MP 1

Introduction to Modern physics
CHAPTER ONE
Special Theory Of Relativity
Chapter outline
9 Introduction
9 Relativity of Orientation and Origin
9 Frames of Reference and Newton’s Laws
9 Galilean Transformation
9 The Michelson–Morley Experiment
9 Postulates of Special Relativity
9 The Lorentz Transformation
9 Lorentz Velocity Transformation
9 Simultaneity and the Relativity of Time
9 Time Dilation
9 Length Contraction
9 The Relativistic Doppler Shift
9 Relativistic Momentum
9 Relativistic mass and Energy
Objectives
At the end this chapter student will able to:

• Understand the special theory of relativity.
• Know the postulates of relativity.
• Recognize the Galilean transformation in relation to frame of reference.
• Understand the Michelson- Morley experiment.
• Know the relativistic momentum and energy description.
• Explain about Simultaneity and the Relativity of Time.
• Derive the Lorentz transformation equation.
• Derive the relativistic Doppler effect of light.
• Derive the relativistic mass, momentum and energy.
Wollo University Physics Department Page 1

Introduction
In this chapter we will focus mainly on the origin and nature of special theory of relativity and its
development at the end of 19th century till now. We will discuss the frame reference, postulates
of special relativity, Galilean transformation, the Michelson-Morley experiment, the Lorentz
transformation and its application in defining some phenomena’s such as length contraction, time
dilation and so on. In addition, we will discuss the relativistic mass, momentum and energy.
Moreover, at the end of each topic, there are activities given for you. Before you will try the
activities, you have to read again and again in order to grasp the concepts in each topic. There are
selected examples at the end of some topics, which are helpful for your work. Finally, there are
some selected questions and problems at the end of this chapter. After you read and understand
the lessons given in each topic, you have to tackle all the problems.
1.1 Relativity of Orientation and Origin
In the 19th century, scientists believed that they had learned most of what there was to know
about physics. Newton’s laws of motion and his universal theory of gravitation, Maxwell’s
theoretical work in unifying electricity and magnetism, and the laws of thermodynamics and
kinetic theory employed mathematical methods to successfully explain a wide variety of
phenomena.
At the beginning of the 20th century, a major revolution shook the world of physics. In 1900
Planck provided the basic ideas of quantum theory, and in 1905 Einstein formulated his special
theory of relativity. The excitement of the times is captured in Einstein’s own words: “It was a
marvelous time to be alive.” Both ideas were to have a profound effect on our understanding of
nature. Within a few decades, these theories inspired new developments and theories in the fields
of atomic, nuclear, and condensed matter physics.
Even though modern physics has led to a multitude of important technological achievements, the
story is still undergoing and incomplete. Discoveries will continue to be made during our

lifetime, many of which will refine our understanding of nature and the world around us. It is
still a “marvelous time to be alive”, as it is quoted by Albert Einstein in the early 20 century.
Activity 1.1
Can you describe the origin of special theory of relativity?
1.2: Frames of Reference and Newton’s Laws
In this topic, we are going to discuss about frames of reference and Newton’s laws. Basically, the
Laws of Physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.
Let‘s first, briefly review Newton’s mechanics in terms of frames of reference.
A “frame of reference” is just a set of coordinates: something you use to measure the things that
matter in Newtonian problems, that is to say, positions and velocities, so we also need a clock.
Figure 1.1 A frame of reference.
A point in space is specified by its three coordinates (x, y, z) and an “event” like, say, a little
explosion, by a place and time: (x, y, z, t).
On the other hand, an inertial frame is defined as one in which Newton’s law of inertia holds
that is; any body which isn’t being acted on by an outside force stays at rest if it is initially at
rest, or continues to move at a constant velocity if that’s what it was doing to begin with. While a

non-inertial frame is one in which the frame accelerates in a straight line. An example of a non-
inertial frame is a rotating frame.
Activity 1.2
What do you think of Newton’s laws of motion in non-inertial reference frame?
1. 3. Galilean Transformation
In order to show the underlying equivalence of measurements made in different reference

frames and hence the equivalence of different frames for doing physics, we need a mathematical
formula that systematically relates measurements made in one reference frame to those in
another. Such a relation is called a transformation, and the one satisfying Newtonian relativity is
the so called Galilean transformation, which owes its origin to Galileo.
The “laws of physics” we shall consider first are those of Newtonian mechanics, as expressed by
Newton’s Laws of Motion, with gravitational forces and also contact forces from objects pushing
against each other. For example, knowing the universal gravitational constant from experiment
(and the masses involved), it is possible from Newton’s Second Law,
Force = mass × acceleration,
to predict future planetary motions with great accuracy.
Suppose we know from experiment that these laws of mechanics are true in one frame of
reference. How do they look in another frame, moving with respect to the first frame? To find
out, we have to figure out how to get from position, velocity and acceleration in one frame to the
corresponding quantities in the second frame.
Obviously, the two frames must have a constant relative velocity, otherwise the law of inertia
won’t hold in both of them. Let’s choose the coordinates so that this velocity is along the x-axis
of both of them.

Figure 1.2 Two frames of reference relatively displaced along the x axis.
Suppose S′ is proceeding relative to S at speed v along the x-axis. For convenience, let us label
the moment when O′ passes O as the zero point of time keeping.
Now, what are the coordinates of the event (x, y, z, t) in S′? It’s easy to see t′ = t, we
synchronized the clocks when O′ passed O. Also, y′ = y and z′ = z, from the figure. We can also
see that x = x′ +vt. Thus, (x, y, z, t) in S corresponds to (x′, y′, z′, t) in S′, where
x’ = x-vt ( 1.1)
y’= y (1.2)
z’ = z (1.3)
t’ = t (1.4)
That’s how positions transform; these are known as the Galilean transformations.
Note that the fourth coordinate, time, is assumed to be the same in both inertial frames. That is,
in classical mechanics, all clocks run at the same rate regardless of their velocity, so that the
time at which an event occurs for an observer in S is the same as the time for the same event in
S’.

