results mean to the theoretical framework that framed the study?” (p.8).
“What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the findings?” (p.8).
“What will the results mean to the practicing educator?” (p.8).
“Will results influence programs, methods, and/or interventions?” (p.8).
“Will results contribute to the solution of educational problems?” (p.8).
“Will results influence educational policy decisions?” (p.8).
“What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?” (p.8).
“How will the results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come about?”
(p.8).

IV. Literature Review

“The review of the literature provides the background and context of the research
problem [and] should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is
knowledgeable about the area” (Wiersma, 1995, p. 406). It allows you to conduct extensive
background research and support your research question with abundant proof from credible
sources.

The literature review is used for the following purposes:

To reference other studies that you included in your research (Writing a research, n.d.).
To create precise research questions (Writing a research, n.d.).
To assess information from previous literature related to your study (Writing a research, n.d.).
To comprehend other issues that may be relevant to your study (Writing a research, n.d.).
To show the importance of your study to the topic (Writing a research, n.d.).

Furthermore, the literature review also accomplishes the following.

Shows the results of other research that are closely related to your study (The elements, n.d.).
Shows how your study can relate to other literature and fill in the gaps in the current body of
knowledge (The elements, n.d.).
“Provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a benchmark for
comparing the results of a study with other findings” (The elements, n.d., p. 2).
 A strong literature review persuades the reader that your work has a solid foundation in
existing philosophy or concepts and that you are not merely reiterating what other people have
already completed.

V. Research Methodology

This section explains the method you choose for your research question and how you
will execute it. Explain why the specific process is suitable for your research and how it will help
you attain your research goals. Also known as the heart of the proposal, the research
methodology section is where “the activities should be described with as much detail as possible,
and the continuity between them should be apparent” (Wiersma, 1995, p. 409).

Your research methodology is dependent on the type of research you have. For
example, quantitative research entails analyzing statistical data (Writing a research, n.d.).
Therefore, your methods should include the design, sample size, subjects, procedures,
instruments or questionnaire, and justification of approaches of your study (Writing a research,
n.d.). Meanwhile, the qualitative type is for a theoretical research type in literature, which needs
to be detailed and elaborated. However, several studies involve methodologies.

VI. Data Gathering

Outline the plan for data collection and the general outline of the schedule you expect
to follow. The quality and quantity of the data gathered will determine the validity of the research
results.

In writing this part of the research paper, the discussion should cover the following
information:

Source data. Where will the data or information come from? Will they come from students,
teachers, communities, youth, athletes, coaches, or records?
Process of data collection. If the instrument is a questionnaire, then how will the copies be
distributed and retrieved? If the research instrument is used in an interview schedule/list, then
how will the interview be conducted?

VII. Data Analysis

Data analysis is the most crucial part of any research because it summarizes the
collected data. Data analysis involves the interpretation of data gathered by using analytical and
logical reasoning to determine patterns, relationships, or trends. Researchers generally analyze
patterns in observations through the entire data collection phase (Savenye, Robinson, 2004).
Hence, your data analysis should be done responsibly.

An essential component of ensuring data integrity is the accurate and appropriate

analysis of research findings. Improper statistical analyses distort scientific findings, mislead
casual readers (Shepard, 2002), and can negatively influence the public perception of research.
Integrity issues are only as relevant to nonstatistical data analysis.

Few Tips:
Statistically analyze the survey data.
Conduct a thematic analysis of the interview transcripts.
Draft the results and discussion chapters.
You will not be having any results of your experiment while you are writing the
proposal. In this section, you can describe how you will analyze your research question; present
a hypothesis based on the data you have collected in the research.

Limitations and Delimitations

Limitations and delimitations show various considerations or “qualifiers” that

characterize your ability to carry out your study and the parameters of what can or cannot be
included in the study.
A limitation Identifies the potential weaknesses of the study. These weaknesses include
shortcomings, conditions, and influences that the researcher cannot control, thereby restricting
your methodology and conclusions. Thus, limitations that might influence the results should be
mentioned.
Delimitations are boundaries set for your study. It explains how a study is narrowed in scope,
what are the things that you are not doing, and why you have chosen not to do it. Delimitations
include the literature you will not review, the population you are not studying, and the
methodological procedures you will not use.

