From damage control to global

humanitarian actor – What caused the

major transformation of the Red
Cross’s mission and self-perception
during its 160 years of history?
 1

Table of Contents
Time of Commencement and Initial Structure.................................................................2

The First Geneva Convention...........................................................................................3

Two-Pronged Strategy......................................................................................................4

World War One................................................................................................................4

Basic Structure of Today’s Red Cross Movement.............................................................6

Role of the ICRC............................................................................................................... 8

Development of the Role of the Red Cross......................................................................9

Reasons for the change..................................................................................................10

Works Cited....................................................................................................................13
 2

Time of Commencement and Initial Structure

The Red Cross is one of the most significant humanitarian relief organization with an
intricate worldwide network of over 192 societies.1 They have had an immeasurable
impact on the fundamental development of humanitarian law and laid the groundwork
for future organizations to be build upon. Not only has the Red Cross revolutionized the
entire field of humanitarian relief, but it has also undergone major changes itself: in
structure, values and culture of the organization. This paper will explore the
background and reasons of this transformative process.

During his travels, in the summer of 1859, through Italy Henry Dunant, a young swiss
writer and businessman, came across the aftermath of the battle of Solferino noticing
the inadequate care for thousands of injured soldiers. The witness of such cruelty
ispired him to write “A Memory of Solferino”2, which can be divided into three parts.
The first one gives a detailed description of the battle itself, followed in the second part
with an elaboration of the care for the wounded, or lack thereof. The key issue he
noticed was that the military was not equipped to deal with the injured soldiers.
Dunant, with the final part, drew humanitarian conclusions and diagnosed the need for
a neutral organization. His book became decisive in the foundation of the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).3

Dunant himself, as it was customary at the time, believed in war as a legitimate political
solution and never questioned its motives or necessity. Therefore, he was in no way a
pacifist4 but rather wanted to alleviate the consequences of (inevitable) military
conflicts. With this intention in mind Henry Dunant created a first program draft where
he noted down his main ideas for an international humanitarian relief organization.
Those ideas included the foundation of volunteer-based aid organizations,
improvement of transport, higher quality of medical care, scientific innovation, the
dispatch of relief supplies. A major concern was the protection of volunteers active in

1
(The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement)
2
(A memory of Solferino, 1862)
3
(Im Zeichen der Menschlichkeit, p. 49); (War and the Red Cross - The Unspoken Mission, p. 8)
4
Definiton: “Term for political movements whose utopian ideology since the 19th century has elevated
the non-violent realisation of a peace order within and between states to the highest principle.” (Lexikon
der Politik, p. 474)
 3

the field. Unknowingly Dunant created the Red Cross’s underlying structure:
international aid organisations that supplement the military medical services.5

His ideas spread like a wildfire among the governing aristocrats who expressed interest
in the linking of humanism and militarism since this linkage contributed to the
stabilaziation of the prevailing order and made warfare less costly (financially and in
terms of manpower) and thereby more efficient. In 1863 there was a preparatory
conference on Dunant’s basic ideas and on the 12 th November 1863 the first Red Cross
Society was entered into the register of associations in Geneva. The date is considered
as the official recognition of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as the
governing entity of all national Red Cross Societies. The ICRC was responsible for
encouraging the formation of national Red Cross societies, structuring the entire Red
Cross Movement and further developing the international humanitarian law (IHL). 6
Shortly after in the Prusso-Danish War, (01.02. – 30.11.1864) a Prussian Red Cross
society was founded and had its first deployment with delegates on both sides of the
warring parties. Thereby neutrality7 and internationality were highlighted as
fundamental principles.8 In July of the same year, France’s participation as a major
European power showcased the momentum the Red Cross movement was gaining.9