Activity 1.3
What do you think of the velocities?
The velocity in S′ in the x′ direction is given as:
(1.5)
It’s just the addition of velocities formula:
ux= u’x +v ( 1.6)
Where ux and u’x are the instantaneous velocities of the object relative to S and S’, respectively.
This result, which is called the Galilean addition law for velocities, is used in everyday
observations and is consistent with our intuitive notions of time and space.
To obtain the relation between the accelerations measured by observers in S and S’, we take a
derivative of the above Equation with respect to time and use the results that dt= dt’ and v is
Constant:
( 1.7)
a’x=ax (1.8)
The acceleration is the same in both frames. This again is obvious, the acceleration is the rate of
change of velocity, and the velocities of the same particle measured in the two frames differ by a
constant factor-the relative velocity of the two frames.
EXAMPLE1.1 Fx= max, Is Covariant Under a Galilean Transformation?

Assume that Newton’s law Fx= max has been shown to hold by an observer in an
inertial frame S. Show that Newton’s law also holds for an observer in S’ or is

covariant under the Galilean transformation, that is, has the form F’x = m’a’x . Note
that inertial mass is an invariant quantity in Newtonian dynamics.
Solution: Starting with the established law Fx= max, we use the Galilean transformation a’x =ax
and the fact that m’= m to obtain Fx= m’a’x . If we now assume that Fx depends only on the
relative positions of m and the particles interacting with m, that is, Fx= f(x2 - x1, x3 - x1, . . .), then
Fx = F’x , because the Δx’s are invariant quantities. Thus we find F’x= m’a’x and establish the
covariance of Newton’s second law in this simple case.
Activity1.4
Can you describe the core ideas of Galilean transformation?
1.4 The Michelson–Morley experiment
The famous experiment designed to detect small changes in the speed of light with motion of an
observer through the ether was performed in 1887 by American physicist Albert A. Michelson
(1852–1931) and the American chemist Edward W. Morley (1838–1923).

Figure 1.3 Diagram of the Michelson interferometer. According to the ether wind concept, the
speed of light should be c - v as the beam approaches mirror M2 and c + v after reflection.
The highly accurate experimental tool perfected by these pioneers to measure small changes in
light speed was the Michelson interferometer, shown in Figure above. One of the arms of the
interferometer was aligned along the direction of the motion of the Earth through the ether. The
Earth moving through the ether would be equivalent to the ether flowing past the Earth in the
opposite direction with speed v, as shown in Figure above. This ether wind blowing in the
opposite direction should cause the speed of light measured in the Earth’s frame of reference to
be c - v as it approaches the mirror M2 in Figure above and c+ v after reflection. The speed v is
the speed of the Earth through space, and hence the speed of the ether wind and c is the speed of
light in the ether frame. The two beams of light reflected from M1 and M2 would recombine, and
an interference pattern consisting of alternating dark and bright bands, or fringes, would be
formed.

To understand the outcome of the Michelson–Morley experiment, let us assume that the
interferometer shown in Figure above has two arms of equal length L. First let’s consider the
beam traveling parallel to the direction of the ether wind, which is taken to be horizontal in
Figure above. According to Newtonian mechanics, as the beam moves to the right, its speed is
reduced by the wind and its speed with respect to the Earth is c - v. On its return journey, as the
light beam moves to the left downwind, its speed with respect to the Earth is c + v. Thus, the
time of travel to the right is L/(c - v), and the time of travel to the left is L/(c + v). The total time
of travel for the round-trip along the horizontal path is:
(1.9)
The time of travel for the vertical light (which must actually be aimed “up-stream” in order to
return to the splitting mirror) is given by:
(1.10)
Thus, the time difference between the light beam traveling horizontally and the beam traveling
vertically is:
(1.11)
Because v2/c 2
<< 1, this expression can be simplified by using the following binomial
expansion after dropping all terms higher than second order:
In our case, x = v2/c 2 and we find:
( 1.12)

The two light beams start out in phase and return to form an interference pattern. Let us assume
that the interferometer is adjusted for parallel fringes and that a telescope is focused on one of
these fringes. The time difference between the two light beams gives rise to a phase difference
between the beams, producing the interference fringe pattern when they combine at the position
of the telescope. A difference in the pattern should be detected by rotating the interferometer
through 900 in a horizontal plane, such that the two beams exchange roles. This results in a net
time difference of twice that given by the above Equation. The path difference corresponding to
this time difference is:
(1.13)
The corresponding fringe shift is equal to this path difference divided by the wavelength of
light,λ, because a change in path of 1 wavelength corresponds to a shift of 1 fringe.
(1.14)
In the experiments by Michelson and Morley, each light beam was reflected by mirrors many
times to give an increased effective path length L of about 11 m. Using this value, and taking v to
be equal to 3 x 104 m/s, the speed of the Earth about the Sun, gives a path difference of

Figure 1.4 Interference fringe schematic showing (a) fringes before rotation and
(b) Expected fringe shift after a rotation of the interferometer by 900.
This extra distance of travel should produce a noticeable shift in the fringe pattern. Specifically,
using light of wavelength 500 nm, we find a fringe shift for rotation through 900 of
The precision instrument designed by Michelson and Morley had the capability of detecting a
shift in the fringe pattern as small as 0.01 fringe. However, they detected no shift in the fringe
pattern. Since then, the experiment has been repeated many times by various scientists under
various conditions, and no fringe shift has ever been detected. Thus, it was concluded that one
cannot detect the motion of the Earth with respect to the ether.
Activity 1.5
1. What was the negative interpretation of the Michelson Morley Experiment?

2. What are the conclusions of Michelson–Morley experiment?

1.5 Postulates of special relativity
So far, we have noted the impossibility of measuring the speed of the ether with respect to the
Earth and the failure of the Galilean velocity transformation in the case of light. In 1905, Albert
Einstein proposed a theory that boldly removed these difficulties and at the same time
completely altered our notion of space and time. Einstein, based his special theory of relativity
on two postulates.
9 The Principle of Relativity: All the laws of physics have the same form in all inertial
reference frames.
9 The Constancy of the Speed of Light: The speed of light in vacuum has the same
value, c= 3.00x 108 m/s, in all inertial frames, regardless of the velocity of the observer
or the velocity of the source emitting the light.
The first postulate asserts that all the laws of physics, those dealing with electricity and
magnetism, optics, thermodynamics, mechanics, and so on, will have the same mathematical
form or be covariant in all coordinate frames moving with constant velocity relative to one
another. From an experimental point of view, Einstein’s principle of relativity means that no
experiment of any type can establish an absolute rest frame, and that all inertial reference frames
are experimentally indistinguishable.
Note that postulate 2, the principle of the constancy of the speed of light, is consistent with
postulate 1: If the speed of light was not the same in all inertial frames but was c in only one, it
would be possible to distinguish between inertial frames, and one could identify a preferred,
absolute frame in contradiction to postulate 1. Postulate 2 was a brilliant theoretical insight on
Einstein’s part in 1905 and has since been directly confirmed experimentally in many ways.
The Michelson–Morley experiment was performed before Einstein published his work on
relativity, and it is not clear that Einstein was aware of the details of the experiment. According
to his principle of relativity, the premises of the Michelson–Morley experiment were incorrect.
In the process of trying to explain the expected results, we stated that when light traveled against