VIII. Citation

The citation gives credit to the source of information used in one’s work and relates
your work to previous work. It acknowledges the use of other people’s opinions, ideas, theories,
and inventions.

Your sources can be cited in the following two ways:

Reference – A list that includes all the literature you have cited (Writing a research, n.d.).
Bibliography – A list that includes all the literature you have studied for your writing, whether
you cited it or not (Writing a research, n.d.).
Follow a specific format for the citation section as instructed by your supervisor. A
citation can be written in either APA, MLA, Chicago, or Harvard style. References and a
bibliography are included in it.

Citing is important as you are required to cite the ideas and concepts that you included
in your work that do not belong to you (Research guides, 2021). The source must be cited if it is
not your original idea/concept, regardless if you summarize, paraphrase, or use direct quotes
unless this information is considered to be a commonly known fact.

If you got the information from the following, you have to cite them in your references or
bibliography (Why is referencing important, 2019).
Books and journal articles
Newspapers and magazines
Pamphlets or brochures
Films, documentaries, television programs, or advertisements
Websites or electronic resources
Letters, emails, and online discussion forums
Personal interviews
Lecturers or tutors.
You also need to reference when you reprint any diagrams, illustrations, charts, or pictures (para.
12).

On the other hand, the following do not need to be referenced (Why is referencing important,
2019).
Your own observations
Your own experiences
Your own thoughts or comments
Your own analysis
Common knowledge or folklore
Generally accepted information

Articles
Last name(s) and initial(s) of the author(s) NB! In the same order as the article.
Publication year. Article title. Journal title (abbreviated) Volume: pages.

Arendt, J. D. 1997. Adaptive intrinsic growth rates: an integration across taxa. Q. Rev. Biol. 72:
149–177.
Several articles may not contain all the “traditional” information needed for writing a
correct reference. For reference, the examples of such articles are as follows:
 Last name(s), initial(s) of the author(s). Year of publication. Article title. Journal title.
DOI number. DOI stands for Digital Object Identifier and is a unique ID for the electronic
document. Finally, DOI may be standard information added to the reference.

Oxtoby, L. E., Mathis, J. T., Juranek, L. W., and Wooller, M. J. 2015. Estimating stable carbon
isotope values of microphytobenthos in the Arctic for application to food web studies. Polar Biol.
DOI 10.1007/s00300-015-1800-2.
Last name(s), initial(s) of the author(s). Year of publication. Article title. Journal title.
Article number.

Carpalia, C.A., Dopko, R., L. & Zelenski, J.M. 2014. The relationship between nature
connectedness and happiness: a meta-analysis. Front. Psychol. 5. Article 976.

Books, theses, and reports

Last name(s), initial(s) of the author(s) NB! In the same order as in the book.
Publication year. Book title: subtitle. Publisher, place of publication. The total number of pages
(pp).

Examples:
Beletsky, L. 1996. The red-winged blackbird: the biology of a strongly polygynous songbird.
Academic Press, London. 314 pp.
Corral López, A. 2017. The link between brain size, cognitive ability, mate choice, and sexual
behavior in the guppy (Poecilia reticulata). Department of Zoology, Stockholm University,
Stockholm. 116 pp.

Chapters from edited books

Last name(s) and initial(s) of the chapter author(s) NB! In the same order as in the
chapter. Publication year. Chapter title. In: editor name(s) (ed[s]). Book title: subtitle. Publisher,
place of publication, chapter pages.
Example:
Bergström, S., Noppa, L., Gylfe, Å., and Östberg, Y. 2002. Molecular and cellular biology of
Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. In: Gray, J., Kahl, O., Lane, R.S., and Stanek, G. (eds.). Lyme
borreliosis: biology, epidemiology, and control. CABI, Wallingford, pp. 47–90.