The First Geneva Convention

The ICRC announced a meeting of high-level statesman set for August, 1864 hosted by
the Swiss government in order to establish basic humanitarian laws and make them
binding for all nations. Sixteen Nations announced their attendance (including the
USA), making it the biggest diplomatic conference since the Congress of Vienna. The
resulting document with the title “Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of
the Wounded in Armies in the Field”, known as First Geneva Convention consists of ten
articles, signed10 by twelve Nations, laying down tree main principles. “Ambulances and
5
(Im Zeichen der Menschlichkeit, pp. 54-56)
6
(War and the Red Cross - The Unspoken Mission, p. 9)
7
Defenition: “in the general sense (1) the absence of a third party taking sides in a conflict of interest or
war” (Lexikon der Politik, p. 421)
8
(Im Zeichen der Menschlichkeit, pp. 63-64)
9
(Im Zeichen der Menschlichkeit, p. 80)
10
Signing ≠ Ratification: By signing a treaty, a state expresses the intention to comply with the treaty.
However, this expression of intent in itself is not binding. After approval has been granted under a state’s
own internal procedures, it will notify the other parties that they consent to be bound by the treaty. This
is called ratification. The treaty is now officially binding on the state. (Glossary of Terms relating to Treaty
 4

military hospitals shall be recognized as neutral, and as such, protected and respected
by the belligerents as long as they accommodate wounded and sick” (Article 1),
“Wounded or sick combatants, to whatever nation they may belong, shall be collected
and cared for” (Article 6) and “Both flag and armlet shall bear a red cross on a white
ground” (Article 7) establishing neutrality, inviolability of volunteers and the distinctive
emblem of the Red Cross.11 On the one hand the Geneva Conventions codified the
Mission of the Red Cross, following Henri Dunant’s Vision of alleviating the impact of
warfare on soldiers but at the same time allowed the signing governments to reinforce
their conviction, that war was a legit and useful instrument to solve political conflict
and gain the public’s validation and support.

Two-Pronged Strategy
After the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 with the first central collection of in-kind
donations and relief supplies in berlin and the commencement of the Red Cross’s
missing persons tracing service, the ICRC was faced with an unfamiliar issue. During
times of peace Queen Augusta of Prussia played a major role in continuing the
activities of relief organizations, like operations in the context of natural catastrophes,
due to the inevitable lack of duties.12 Thus Queen Augusta created the basic structure
that gives the organization its remarkable adaptability to this day – “between aid in war
and charity in peace.”13 Even though her efforts were significant in establishing todays
structure of the red cross, the close relationship between the governing parties is
contradictory to the ICRCs promise of neutrality.

World War One

During the first World War, the Red Cross played a crucial role in the survival of
thousands of soildiers, receiving high praise and multiple nobel peace prizes.

The Red Cross's reputation may be tarnished upon closer inspection of its inner
workings and values during that time.

actions)
11
(Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field)
12
(Im Zeichen der Menschlichkeit, pp. 84-91)
13
(Im Zeichen der Menschlichkeit, p. 92)
 5

In the course of the Boer War14 in South Africa (1899-1902) the Red Cross participated
in multiple relief actions but revealed their severe prejudices and inability to remain
neutral. The General of Throta’s statement “It goes without saying that a war in Africa
cannot be waged in accordance with the laws of the Geneva Conventions”15 perfectly
summarizes the colonial and nationalist state of mind at the time.

This instance would not remain the only time the ICRC shows a political confli9ct of
interest breaching the moral contract they established with the Geneva conventions.
They did only view war as a legitimate political solution, but actively contributed to the
war machinery, blurring the edges between militantly and charitable.16

In 1915, under the guise of war, the Armenian genocide begins, with Red Cross helpers
acting as contemporary witnesses. Ottoman Armenians fall victim to mass-shootings,
deportation to the Syrian desert, hunger, epidemics, and the hardships of the death
marches. A young helper, Armin T Wegner, documents the crimes and tries to draw
public attention to them. These reports, however, do not appear in any of the historical
accounts of the Red Cross.17

14
“Between 1899 and 1902, the British Army fought a bitter colonial war against the Boers in South
Africa. Although outnumbered, the Boers were a skilled and determined enemy. After initial setbacks and
a long period of guerrilla warfare, the British eventually prevailed, but not without adopting
controversial tactics.” (Boer war)
15
(Im Zeichen der Menschlichkeit, p. 140)
16
(Im Zeichen der Menschlichkeit, p. 156)
17
(Im Zeichen der Menschlichkeit, pp. 168-169), (Völkermord an den Armeniern: Genozid an den
osmanischen Armeniern - Hintergründe und Aufarbeitung)
 6

Basic Structure of Today’s Red Cross18 Movement

Figure 119

Today the Red Cross Movement consists of three main pillars, The ICRC, the
International Federation of the Red Cross and the National Red Cross Societies.