the ether wind its speed was c - v, in accordance with the Galilean addition law for velocities.
However, if the state of motion of the observer or of the source has no influence on the value
found for the speed of light, one will always measure the value to be c. Likewise, the light makes
the return trip after reflection from the mirror at a speed of c, and not with the speed c + v. Thus,
the motion of the Earth should not influence the fringe pattern observed in the
Michelson–Morley experiment and a null result should be expected.
Perhaps at this point you have rightly concluded that the Galilean velocity and coordinate
transformations are incorrect; that is, the Galilean transformations do not keep all the laws of
physics in the same form for different inertial frames. The correct coordinate and time
transformations that preserve the covariant form of all physical laws in two coordinate systems
moving uniformly with respect to each other are called Lorentz transformations. Although the
Galilean transformation preserves the form of Newton’s laws in two frames moving uniformly
with respect to each other, Newton’s laws of mechanics are limited laws that are valid only for
low speeds. In general, Newton’s laws must be replaced by Einstein’s relativistic laws of
mechanics, which hold for all speeds and are invariant, as are all physical laws, under the
Lorentz transformations.
Activity 1.6
1. Describe how the speed of light c is constant in vacuum?
2. What do you think of, “All the laws of physics have the same form in all inertial reference
frames.” According to the relativity?
1.6 The Lorentz transformation
In this section, we shall derive the correct coordinate and velocity transformation equations that
apply for all speeds in the range of 0 v c. This transformation, known as the Lorentz
transformation, was derived by Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853–1928) in 1890 as the transformation

that made Maxwell’s equations covariant. However, its real significance in a physical theory
transcending electromagnetism was first recognized by Einstein. The Lorentz coordinate
transformation is a set of formulas that relates the space and time coordinates of two inertial
observers moving with a relative speed v. The Lorentz transformation formulas provide a formal,
concise, and almost mechanical method of solution of relativity problem.
We start our derivation of the Lorentz transformation by noting that as reasonable guess (based
on physical intuition) about the form of the coordinate equations can greatly reduce the algebraic
complexity of the derivation. For simplicity, consider the standard frames, S and S’, with S’
moving at a speed v along the +x direction. The origins of the two frames coincide at t’ = t = 0.
A reasonable guess about the dependence of x’ on x and t is
(1.15)
Figure 1.5 An event occurs at a point P. The event is observed by two observers in inertial
frames S and S’, in which S’ moves with a velocity v relative to S.
Where G is a dimensionless factor that does not depend on x or t but is some function of v /c
such that G is 1 in the limit as v/c approaches 0. The form of the Equation is suggested by the
form of the Galilean transformation, x’= x- vt, which we know is correct in the limit as v/c

approaches zero. Assuming that the Equation is correct, we can write the inverse Lorentz
coordinate transformation for x in terms of x’ and t’ as
(1.16)
We should point out that this important technique for obtaining the inverse of a Lorentz
transformation may be followed as a general rule:
To obtain the inverse Lorentz transformation of any quantity, simply interchange primed and
unprimed variables and reverse the sign of the frame velocity.
Let’s derive the Lorentz transformations, our argument will be to take the differentials of x’ and
t’ and form an expression that relates the measured velocity of an object in S’, u’x= dx’/dt’, to the
measured velocity of that object in S, ux = dx/dt. We then determine G by requiring that u’x must
equal c in the case that ux, the velocity of an object in frame S, is equal to c, in accord with
Einstein’s second postulate of relativity. Once G has been determined, this simple algebraic
argument conveniently provides both the Lorentz coordinate and velocity transformations.
Following this plan, we first find
(1.17)
By substituting Eq. 1.15 into 1.16 and solving for t’. Taking differentials of Eq. 1.15 and 1.16
yields
(1.18)
Forming u’x = dx’/dt’ leads, after some simplification, to

(1.19)
Where ux = dx/dt.
Postulate 2 requires that the velocity of light be c for any observer, so in the case ux = c, we must
also have u’x = c. Using this condition in Equation (1.6.5) gives
(1.20)
Postulate 2 requires that the velocity of light be c for any observer, so in the case u’x= c, we must
also have ux = c. Using this condition in Equation 1.6.6 gives
(1.21)
Equation (1.21) gives
(1.22)
The direct coordinate transformation is thus x’=γ(x- vt), and the inverse transformation is
x =γ (x’ – vt’). To get the time transformation (t’ as a function of t and x), substitute G= γ into
Equation (1.17) to obtain
(1.23)
In general, the complete coordinate transformations between events found to occur at

(x, y, z, t) in S and (x’, y’, z’, t’) in S’ are
x’=γ(x-vt) (1.24)
y’=y (1.25)

z’=z ( 1.26)
t’= γ(t – vx/c2) (1.27)
If we wish to transform coordinates of an event in the S’ frame to coordinates in the S frame, we

simply replace v by -v and interchange the primed and unprimed coordinates in Eq. 1.24 through
1.27. The resulting inverse transformation is given by
x= γ(x’- vt’) (1.28)

y=y’ (1.29)
z= z’ (1.30)
t = γ(t’ – vx’/c2) (1.31)
In the Lorentz transformation, note that t depends on both t’ and x’. Likewise, t’ depends on both
t and x.
Example 1.2 Show that the phenomenon of time dilation is contained in the Lorentz coordinate
transformation. A light located at (x o, y0, z0) is turned abruptly on at t1 and off at t2 in
frame S.
a. For what time interval is the light measured to be on in frame S’?
b. What is the distance between where the light is turned on and off as measured by S’?
Solution: (a) The two events, the light turning on and the light turning off, are measured to
occur in the two frames as follows:
Event 1 (light on) Event 2 (light off)
Frame S x0, t1 x0, t2

Frame S’ x’1= γ (X0 – vt1) x’2 =γ (x0 – vt2)
t’1= γ(t1 – vx0/c2) t’2= γ(t2 – vx0/c2)

Where the y and the z axis are not affected because the motion is along the x-axis.
As measured by S’, the light is on for a time interval
t’2 - t’1 =γ(t2 – vx0/c2) - γ(t1 – vx0/c2)

t’2 - t’1 = γ(t2 - t1)
Since γ>1 and (t2 - t1) is the proper time.