Appendices
“The need for complete documentation generally dictates the inclusion of appropriate
appendixes in proposals” (Pajares, n.d., p. 8).

Rules to follow
In Structure of a research paper (2021), the following rules are suggested to better
structure your paper.

Focus on a central contribution.

Write for those who do not know your work.
Use the “context–content–conclusion” approach.
Avoid superfluous information and use parallel structures.
Summarize your research in the Abstract.
Explain the importance of your research in the Introduction.
Explain your results in a logical sequence and support them with figures and tables.
Discuss any data gap and limitation.
Allocate your time for the most important sections.
Get feedback from colleagues (Structure of a research paper, 2021, para 26).

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NOTICE
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faculty members within the eLearning Commons network were UNLAWFULLY uploaded in
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PROSECUTION
Under Philippine law (Republic Act No. 8293), copyright infringement is punishable by the
following: Imprisonment of between 1 to 3 years and a fine of between 50,000 to 150,000 pesos
for the first offense. Imprisonment of 3 years and 1 day to six years plus a fine of between
150,000 to 500,000 pesos for the second offense.

COURSE OF ACTION
Whoever has maliciously uploaded these concerned materials are hereby given an ultimatum to
take it down within 24-hours. Beyond the 24-hour grace period, our Legal Department shall
initiate the proceedings in coordination with the National Bureau of Investigation for IP Address
tracking, account owner identification, and filing of cases for prosecution.

Bestlink College of the Philippines

Official Website
Facebook Page
Knowledgebase
Ascendens Asia
eLearning Commons
School Management 360
Research Institute
BCP Main Campus
#1071 Brgy. Kaligayahan, Quirino Highway
Novaliches, Quezon City, Philippines
BCP Bulacan Campus
Quirino Hwy, San Jose del Monte City
Bulacan, Philippines
Bestlink College of the Philippines’ Learning and School Management System is powered by
Ascendens Asia Group.
Bestlink College of the Philippines
Mobile : +63 (02) 8417 4355
Bcp-inquiry@bcp.edu.ph
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17 Millennials & Filinnials: Ethical Challenges and Responses
01A Preliminary Activity for Week 17
02A Lesson Proper for Week 17
03B Analysis, Application, and Exploration for Week 17
04A Generalization for Week 17
05A Evaluation for Week 17
06A Assignment for Week 17
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17 Millennials & Filinnials: Ethical Challenges and Responses
02A Lesson Proper for Week 17

02A Lesson Proper for Week 17

General Characteristics of Millennials

The question that has been asked that is relevant to this is what is the differences are in
attitude toward ethical issues between millennials in general and the Filinnials (Filipino
millennials) in particular.

Let us examine the four generational groups that are often mentioned today: traditionalists,
baby boomers, generation X workers (Gen Xers), and generation Y or millennial workers. “The
traditionalists born in 1925–1945 are considered hardworking, respectful of authority, and value
loyalty. Baby boomers born 1946–1964 are hardworking, idealistic, and committed to harmony.
Gen Xers born 1965–1980 are entrepreneurial, flexible, self-reliant, and comfortable with
technology. Millennials born in 1981–2000 are tech-savvy, appreciative of diversity, and skilled
in multitasking.” (Ethical Behavior Differs Among Generations, n.d.)

After the millennial generation is Generation Z, born in the late 1990s and early 2000s, a
2014 study on Generation Z going to college found that Generation Z students self-identify as
being loyal, compassionate, thoughtful, open-minded, responsible, and determined.