The ICRC consists of six departments: International Law, Policy and Humanitarian
Diplomacy; Mobilization, Movement and Partnerships; Operations; Protection and
Essential Services; Support and Digital Transformation; and People and Culture. These
departments are overseen by the Directorate ´(the executive body oft he ICRC) and all
have their individual responsibilities and tasks to manage. This specific structure has
only been in place since July of 2022, showcasing the constant change and adaptability
of the ICRC.20

18
In addition to the red cross, the red crescent emblem was adopted in the 1870s by the Ottoman
Empire, which considered the red cross to be a religious symbol. (Founding and early years of the ICRC
(1863-1914)), (Im Zeichen der Menschlichkeit, pp. 114-115) Despite its name, the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is responsible for both Red Crescent and Red Cross Societies and has
the same authority over both. For the sake of length and simplicity, this paper will only refer to the
National Red Cross Societies.
19
(The composition of the International Committee of the Red Cross) created by Lucidchart
20
(ICRC, Annual Report 2022)
 7

The second pillar are the National Societies (NS). In oder for a country to establish a NS,
it must be signatory to the Geneva Conventions. Each NS is responsible for assisting
those in need within its own borders and for co-operating with the other components
of the Movement to help those affected by armed conflict, natural disasters and other
emergencies. Working to assist their respective governments in the humanitarian field,
the specific activities of NS vary according to the national context.21

In 1919 with the outlook of worldpeace the League of Nations was created and the
National Red Cross Societies requested for it to become their official liaison body.
Additionally they asked for representatives of the national societies to become
members of the ICRC. The ICRC however rejected both proposal in fear of jeopardising
their principle of neutrality and independence. In 1928 this caused the National
Societies to form a new intermediary body themselves, creating the International
Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent (IFRC) as an umbrella Organisation of all
national Red Cross Societies that coordinates international relief. 22 The IFCR becomes
very operative during major disasters and is primarly responsible for the National
Societies. The Federation coordinates the NS’s Relief and Development actions, creates
and developes NSs, promotes the Red Cross’s ideals and principles and is the
international spokesman of NSs. The IFRCs and therefore the NS’s Priorities are Disaster
response, community service and the Development of NSs.23

The fundamental principles first established at the Geneva Conventions were extended
over the years and currently encompass Humanity, Impartiality, Neutrality,
Independence, Voluntary Service, Unity and Universality.24 The ICRC claims that these
principles bind together the sectors of the Red Cross Movement and allow them to
provide efficient and impartial assistance to the needy. They are binding rules of
conduct and are the key to its identity.

21
(The Role of National Societies during International Armed Conflict under IHL, p. 4)
22
(War and the Red Cross - The Unspoken Mission, pp. 14-15), (The composition of the International
Committee of the Red Cross)
23
(The composition of the International Committee of the Red Cross)
24
(The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement)
 8

Role of the ICRC

The expansion of tasks beyond armed conflict 25, left the Red Cross movement faced
with a new issue: the delegation of roles within their branches. After the conflit that
lead to the foundation of the IFCR, in 1928 an agreement established the rough
devision of labour. The National Societies (together with the IFRC) directed the relief
from natural disasters and the ICRC was responsible for war relief.