(b) Although event 1 and event 2 occur at the same place in S, they are measured to occur at a
separation of X’2 - x’1 in S’ where
x’2 - x’1 = γ (x0 – vt1)- γ (x0 – vt2)

x’2 - x’1 = γv (t1-t2)
It is reduced to v (t1 - t2) for v/c <<1.
Activity1.7
1. From the above example, Can you explain why x’2 - x’1 is negative? Give reasons
for your answer.
2. Describe the similarity and difference b/n Lorentz and Galilean transformation?
1.7 Lorentz Velocity Transformation
The explicit form of the Lorentz velocity transformation follows immediately upon substitution
of γ in to equation (1.19)
(1.32)
Similarly, if the object has velocity components along y and z, the components in S’ are

(1.33)
When ux and v are both much smaller than c, the above equation is reduced to:
U’x ≈ ux-v
This corresponds to the Galilean velocity transformation. In the other extreme, when ux=c
Eq. 1.33 becomes
(1.34)
From this result, we see that an object moving with a speed c relative to an observer in S also has
a speed c relative to an observer in S’ independent of the relative motion of S and S’.
To obtain ux in terms of u’x, replace v by -v in Eq.1.33 and interchange ux and u’x following the
rule stated earlier for obtaining the inverse transformation. This gives
(1.35)
Example 1.3 Two spaceships A and B are moving in opposite directions, as in Figure below. An
observer on Earth measures the speed of A to be 0.750c and the speed of B to be
0.850c. Find the velocity of B with respect to A.

Figure 1 .6 Two spaceships A and B move in opposite directions.
Solution: This Problem can be solved by taking the S’ frame to be attached to spacecraft A, so
that v= 0.750c relative to an observer on Earth (the S frame). Spacecraft B can be
considered as an object moving to the left with a velocity ux= - 0.850c relative to the
Earth observer. Hence, the velocity of B with respect to A can be obtained
The negative sign for u’x indicates that spaceship B is moving in the negative x direction as
observed by A. Note that the result is less than c. That is, a body with speed less than c in one
frame of reference must have a speed less than c in any other frame.

Activity 1.8
1. Imagine a motorcycle rider moving with a speed of 0.800c past a stationary observer.
If the rider tosses a ball in the forward direction with a speed of 0.700c with respect to
himself, what is the speed of the ball as seen by the stationary observer?
2. Imagine two motorcycle gang leaders racing at relativistic speeds along perpendicular paths
from the local pool hall. How fast does pack leader Beta recede over Alpha’s right shoulder
as seen by Alpha?
1.8 Simultaneity and the Relativity of Time
The core idea of Newtonian mechanics is that a universal time scale exists that is the same for all
observers. However, in the special theory of relativity, Einstein abandoned this assumption.
According to Einstein, a time interval measurement depends on the reference frame in which the
measurement is made.
Einstein devised the following thought experiment to illustrate this point. A boxcar moves with
uniform velocity, and two lightning bolts strike the ends of the boxcar, as in Figure shown
below, leaving marks on the boxcar and ground. The marks left on the boxcar are labeled A’ and
B’; those on the ground are labeled A and B. An observer at O’ moving with the boxcar is
midway between A’ and B’, and a ground observer at O is midway between A and B. The events
recorded by the observers are the light signals from the lightning bolts.
The two light signals reach the observer at O at the same time, as indicated in the Figure below.
This observer realizes that the light signals have traveled at the same speed over equal distances.
Hence, observer O concludes that the events at A and B occurred simultaneously. Then, let’s
consider the same events as viewed by the observer on the boxcar at O’. By the time the light has
reached observer O, observer O’ has moved. Thus, the light signal from B’ has already swept
past O’, but the light from A’ has not yet reached O’. Therefore, observer O’ concludes that the

lightning struck the front of the boxcar before it struck the back. This experiment clearly
demonstrates that the two events, which appear to O to be simultaneous, do not appear to O’ to
be simultaneous. It can be described as:
Two events that are simultaneous in one frame are in general not simultaneous in a second
frame moving with respect to the first. That is, simultaneity is not an absolute concept, but one
that depends on the state of motion of the observer.
Figure 1.7 Two lightning bolts strike the ends of a moving boxcar. (a) The events appear to be
simultaneous to the stationary observer at O, who is midway between A and B. (b) The events do
not appear to be simultaneous to the observer at O’, who claims that the front of the train is
struck before the rear.
Although the two observers reach different conclusions, both are correct in their own reference
frame because the concept of simultaneity is not absolute. This, in fact, is the central point of
relativity—any uniformly moving frame of reference can be used to describe events and do
physics. However, observers in different inertial frames will always measure different time

intervals with their clocks and different distances with their meter sticks, where as they both
agree on the forms of the laws of physics in their respective frames, since these laws must be the
same for all observers in uniform motion.
Activity1.9
1. In the above thought experiment, which observer is right concerning the two events?
2. What do you conclude from the above thought experiment?
3. What do you mean by, “simultaneity is not an absolute concept, but one that depends
on the state of motion of the observer,” from the principle of relativity?
1.9 Time Dilation
Observers in different inertial frames always measure different time intervals between a pair of
events can be illustrated by considering a vehicle moving to the right with a speed v, as in Figure
shown below. A mirror is fixed to the ceiling of the vehicle, and observer O’, at rest in this
system, holds a laser a distance d below the mirror. At some instant the laser emits a pulse of
light directed toward the mirror (event 1), and at some later time, after reflecting from the mirror,
the pulse arrives back at the laser (event 2). Observer O’ carries a clock C’, in which she uses to
measure the time interval Δt’ between these two events. Since the light pulse has the speed c, the
time it takes to travel from O’ to the mirror and back can be found from the definition of speed:
(1.36)