In a report titled Generational Differences in Workplace Ethics released by the Ethics

Resource Center (Mintz, 2013), millennials observed 49% of workplace misconduct, which is
the highest of all generations. The type of misconduct observed include:

Personal business during work time – 26%

Lying to employees – 22%
Abusive behavior – 21%
Company resource abuse – 21%
Discrimination – 18%
Out of those millennials who were observed with unethical behavior, “67% of them
reported the misconduct” (Ethical Behavior Differs Among Generations, n.d.), which includes:

Stealing or theft – 74%

Falsifying expense reports – 71%
Goods/services fail to meet specification – 69%
Falsifying time sheets or hours worked – 68%
Giving illicit payments/bribes to public officials – 67%
A high percentage of millennials consider specific behavior in the work-pace to be ethical
(Ethical Behavior Differs Among Generations, n.d.), including:

Utilizing social media to learn about the company’s competition – 37%

“Friending” a client or customer on a social network – 36%
Posting personal images on a workplace network – 26%
Maintaining copies of secret documents – 22%
Working fewer hours to compensate for benefit or salary reduction – 18%
Purchasing personal things using a business credit card – 15%
Negatively blogging or tweeting about a firm – 14%
Taking a copy of work software home for personal use – 13%
Most importantly, the report states that young workers “are significantly willing to ignore
the presence of misconduct if they think that behavior will help save jobs. Willingness to let the
ends justify the means seems to have a strong inverse correlation with age.” (Ethical Behavior
Differs Among Generations, n.d.)

This phenomenon is a matter of concern. The practical ethics of the ends justify the means
is most closely associated with an act utilitarian analysis of harms versus benefits. If the benefits,
often to the individuals, exceed the harm done to others, then that individual might rationalize
unethical behavior as more beneficial than harmful.

This report shows that millennials are inclined to cover up unethical behavior in general
and feel justified about it.

In another study, What Millennials Expect from Your Brand, millennials expect more from
brands with ethics and morality. These values become part of their identity and culture in real life
and online. “The top five most loved brands by millennials include YouTube at 82%, Google at
81%, Netflix at 80%, Amazon at 74%, and Sony at 72%.” (Millennials: Ethics And Morals
Become Identity Markers, n.d.)

Profit-sharing with a good cause appears to be important to millennials, with 38% saying
that a firm that donates a tiny portion of income to a good cause would make them prefer that
company. (Millennials: Ethics And Morals Become Identity Markers, n.d.) However, millennials
are much less likely than their parents to care about goods made in America.

Lancaster (2015) observed that the millennial generation was entitled, impatient, and
result-oriented. Combined with the prominent world of technology and social media, these
characteristics have made previous generations ask if millennials are a “result-oriented”
generation or a generation lacking basic ethical standards.

“Millennials are the most educated generation to date” (A Millennial’s Guide To Tax
Reform, n.d.) and have grown up in a world far different from their parents. Technology and
social media’s continual distractions are crucial in a millennial’s daily existence. This complex
and advanced environment they would have as they grow up in has affected their ability to judge
routine activities as matters involving ethical decisions, resulting in a generation that largely
ignores ethical standards once commonplace with earlier generations.

A systematic moral failure that is widespread among the millennial generation is theft.
Most millennials do not recognize that checking social media at work wastes time and money
from their employer. Illegal streaming or pirating video content is also common for millennials.
It is considered abnormal if you adhere to video content distribution laws and pay to rent an
online movie or buy a song.

Like their millennial counterparts from other countries, Filinnials are also characterized as
educated, result-oriented, entitled, tech-savvy, and socially conscious. Their passion for
adventure, meaningful jobs, new experiences, and concern for the environment are some of the
traits that define this generation.

Cornelio (2016) warned that when generations such as the millennials are described as
“wholesale, commentators in the Philippines commit at least two mistakes. First, these categories
are directly imported from Western societies with their historical conditions that shaped the
consciousness of their young people as they were growing up. Having been born in the 1980s
and 1990s, Filipino youth have their social conditions. Many of them are not aware of Martial
Law.” (The Filipino Millennial?, n.d.) Many millennials are children of OFWs. Second,
commentators run the risk of essentialism in young people by using such general categories.
Essentialism is problematic in sociological reality. “Deviations are treated as outliers or
abnormalities, which overlook other experiences that can enrich our understanding of social
issues.” (The Filipino Millennial?, n.d.)

