1.

Electrolysis

Electrolysis
Breakdown of an ionic compound when molten or in aqueous solution by the passage of
electricity.

Cation – positive ion

Anion – negative ion
Electrode – rod of metal or graphite through which an electric current flows into or out of an
electrolyte
Electrolyte – molten or aqueous ionic compound that conducts electricity

General principle:
Cathode – metals or hydrogen are formed
Anode – non-metals (other than hydrogen) are formed

a) Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide

PbBr2(aq)
Carbon or platinum electrodes are used
Cathode – lead is formed (as liquid)
- Pb2+ + 2e- → Pb
Anode – bromine is formed (as diatomic Br2 gas)
- 2Br- → Br2 + 2e-
Electrolyte – aqueous lead(II) bromide

b) Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid

H2SO4(aq)
Carbon or platinum electrodes are used
Cathode – hydrogen is formed (as diatomic H2 gas)
- 2H+ + e- → H2
Anode – oxygen is formed (as diatomic O2 gas)
- 4OH- → O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
Electrolyte – aqueous dilute sulfuric acid

c) Electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride

NaCl(aq)
Carbon or platinum electrodes are used
Cathode – sodium is formed (as liquid)
- Na+ + e- → Na
Anode – chlorine is formed (as diatomic Cl2 gas)
- 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
Electrolyte – aqueous sodium chloride

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is left in solution!

The diaphragm keeps chlorine and NaOH apart because they would react to form sodium
chloride (bleach)

d) Purification of copper by electrolysis of aqueous copper(ii) sulfate

CuSO4(aq)
Pure copper as the cathode and impure copper as the anode
Cathode – copper is formed (as solid deposit)
- Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
Anode – oxygen is formed (as diatomic O2 gas)
- 4OH- → O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
Electrolyte – aqueous copper(II) sulfate

e) Electroplating metal spoon with silver by electrolysis of aqueous silver nitrate

AgNO3(aq)
Spoon as the cathode and silver as the anode
Cathode – silver is formed (as solid deposit)
- Ag+ + e- → Ag
Anode – oxygen is formed (as diatomic O2 gas)
- 4OH- → O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
Electrolyte – aqueous silver nitrate
Manufacture of aluminium from pure aluminium oxide in molten cryolite

Carbon electrodes are used

Cathode – aluminium is formed (as liquid)
Anode – oxygen is formed (as diatomic O2 gas)
Electrolyte – molten mixture of cryolite and aluminium oxide

2. Acids, Bases and Salts

Acids – proton donors, form H+ ions when dissolved in water

Bases – proton acceptors, form OH- ions when dissolved in water

Characteristic properties of acids:

- Have a pH below 7
- Turns blue litmus paper red
- Turns methyl orange red
- Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
- Acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide

Characteristic properties of alkali:

- Have a pH above 7
- Turns red litmus paper blue
- Alkali + ammonium salt → salt + ammonia + water

Importance of controlling acidity in soil:

- Crops and plants do not grow well if the pH is acidic
- Calcium carbonate (limestone) is used to control soil acidity

3. Redox reactions

Reduction – gaining of electrons

Oxidation – loss of electrons
Oxidising agent – substance that oxidises another substance during a redox reaction, i.e.
gains electrons

Reducing agent – substance that reduces another substance during a redox reaction, i.e.
loses electrons

4. Types of Oxides

Basic oxides – reactive metals form basic oxides

- Sodium
- Magnesium

Amphoteric oxide – less reactive metals form amphoteric oxides

- Aluminium
- Zinc
- Lead

Acidic oxide – non-metals form acidic oxides

- Silicon
- Phosphorus
- Sulfur
- Chlorine

5. Making Salts

- Heat the aqueous salt solution to the point of crystallisation.

- Leave the solution to cool and the salt to crystallise.
- Filter the crystals formed, and dry them in a drying oven.

6. Contact Process

Define equilibrium
- Rate of forward reaction and rate of backward reaction are equal
- and the concentrations of reactants and products are constant.

Conditions required for Contact Process

- 450°C
- Vanadium(V) oxide as catalyst
- Pressure of 2 atmospheres

Stage 1
Sulfur is converted into sulfur dioxide by being heated in air.

Stage 2
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3

Stage 3
Sulfur trioxide reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid to produce oleum.

Stage 4
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4
Oleum reacts with water to produce sulfuric acid

7. Haber Process

● Source of nitrogen – air

● Source of hydrogen – natural gas (e.g. methane)
● 200 atmospheres pressure, 450°C, iron catalyst
● Ammonia is used for making fertilisers

Importance of nitrogen-, phosphorus- and potassium-containing fertilisers:

- To improve the quality of plants and crops for growth
- To prevent decolourisation of leaves

8. Carbonates

Uses of limestone:
- Making lime (calcium oxide)
- Neutralising acidic industrial waste
- Neutralising acidic soil
- Iron extraction

Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate (limestone)

Calcium carbonate is heated and broken down into calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide.

calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(s)

9. Fuels

Coal, natural gas and petroleum are fossil fuels that produce carbon dioxide on combustion.
Methane is the main constituent of natural gas.

Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons and is separated into useful fractions by fractional

distillation.
Each fraction has a different boiling point, so they can be evaporated using heat in a
fractional distillation column and separated from each other.
Uses of fractions:
- Refinery gas for bottled gas for heating and cooking
- Gasoline fraction for fuel (petrol) in cars
- Naphtha fraction as a feedstock for making chemicals
- Diesel oil for fuel in diesel engines
- Bitumen for road surfaces

10. Air

Composition of clean air:

- 78% nitrogen
- 21% oxygen
- Small quantities of noble gases, water vapour and carbon dioxide

Common pollutants in air:

- Carbon monoxide
- Sulfur dioxide
- Oxides of nitrogen

Source of pollutants:
- Carbon monoxide – incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances
- Sulfur dioxide – combustion of fossil fuels which contain sulfur compounds
- Oxides of nitrogen – car engines

Ways to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide:

- Use of low sulfur fuel
- Flue gas desulfurisation by calcium oxide

How catalytic converter removes nitrogen monoxide and carbon monoxide from exhaust
emissions by reaction over a hot catalyst
1. Carbon monoxide reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide
2CO + O2 → 2CO2
2. Nitrogen monoxide reacts with carbon monoxide to form nitrogen and carbon dioxide
2NO + 2CO → N2 + 2CO2
3. Nitrogen monoxide breaks down into nitrogen and oxygen
2NO → N2 + O2

Effects of air pollution which are reduced by using catalytic converters:

- Acid rain
- Respiratory problems
- Neurological disorders
- Global dimming

Conditions that lead to iron rusting:

- Exposure to water
- Exposure to oxygen
Barrier methods of rust prevention:
- Galvanising iron prevents water and oxygen from reaching the iron, as zinc is more
reactive than iron.
- Painting iron
- Coating iron with layer of oil

11. Carbon dioxide and methane

Carbon dioxide
Product of:
- complete combustion of carbon-containing substances
- respiration
- reaction between an acid and a carbonate
- thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate

Carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases.

Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases cause an enhanced greenhouse effect,
which may contribute to climate change.

12. Uses of metals

Uses of aluminium:
- Building aircraft parts, because it is strong and has low density
- Building food containers, because it is resistant to corrosion

Uses of zinc:
- Galvanising steel
- Making brass

Uses of mild steel:

- Car bodies
- Machinery

Uses of stainless steel:

- Chemical plant
- Cutlery

13. Extraction of metals from their ores

Extraction of iron from iron oxide in the blast furnace

1. Carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide – C + O2 → CO2
2. Carbon reacts with carbon dioxide to form carbon monoxide – C + CO2 → CO
3. Iron oxide reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron – Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
Aluminium is extracted from the bauxite ore by electrolysis.
Aluminium CANNOT be extracted using carbon, as it is more reactive than carbon.

Metal ores are finite resources, so metals need to be recycled.

14. Water

Chemical test for water:

Use cobalt chloride paper – changes from blue to pink
OR
Use anhydrous copper(II) sulfate – turns blue

Treatment of water supply:

- Filtration – removes solids
- Chlorination – kills microbes

15. Test for cations and anions

Test for aqueous cations

Cation Effect of aqueous sodium Effect of aqueous ammonia
hydroxide (NaOH) (NH3)

Ammonium Ammonia produced on warming None

(NH4+)

Calcium (Ca2+) White precipitate No precipitate

(insoluble in excess)

Copper (Cu2+) Light blue precipitate Light blue precipitate

(insoluble in excess) (soluble in excess)
Gives a dark blue solution

Iron(ii) (Fe2+) Green precipitate Green precipitate

(insoluble in excess) (insoluble in excess)

Iron(iii) (Fe3+) Red-brown precipitate Red-brown precipitate

(insoluble in excess) (insoluble in excess)

Zinc (Zn2+) White precipitate White precipitate

(soluble in excess) (soluble in excess)
Gives a colourless solution Gives a colourless solution

Test for anions

Anion Test Test result

Carbonate (CO32-) Add dilute acid Effervescence, carbon dioxide

 produced

Chloride (Cl-) Add dilute nitric acid White precipitate

Add aqueous silver nitrate

Bromide (Br-) Add dilute nitric acid Cream precipitate

Add aqueous silver nitrate

Nitrate (NO3-) Add aqueous sodium hydroxide Ammonia produced

Add aluminium foil
Heat carefully

Sulfate (SO42-) Add dilute acid White precipitate

Add aqueous barium nitrate

Test for gases

Gas Test & result

Ammonia (NH3) Turns damp red litmus paper blue

Carbon dioxide (CO2) Turns limewater milky

Chlorine (Cl2) Bleaches damp litmus paper

Hydrogen (H2) ‘Pops’ with a lighted splint

Oxygen (O2) Relight a glowing splint

Flame tests for metal ions

Metal ion Flame colour

Lithium (Li+) red

Sodium (Na+) yellow

Potassium (K+) lilac

Copper(II) (Cu2+) blue-green

16. Rate of Reactions

Exothermic – reaction in which heat is given out

Endothermic – reaction in which heat is taken in

Exothermic vs endothermic reactions

Bond breaking is endothermic (absorbs energy)

Bond making is exothermic (releases energy)
More energy is given out in bond making than is taken in in bond breaking
Effect of concentration, particle size and temperature of the rate of reactions

Concentration – as concentration increases, the rate of reaction increases, because there

are more particles per unit volume, so the particles collide more frequently with each other
and thus, more particles have the activation energy to react.

Particle size – as particle size decreases, the rate of reaction increases, because the
surface area of the particles increases, so the particles colllide more frequently with each
other and thus, more particles have the activation energy to react.

Temperature – as temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases, because particles

gain more kinetic energy, so they collide more frequently with each other and thus, more
particles have the activation energy to react.