Figure 1 .8 a mirror is fixed to a moving vehicle and a light pulse leaves O’ at rest in the vehicle.
(b) Relative to a stationary observer on Earth, the mirror and O’ move with a speed v. Note that
the distance the pulse travels measured by the stationary observer on Earth is greater than 2d.
(c) Right triangle for calculating the relationship between Δt and Δt’.
Then, let’s consider the same set of events as viewed by observer O in a second frame.
According to this observer, the mirror and laser are moving to the right with a speed v, and as a
result, the sequence of events appears different to this observer. During this time the light from
the laser reaches the mirror, the mirror has moved to the right a distance vΔt/2, where Δt is the
time interval required for the light pulse to travel from O’ to the mirror and back as measured by
O. Comparing Figures 8a and b, we see that the light must travel farther in (b) than in (a).
To obtain a relationship between Δt and Δt’, it is convenient to use the right triangle shown in
Figure c. The Pythagorean Theorem gives:
( 1.37)

Solving for Δt gives
(1.38)
Where Δt’=2d/c, we can write the above as
(1.39)
Since γ is always greater than one, this result says that the time interval Δt measured by the
observer moving with respect to the clock is longer than the time interval Δt’ measured by the
observer at rest with respect to the clock. This effect is known as time dilation.
Δt’ in the above equation is the proper time. Proper time, denoted Δtp, is defined as the time
interval between two events as measured by an observer who sees the events occur at the same
point in space. In this case, observer O’ measures the proper time, that is, proper time is always
the time measured by an observer moving along with the clock. The above equation can be
written in terms of the proper time interval, Δtp as
Δt=γΔtp (1.40)
Since the time b/n ticks of a moving clock, γ (2d/c), is observed to be longer than the time
between ticks of an identical clock at rest, 2d/c, we commonly says, “A moving clock runs
slower than a clock at rest by a factor of γ.” This is true for ordinary mechanical clocks as well
as for the light clock just described. Of course, we can generalize these results by stating that all
physical processes, including chemical reactions and biological processes, slow down when
observed from a reference frame in which they are moving. For example the heartbeat of an
astronaut moving through space would keep time with a clock inside the spaceship.

Time dilation is a very real phenomenon that has been verified by various experiments. For
example, muons are unstable elementary particles that have a charge equal to that of an electron
and a mass 207 times that of the electron.
Activity 1.10
When we say that a moving clock runs slower than a stationary one, does this imply
that there is something physically unusual about the moving clock?
Example1.4 The period of a pendulum is measured to be 3.0 s in the rest frame of the
pendulum. What is the period of the pendulum when measured by an observer
moving at a speed of 0.95c with respect to the pendulum?
Solution: The proper time is equal to 3.0 s. From the point of view of the observer, the
pendulum is moving at 0.95c past her. Hence the pendulum is an example of a
moving clock.
T = (3.2) (3.0s) =9.6s
That is, a moving pendulum slows down or takes longer to complete one period.
1.10 Length Contraction
So far we have discussed application of Lorentz transformation. Let’s discuss about length
contraction in this lesson. The measured distance between two points depends on the frame of
reference. The proper length of an object is defined as the length of the object measured by
someone who is at rest with respect to the object. The length of an object measured by someone

in a reference frame that is moving relative to the object is always less than the proper length.
This effect is known as length contraction.
Let’s consider a spaceship traveling with a speed v from one star to another and two observers,
one on Earth and the other in the spaceship. The observer at rest on Earth (and also assumed to
be at rest with respect to the two stars) measures the distance between the stars to be Lp, where Lp
is the proper length. According to this observer, the time it takes the spaceship to complete the
voyage is Δt= Lp/v.
Activity 1.11
What does an observer in the moving spaceship measure for the distance between the stars?
The space traveler claims to be at rest and sees the destination star as moving toward the
spaceship with speed v. Since the space traveler reaches the star in the shorter time Δt’, he or she
concludes that the distance, L, between the stars is shorter than Lp. This distance measured by the
space traveler is given by
( 1.41)
Since Lp = vΔt, we see that L = Lp/γ or
(1.42)

This result may be interpreted as follows:
If an object has a proper length Lp when it is measured by an observer at rest with respect to
the object, when it moves with speed v in a direction parallel to its length, its length L is
measured to be shorter according to L=Lp(1 – v2/c2)1/2.
Figure 1.9 A stick moves to the right with a speed v. (a) the stick as viewed in a frame attached
to it. (b) The stick as seen by an observer who sees it moves past her at v.
Note that the length contraction takes place only along the direction of motion. For example,
suppose a stick moves past a stationary Earth observer with a speed v, as in Figure 1. 9 b. The
length of the stick as measured by an observer in the frame attached to it is the proper length Lp,
as illustrated in Figure 1. 9 a. The length of the stick, L, as measured by the Earth observer is
shorter than Lp by the factor (1 - v2/c 2)1/2.
Examples 1.5 A spaceship is measured to be 100 m long while it is at rest with respect to an
observer. If this spaceship now flies by the observer with a speed of 0.99c, what
length will the observer find for the spaceship?

Solution: The proper length of the ship is 100 m. From Eq.1.42, the length measured as the
spaceship flies by is
L =Lp (1 – v2/c2)1/2
= (100m) (1 – (0.99c)2/c2)1/2
=14m
Example 1.6 An observer on Earth sees a spaceship at an altitude of 435 m moving downward
toward the Earth at 0.970c.What is the altitude of the spaceship as measured by an
observer in the spaceship?
Solution: The proper length here is the Earth–ship separation as seen by the Earth-based
observer, or 435 m.
The moving observer in the ship finds this separation (the altitude) to be
L=Lp (1 – v2/c2)1/2
= (435m) (1 – (0.97c)2/c2)1/2
=106m
1.11 The Relativistic Doppler Shift
One of the important consequences of time dilation is the shift in frequency found for light
emitted by atoms in motion as opposed to light emitted by atoms at rest. The Doppler shift for
sound is usually studied in introductory physics courses and is especially interesting because
motion of the source with respect to the medium of propagation can be clearly distinguished
from motion of the observer. The details of the Doppler Effect for sound are a little different than
those for light, because the speed of sound is not the same for all observers - it’s 330 meters per
second relative to the air.