In their annual report of 202226 the ICRC explained their exact activities in over 100
countries27 throughout Africa, America, Asia, the Pacific, Europe and the near and
Middle East. Their actions that year consists of five operations illustrated in their
“Institutional Strategy 2019-2024”. The ICRCs fisrt responsibility is the prevention of
violations of the IHL, followed by working with those in need to create sustainable and
relevant humanitarian impact. This second aspect includes the “strengthen[ing of] the
resilience of affected people“ (Objective 2.2), the “respond[ing] to emergencies and
address[ing] needs created by the breakdown of systems“ (Objective 2.5). The last
operations focous on internal developement like the improvent of national Societies
and creating an inclusive and diverse work environment through colaboration. 28

More specifically the ICRC protects Prisinors of war and political detainees organising
visits and assisting to family members if needed. They engage in Rehabilitation and
reconstruction projects, building Medical-, social infrastructure (Basic health and social
units: Hospitals, transfusion centers, Kindergardens, Orphanages, Homes for the
elderly, social care centers) and providing housing with water and sanitary facilities.
Eventhough the Red Cross is not a development organisation 29, in some instances the
ICRC does provide water-, food security, Health programmes, Street children Projects
and integrated community Programmes30.

25
Xref: Two-Pronged Strategy
26
This report is primarily an account of the ICRC’s work in the field and its activities to promote
international humanitarian law. (ICRC, Annual Report 2022)
27
(ICRC, Annual Report 2022, p. 24)
28
(ICRC, Annual Report 2022, pp. 13-15)
29
The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs defines developement cooperation by
four criteria: „Aims explicitly to support national or international development priorities […] Is not driven
by profit […] Discriminates in favour of developing countries […] Is based on cooperative relationships
that seek to enhance developing country ownership“ (2016 Development Cooperation Forum Policy
Briefs)
30
Complex programmes with Medico-Social and Agricultural components
 9

Tracing agencies are responsible for locating missing people, indentifieng the dead and
providing orphanages to children who have lost their parents. These tracing activities
are crucuial during the beginning of a disaster.

Finally, the ICRC is constantly working to improve its guidelines and enforce the rules it
has established to ensure the safety of its volunteers. These regulations can be
condensed to seven concepts, despite their intricacy and length: Acceptance (with
confliuct parties and the population), Identification (wearing of the emblems at all
times), Information (of location and destination), Personality (getting used to danger,
compliance with rules), Communication, Common sense, Protective measures (e.g.:
protective cars, evacuation system, radio network and prior training).

Given the nature of its activities, the ICRC operates within a legal framework to which it
is bound. The IHL, Principles of the movement and the Right of initiative 31 create the
bases for their action. Überleitung The ICRC is neither a non-governmental organisation
(NGO)32 nor an intergovernmental organisation33, creating its own unique classification.
By virtue of its activities and tasks, the ICRC is an international organisation, but its
structure remains that of a private association under Swiss law.. Additionally, the ICRC
enjoys working facilities (privileges and immunities) like the United Nations (UN) 34: the
exemption of Taxes and customs duties, inviolability from premises and documents and
immunity from judicial processes. 35

Development of the Role of the Red Cross

The initial mission of the Red Cross, in the words of Louis Appia, "is to make war more
humane"36. They functioned as relief for the military thus the government, legitimizing
31
To further protect or assist these persons, international humanitarian law confers a right of initiative to
[…](ICRC) and other impartial humanitarian organizations, entitling them to offer their services and act in
the absence of law and rights. (The Practical Guide to Humanitarian Law)
32
Definition: “According to common definitions, NGOs are located "between the market and the state".
They are not profit-oriented, do not seek government offices and differ from self-help organizations
through their non-self-interested, intermediary activities between those affected and political and
administrative bodies.” (Lexikon der Politik, p. 422)
33
Definition: “An association established by governments through a treaty, which pursues common aims
and has its own special organs to fulfill particular functions. In addition to rules setting out the
organization’s structure, there will be provisions on the purpose of the association and the rights and
duties of its members.” (Lexikon der Politik, p. 285)
34
Definition: „an international organisation founded in 1945 as the successor to the League of Nations,
which [...] essentially consists of 5 main bodies“ (Lexikon der Politik, p. 668)
35
(The composition of the International Committee of the Red Cross)
36
(Im Zeichen der Menschlichkeit, p. 66)
 10

war as a political solution. The ICRC even supported the war machinery during the first
World War working closely together with the Prussian leading powers and belived in
nationalist and colonialist values.