Natividad (2016) offered a unique characterization of Filinnials different from millennials

in other countries with different conditions from the Philippines.
 Upon adulthood, Filipinos are more closely knit to their family.

A total of 83% of Filipino youth are still heavily reliant on their parents for advice compared
with “73% globally” (Associated Labor Unions, n.d.).
“However, Filipino youth believe that 30 is the age at which living with their parents becomes
unacceptable, two years younger than the global average age of 32.” (Associated Labor Unions,
n.d.)

Filinnials are more active on social media and are more easily influenced by it than their
peers.

A total of 22% of Filipino youth have written a negative comment about somebody they know,
which is higher than the Asia-Pacific average of 16%.
A total of 61% of Filipino youngsters, compared to 53% globally, feel pushed to present
themselves in the best light possible on social media.
One out of two Filipino youths says “that seeing their friends post on social media can make
them feel inadequate.” (Associated Labor Unions, n.d.)

Filipino youth also feel strongly compelled to make an impact on other people’s lives.

A total of 96% feel that we all have a responsibility to make a positive contribution to the
community we live in, which is higher than the global average of 89%.
A total of 26% of Filipino youth want to be remembered as a person who changed the world.

Google Philippines (2017) reveals that Filinnials are turning to search to help them make
decisions online. Filinnials do the following three things online:

Filipino millennials want access to information; 75% say that the Internet is the first place for
information.
“Filipino millennials use the Internet to help define themselves in a new and complex way.”
(Google Philippines reveals Filipino millennials’ search, n.d.) The most searched categories
include arts and entertainment, hobbies and leisure, travel and tourism, computers, family and
community, and vehicles.
Filinnials want access to adulting, creativity, and experiences.
3.1. Adulting – the top adulting categories based on search growth for the second quarter of 2017
are finance, vehicles, and real estate.

3.2. Creativity – Creativity is the most searched and watched item that millennials access.

3.3. Experiences – “Filinnials value experiences more than they do products and services. Travel
and tourism registered a search growth of 19%, driven by accommodations and attractions, while
searches for restaurants reached 25%, caused by fast food and restaurant reviews.” (Google
Philippines reveals Filipino millennials’ search, n.d.)

Ethical Challenges to Filinnials

Filinnials are highly educated and tech-savvy, and they are more socially conscious and
put their tech-savviness in the right direction. Several Filinnials deliberately provoke others on
social media by posting inflammatory things to support a particular agenda.

67% of Filinnials are reported with unethical behavior or misconduct, which is higher than the
rest of the generation. Filinnials who practice illegal downloading from the Internet violate
almost every ethical standard, such as honesty and integrity.
Filinnials need to develop and stick to their core moral values because they work in a corporate
environment where the circumstances can change to challenge their core values.

Pluralism
 Pluralism is the concept that reality is made up of many different pieces. According to
Matt Slick, pluralism has varying types in different areas of study.

Religious pluralism – would teach that different religion contains truth, although they might
contradict each other.
Ethical pluralism - argues that multiple moral systems are all equally legitimate, while some are
superior to others.
Scientific pluralism – would maintain that similar events can have different explanations.
Cultural pluralism – maintains that different cultures are equally valid, although some may be
more practical and beneficial to society than others.
Political pluralism – would acknowledge different governmental systems as valid.
Thus, a pluralistic society is a situation where people of different social classes, religions,
races, cultures, and political orientations live together but continue to practice their diverse
interests, traditions, and beliefs.

“Pluralism is more than the mere tolerance of difference; it requires knowledge of them.” (From
Diversity to Pluralism, n.d.)Tolerance, while important, may be a deceptive virtue by itself, even
standing in the way of encouragement.
“Pluralism is not simply relativism but makes room for real and different religious
commitments.” (From Diversity to Pluralism, n.d.) Several people are wary of the language of
pluralism, insisting that it effectively waters down one’s religious belief by acknowledging that
others believe differently.
Pluralism necessitates the cultivation of healthy discussion in order to expose the shared ground
and true distinctions (From Diversity to Pluralism, n.d.)