Let’s consider a source of light waves at rest in frame S, emitting waves of frequency f and
wavelength λ as measured in S. We wish to find the frequency f’ and wavelength λ’ of the light
as measured by an observer fixed in frame S’, which is moving with speed v toward S, as shown
in Figure 1.10a and b. In general, we expect f’ to be greater than f if S’ approaches S because
more wave crests are crossed per unit time, and we expect f’ to be less than f if S’ recedes from
S. In particular, consider the situation from the point of view of an observer fixed in S’, as shown
in Figure 1.10. During this same time, the light source will advance a distance vT’ to the left of
position 1, and the distance between successive wave fronts will be measured in S’ to be
λ’=cT’- VT’ (1.43)
Figure 1.10 (a) A light source fixed in S emits wave crests separated in space by λ and moving
outward at speed c as seen from S. (b) What wavelength λ’ is measured by an observer at rest in
S’? S’ is a frame approaching S at speed v such that the x- and x’-axes coincide.

Figure 1.11 The view from S’. 1, 2, and 3 show three successive positions of O separated in time
by T’, the period of the light as measured from S’.
we use the expression for λ’ from Eq.43 in f’= c/λ’ to obtain:
f’= c/(c-v) T’ (1.44)
T’ can be given as:
Substituting T’ by f’= 1/T’, we get
(1.45)
This equation can be written as:
(1.46)

Where fobs is the frequency measured by an observer approaching a light source, and fsource is the
frequency as measured in the source’s rest frame. The above equation is the relativistic Doppler
shift formula, which, unlike the Doppler formula for sound, depends only on the relative speed
v of the source and observer and holds for relative speeds as large as c. The expression for the
case of a receding source is obtained by replacing v with- v in the above Equation 1.46.
The most spectacular and dramatic use of the Doppler effect has occurred in just this area in
explaining the famous red shift of absorption lines (wavelengths) observed for most galaxies.
The term red shift refers to the shift of known absorption lines toward longer wavelengths, that
is, toward the red end of the visible spectrum.
Activity 1.12
1. Describe the most important astronomical applications of the Doppler Effect?
Example1.7 A driver is caught going to a red light. The driver claims to the judge that the color
she actually saw was green (v=5.60 x 1014 Hz) and not red (v=4.80 x 1014 Hz) because
of the Doppler Effect. The judge accepts this explanation and instead fines her for
speeding at the rate of $1for each km/h she exceeded the speed limit of 80km/h. What
was the fine?
Solution: Solving equation (1.46) after substituting v by –v for v gives
V=c ((v2-v20)/ (v2+v20)) = (3.00 x108m/s2)2((5.6)2-(4.8)2) / ( (5.6)2+(4.8)2)
=4.59 x 107 m/s
=1.65 x 108 km/h
1.12 Relativistic momentum
According to the laws of conservation of linear momentum states that when two bodies collide,
the total momentum remains constant, assuming the bodies are isolated. Suppose the collision is
described in a reference frame S in which momentum is conserved. If the velocities of the

colliding bodies are calculated in a second inertial frame S’ using the Lorentz transformation,
and the classical definition of momentum p= mu applied, one finds that momentum is not
conserved in the second reference frame.
However, the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames as a result momentum must be
conserved in all frames if it is conserved in any one. This application of the principle of relativity
demands that we modify the classical definition of momentum. To understand how the classical
form p =mu fails and to determine the correct relativistic definition of p, consider the case of an
inelastic collision between two particles of equal mass. Suppose we now view things from an
inertial frame S’ moving to the right with speed v relative to S. In S’ the new speeds are v’1, v’2
and V’. If we use the Lorentz velocity transformation:
From our previous experience in mechanics the value of v’1, v’2 and V’ is given as in S’ v’1, v’2
and V’ are given as:
(1.47)

Figure 1.12 (a) An inelastic collision between two equal clay lumps as seen by an observer in
frame S. (b) The same collision viewed from a frame S’ that is moving to the right with speed v
with respect to S.
Checking for momentum conservation in S’, we have
(1.48)
Hence, in S’, the momentum before the collision is not equal to the momentum after the
collision, and momentum is not conserved.
It can be shown that momentum is conserved in both S and S’, if we redefine momentum as:
(1.49a)

Where u is the velocity of the particle and m is the proper mass, that is, the mass measured by an
observer at rest with respect to the mass. If an object at rest has a mass m0, moving at a speed u it
must have mass:

m0
m= (1.49b)
2
1− u
c2
Or simply it can be given as:
m =γm0
which is called the relativistic mass, while m0 is known as the rest mass.
Note that this is an undetectably small effect at ordinary speeds, but as an object approaches the
speed of light, the mass increases without limit.
Activity 1.13
What will happen if u is much less than c, the denominator of Equation 1.49?
The relativistic momentum can be given as:
P=γmu (1.50)
And this momentum which is expressed in the above equation is called the relativistic
momentum.
The relativistic form of Newton’s second law is given by the expression:
( 1.51)
This expression is reasonable because it preserves classical mechanics in the limit of low
velocities and requires the momentum of an isolated system (F = 0) to be conserved relativistic
ally as well as classically.

It is to show that the relativistic acceleration a of a particle decreases under the action of a
constant force applied in the direction of u, as
(1.52)
From this equation we see that as the velocity approaches c, the acceleration caused by any finite
force approaches zero. Hence, it is impossible to accelerate a particle from rest to a speed equal
to or greater than c.
Example 1.8 An electron, which has a mass of 9.11 x 10-31 kg, moves with a speed of 0.750c.
Find its relativistic momentum and compare this with the momentum calculated from
the classical expression.
Solution: Using equation (1.12.3) and u=0.750c, we have
The incorrect classical expression would give
Momentum = mu= 2.05x 10-22 kg.m/s

Hence, for this case the correct relativistic result is 50% greater than the classical
result.
Activity1.14
What do you think of the acceleration of the system if Newton’s second law is defined

1.13 Relativistic Mass and Energy
First of all, let’s derive the relativistic form of the work–energy theorem, let us start with the
definition of work done by a force F and make use of the definition of relativistic force,
Equation1.51. That is,
(1.52)
To perform this integration and find the work done on a particle or the relativistic kinetic energy
as a function of the particle velocity u, we first evaluate dp/dt:
(1.53)
Substituting this expression for dp/dt and dx = u dt into Equation (1.52) gives
Evaluating the integral, we find that
(1.54)
From our previous experience the work done is equal to the change in kinetic energy; hence the
kinetic energy K is given:

(1.55)
Activity1.15
What will happen at low speeds, where u/c <<1?
We can check this by using the binomial expansion (1 - x2) -1/2

≈ 1+ (1/2) x2 + . . ., for x<<1.
Where the higher- order powers of x are ignored in the expansion. In our case, x= u/c, so that
Then k is given
This result agrees with the classical result.