Nowadays the ICRC is an adamant supporter of the neutrality school of thought 37, and
therefore reject the politicization of the field of humanitarian relief. They are actively
committed to ensuring that the governments of all countries comply with the IHL and
the Geneva Conventions. Contrary to their prior direct economic benefit from warfare,
the ICRC has made it their mission to undermine all civil wars and are fighting a “war
against war”. Overall the Organization has grown tremendously in size and
internationality.

Reasons for the change

The Reasons for why an organisation would undergo such groundbrealking changes are
complex and multifacaded, but can be devided into two categorys: internal and
external.

External changes are more eaily identified.

Extention if the Geneva convetnions showing their mission to fighzt war as an

institution:

The Red Cross and the IHL are heavily intertwined and therefore the ICRC is focoused
on the development of these laws in order to ensure their ability to aid victims.
Through the Hague Conventions of 1907 and Genva Convention of Prisoners of War
1929 the ICRC established further regulations on the warfare at sea and the treatment
of Prisioners of war.38 With the final Genva Convention of 1949 after disastourus
outcomes of world War II the Red Crosses authority was further extended as a means
of a more effective protectiona and assistance for civilians including in occupied

37
There are four schools of thoughts in humanitarian Organizations. Next to Neutrality, there is
“Coherence” who support the integration of humanitarian aid into an overall political concept in order to
assign responsibility to the government. “Realpolitik” wants to minimize the dependence on the
organization and involve humanitarian relief into foreign policy. Lastly, the strongest critics of the
Neutrality train of thought because it eledgedly stabalizeses the war economy directly, is the “political
economy”. (NGOs und Staat)
38
(Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations
concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land), (Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of
War), (War and the Red Cross - The Unspoken Mission, pp. 9-11)
 11

territory.39 196 states have ratifies all four of these conventions 40 making it the fifth
most ratified treaty in the world. 41 This manifests the ICRC's role as a major global
actor, regulating signatory states.

39
(The Genva Conventions of August 12 1949)
40
(United Nations Treaty Collection)
41
Treaties Ratified by more nations: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (198)
(United Nations Treaty Collection), Montreal Protocol (198) (United Nations Treaty Collection), UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change (198) (United Nations Treaty Collection), UN Convention to
Combat Desertification (197) (United Nations Treaty Collection) all dealing with Environmental Issues
 12

Erläuterung: Unterschiede RK Gründerjahre zu RK heute (was sind die major changes

im Vergleich?)

Zwei Formen von Gründen:

Interne: Wachstum der Organisation, zunehmende Diversität der nationalen Societies,

Arbeit in einem immer breiter werdenden Aufgabenfeld (Stichwort Krankendienst für
verletzte Soldaten bis hin zu großen karitativen Sozialunternehmen in Friedenszeiten);
Weiterentwicklung der eigenen Rolle und Organisationsstrategie in Anpassung an
externe VEränderungen

Externen Gründen: Erfahrungen mit dem Ursprungsmodell und der Anwendbarkeit in

verschiedenen Kontexten (positive wie negative), Vereinnahmung und problematische
Nähe zu Regierungen und politischen Zielen (Stichwort Nazis); Weiterentwicklung des
normativen Rahmen (ERweiterung der Genfer Konventionen und daraus abgeleitet des
humanitären Völkerrechts), entsehung des algemein humanitären systems-> vereinte
Nationen haben Organisationen gegründet -> ICRC nicht mehr der einzige Akteur

Endfrage: wird die

- Nazis -> aufzeigen das die nahe zusammenarbeit ziwschen regierung nicht so
super ist
- The development von eine stärkung der regierung zu einer riesigen organisation
die normen durchsetzt und sich dafür einsetz das regierungen ihrer pflicht
nachgehen die werte die sie vermitteln einzuhalten -> gegen politicalization
- Hinterfragung von Krieg als politisches Mittel

Questions:

- Definition annex?
-

.
 13

bb

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 16

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