Fundamentalism

Fundamentalism is a form of religion, especially Islam and Protestant Christianity that

upholds belief in a strict, literal interpretation of the scripture. Thus, fundamentalism indicates
unwavering attachment to a set of irreducible beliefs in religion.
Fundamentalist movements, according to Arbuckle (2016), have the following characteristics,
regardless of the degree of emphasis they place on them:

Religion-inspired – With the emergence of the fundamentalist movement, religion has returned
as a worldwide force. Religion is defined as something that provides individuals with an all-
encompassing way of perceiving the world.
Reactive to Crises – Fundamentalists achieve power during actual or perceived cultural or
national crises.
Simplistic solutions – Fundamentalist interpretation of the world’s problems and their solutions
admit no ambiguity.

Role of Religion in Ethics

The role of religion in ethics has been debated for a long time. Christians of all
denominations believe that religious teachings influence ethical beliefs and decisions. For
example, most people’s moral beliefs are based on the Ten Commandments. Many Christian
religions embody the Ten Commandments in their doctrines because they are believed to be
God’s commands.

Religions such as Catholicism, Judaism, Islam, and Hinduism have some prescribed
teachings or tenets that their respective followers can attain “the good life” and eventually
happiness. Therefore, religion is regarded as a good source of moral codes.

The golden rule best illustrates the relationship between religion and morality. Virtually all
great religions have a version of the golden rule, “do unto others as you would wish them to do
unto you,” in their religious texts. In other words, we should treat others the way we want to be
treated.

Do We Need Religion to be Ethical?

 Most reasonable people would say no. Many nonreligious organizations, such as the Boy
Scouts Organization, offer moral guidance and teach us to be honest, trustworthy, etc.

According to Plante (2011), religion assists and supports people to live ethically. Religion
and spirituality encourage ethical behavior in their sacred scripture readings, wherein their
models or exemplars for behavior (e.g., saints, religious elders, pastors, and teachers) and
spiritual and religious practices (e.g., meditation, church-sponsored social justice ministries, and
religious service attendance) have certain mental and ethical benefits.

Hence, do we need religion to be ethical? Our answer would be no, but it will strengthen
our will to live and act morally.

Can a Nonbeliever be a Good Moral Person?

The underlying assumption behind this question is whether God is relevant to morality or
not. Can a person be good without believing in God?

According to Clive S. Lewis, if a man sees another in danger, then the first instinct is to
rush and help (altruism). However, a second voice intervenes and says, “No, don’t endanger
yourself,” to practice self-preservation. Then, a third voice comes into play and says, “No, you
ought to help.” Where does the third voice come from? This phenomenon is referred to as the
“oughtness” of life. “Morality is what people do, but ethics describe what people should do.
People know what they ought to do, but that does not mean that they always act according to that
knowledge.” (Can an atheist be a good moral person?, n.d.)

Can an Atheist Act Ethically?

 Certainly, but he/she has no ultimate reason to do so and no authority to look to ensure this
line is straight and unbendable. Many atheists and agnostics believe they can work cooperatively
to create a peaceful society.

Immanuel Kant defends the idea of God as an essential requirement of ethics. He believed
that we ought to be virtuous and do our duty. He also argued that given that virtue often goes
unrewarded in the present life, then the soul must be immortal, and a God must exist to guarantee
that it is rewarded.

Euthyphro Dilemma – This concept is named after Plato’s Euthyphro dialogue. Euthyphro
Dilemma asks the following question about the relationship between morality and religion: “Is
something right because God commands it, or does God command it because it is right?” (Divine
Command Theory and the Euthyphro Argument, n.d.) We can put it this way: “Does God will
morally good acts because they are morally good, or are they morally good because God wills
them?” (Philosophy as Quest, Part II, page, n.d.)

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