A graph comparing the relativistic and non relativistic expressions for u as a function of K is
given in Figure given below.
Fig.1. 13 a graph comparing the relativistic and non relativistic expressions for speed as a
function of kinetic energy. In the relativistic case, u is always less than c.
The two curves in the above diagrams are in good agreement when u << c.
It is instructive to write the relativistic kinetic energy in the form

K= γ mc2 - mc2 (1.56)
The constant term mc2, which is independent of the speed, is called the rest energy of the
particle. The term γmc2, which depends on the particle speed, is therefore the sum of the kinetic
and rest energies. We define γmc2 to be the total energy E, that is,
(1.57)
The expression E =γmc2 is Einstein’s famous mass–energy equivalence equation, which shows
that mass is a measure of the total energy in all forms. In many situations, the momentum or
energy of a particle is measured rather than its speed. It is therefore useful to have an expression
relating the total energy E to the relativistic momentum p.
Where E = γ mc2 and p= γ mu. By squaring this equation and subtracting, we get
(1.58)
Where m is the rest mass of an object, when the particle is at rest, p= 0, and so we see that E =
mc2. That is, the total energy equals the rest energy. For the case of particles that have zero mass,
such as photons (mass less, charge less particles of light), we set m = 0 in Eq. 1.58 and find
E=Pc (1.59)
This equation is an exact expression relating energy and momentum for photons, which always
travel at the speed of light. On the other hand, the total energy and momentum of a particle
depend on the reference frame in which they are measured, because they both depend on
velocity. When dealing with electrons or other subatomic particles, it is convenient to express
their energy in electron volts (eV), since the particles are usually given this energy by
acceleration through a potential difference. The conversion factor is:

1ev = 1.6 x 10-19 J

For example, the mass of an electron is 9.11x10-31 kg. Hence, the rest energy of the electron is
mec2 = (9.11x10-31 kg) x (3.00 x108 m/s2)2 =8.20x10-14J
Converting this to electron volts, we have
mec2= (8.20x10-14J) x (1ev/1.6x10-19 J) =0.511 M eV.
where 1 MeV= 106 eV.
Example 1.9 An electron has a speed u= 0.850c. Find its total energy and kinetic energy in
electron volts?
Solution: Using the fact that the rest energy of the electron is 0.511 MeV together with
E =γmc2 gives:
E= (mec2)/ (1-u2/c2)1/2
E=0.511Mev/(1-(0.850c)2/(c)2)
E= (1.90) (0.511Mev)
E=0.970Mev
The kinetic energy is obtained by subtracting the rest energy from the total energy:
K=E- mec2 =0.970Mev – 0.511Mev

=0.459Mev.
Example1.10 The total energy of a proton is three times its rest energy.
(a) Find the proton’s rest energy in electron volts.
(b) With what speed is the proton moving?

(c) Determine the kinetic energy of the proton in electron volts.
(d) What is the proton’s momentum?
Solution: (a) rest energy = mpc 2
= (1.67 x 10-27 kg) (3.00x108 m/s2)2

= (1.50 x10-10J) (1ev/1.6x10-19J)
=938Mev
(b) Because the total energy E is three times the rest energy, E=γ mc2 gives
E= 3mpc 2 = (mpc 2)/(1-u2/c2)1/2

=3=1/ (1-u2/c2)1/2
Solving for u gives
1/9= (1-u2/c2)
u2/c2= 8/9
u = (2√2)c/3=2.83x108m/s2
(c) K=E- mpc2 =3 mpc2- mpc2=2 mpc2
Since mpc2=938Mev, K= 1876 MeV.
(d) We can use Equation (1.58) to calculate the momentum with E=3 mpc2:
E2= p2c2 + ( mpc2)2=(3 mpc2)2

( P c)2 = 9( mpc2)2-( mpc2)2 = 8( mpc2)2
P = (8)1/2( mpc2)/c
P = (8)1/2(938 MeV)/c = 2650Mev/c

Note the units of momentum are left with Mev/c for convenience.
Conservation of mass and energy: - The conservation mass and energy states that the sum of
the mass–energy of a system of particles before interaction must equal the sum of the mass–
energy of the system after interaction where the mass–energy of the ith particle is defined as the
total relativistic energy
(1.60)
As we have seen in the Figure 1,12a above, classically momentum is conserved but kinetic
energy is not because the total kinetic energy before collision equals mu2 and the total kinetic
energy after is zero. Now let’s consider the same two colliding clay lumps using the relativistic
mass–energy conservation law. If the mass of each lump is m, and the mass of the composite
object is M, we must have
Ebefore = Eafter
(1.61)
or M=2m/√1-(u2/c2)
Since √1-(u2/c2) <1, the composite mass M is greater than the sum of the two individual masses.
The mass increase of the composite lump,Δ M = M - 2m, is equal to the sum of the incident
kinetic energies of the colliding lumps (2K) divided by c2:

(1.62)
Hence, we conclude that the conversion of kinetic energy to mass, and the satisfying result that
in relativistic mechanics, kinetic energy is not lost in an inelastic collision but shows up as an
increase in the mass of the final composite object. Of course, from deeper symmetry of relativity
theory shows that both relativistic mass–energy and momentum are always conserved in a
collision, whereas classical methods show that momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not
unless the collision is perfectly elastic.

Summary
An inertial frame is defined as one in which Newton’s law of inertia holds true.
The two basic postulates of the special theory of relativity are as follows:
• The laws of physics must be the same for all observers moving at constant velocity with
respect to one another.
• The speed of light must be the same for all inertial observers, independent of their
relative motion.
To satisfy these postulates, the Galilean transformations must be replaced by the Lorentz
transformations given by:
x’=γ(x-vt)
y’=y
z’=z
t’= γ(t – vx/c2)
where
γ=1/√1-(v2/c2).
These equations relate an event with coordinates x, y, z, t measured in S to the same event with
coordinates x’, y’, z’, t’ measured in S’, where it is assumed that the primed system moves with a
speed v along the xx’ -axes.
The relativistic form of the velocity transformation is given as:
Where ux is the speed of an object as measured in the S frame and u’x is its speed measured in
the S’ frame.
Some of the consequences of the special theory of relativity are as follows:

• Clocks in motion relative to an observer appear to be slowed down by a factorγ. This is

known as time dilation.
• Lengths of objects in motion appear to be contracted in the direction of motion by a
factor of 1/γ. This is known as length contraction.
• Events that are simultaneous for one observer are not simultaneous for another observer
in motion relative to the first. This is known as the relativity of simultaneity.
These three statements can be summarized by saying that duration, length, and simultaneity are
not absolute concepts in relativity.
The relativistic Doppler shift for electromagnetic waves emitted by a moving source is given by
s1
Where fobs is the frequency measured by an observer approaching a light source with relative
speed v, and fsource is the frequency as measured in the source’s rest frame.
The relativistic expression for the linear momentum of a particle moving with a velocity u is
s2
The relativistic expression for the kinetic energy of a particle is
K =γmc2 - mc2 s3
where mc2 is called the rest energy of the particle.

The total energy E of a particle is related to the mass through the expression
E =γmc2 s4
The total energy of a particle of mass m is related to the momentum through the equation
E2 = p2c 2 - (mc2)2 s5
Finally, the law of the conservation of mass–energy states that the sum of the mass–energy of a
system of particles before interaction must equal the sum of the mass–energy of the system after
interaction where the mass–energy of the ith particle is defined as
s6

Questions and problems

Questions
1. A spaceship in the shape of a sphere moves past an observer on Earth with a speed of
0.5c. What shape will the observer see as the spaceship moves past?
2. List some ways our day-to-day lives would change if the speed of light were only 50 m/s.
3. Give a physical argument to show that it is impossible to accelerate an object of mass m
to the speed of light, even with continuous force acting on it.
4. What happens to the density of an object as its speed increases, as measured by an Earth
observer?
5. A particle is moving at a speed of less than c/2. If the speed of the particle is doubled,
what happens to its momentum?
6. Give a physical argument showing that it is impossible to accelerate an object of mass m
to the speed of light, even with continuous force acting on it.
7. Because mass is a measure of energy, can we conclude that the mass of a compressed
spring is greater than the mass of the same spring when it is not compressed?
8. Photons of light have zero mass. How is it possible that they have momentum?
9. Two identical clocks are in the same house, one upstairs in a bedroom, and the other
downstairs in the kitchen. Which clock runs more slowly? Explain.
10. A relativity enthusiast says, “If E=mc2 and energy is conserved, then mass is conserved.”
How do you answer?
Problems
1. With what speed will a clock have to be moving in order to run at a rate that is one-half
the rate of a clock at rest?
2. How fast must a meter stick be moving if its length is observed to shrink to 0.5 m?
3. A clock on a moving spacecraft runs 1 s slower per day relative to an identical clock on
Earth. What is the relative, speed of the spacecraft? (Hint: For v/c<< 1, note that
γ≈ 1 - v2/2c 2.)
4. A meter stick moving in a direction parallel to its length appears to be only 75 cm long to
an observer. What is the speed of the meter stick relative to the observer?

5. A spacecraft moves at a speed of 0.900c. If its length is L as measured by an observer on

the spacecraft, what is the length measured by a ground observer?
6. An atomic clock is placed in a jet airplane. The clock measures a time interval of 3600 s
when the jet moves with a speed of 400 m/s. How much longer or shorter a time interval
does an identical clock held by an observer on the ground measure? (Hint: For v/c<< 1,
note that γ≈ 1 - v2/2c 2.)
7. An astronaut at rest on Earth has a heartbeat rate of 70 beats/min. What will this rate be
when she is traveling in a spaceship at 0.90c as measured (a) by an observer also in the
ship and (b) by an observer at rest on the Earth?
8. The muon is an unstable particle that spontaneously decays into an electron and two
neutrinos. If the number of muons at t = 0 is N0, the number at time t is given by
N= N0e-t/τ, where τ is the mean lifetime, equal to 2.2μ s. Suppose the muons move at a
speed of 0.95c and there are 5.0x 104 muons at t = 0.
(a) What is the observed lifetime of the muons?
(b) How many muons remain after traveling a distance of 3.0 km?
9. (a) How fast and in what direction must galaxy A be moving if an absorption line found
at 550 nm (green) for a stationary galaxy is shifted to 450 nm (blue) for A?
(b) How fast and in what direction is galaxy B moving if it shows the same line shifted
to 700 nm (red)?
10. Two spaceships approach each other, each moving with the same speed as measured by
an observer on the Earth. If their relative speed is 0.70c, what is the speed of each
spaceship?
11. An observer on Earth observes two spacecraft moving in the same direction toward the
Earth. Spacecraft A appears to have a speed of 0.50c, and spacecraft B appears to have a
speed of 0.80c. What is the speed of spacecraft A measured by an observer in spacecraft
B?
12. An observer in frame S sees lightning simultaneously strike two points 100 m apart. The
first strike occurs at x1= y1 = z1 = t1 = 0 and the second at x2 = 100 m, y2= z2 = t2= 0.
(a) What are the coordinates of these two events in a frame S’ moving in the standard
configuration at 0.70c relative to S?

(b) How far apart are the events in S’? (c) Are the events simultaneous in S’? If not, what is
the difference in time between the events, and which event occurs first?
13. Calculate the momentum of a proton moving with a speed of (a) 0.010c, (b) 0.50c, (c)
0.90c, (d) Convert the answers of (a)-(c) to MeV/c .
14. Consider the relativistic form of Newton’s second law. Show that when F is parallel to v,
where m is the mass of an object and v is its speed.

15. .Show that the momentum of a particle having charge e moving in a circle of radius R in
a magnetic field B is given by p = 300BR, where p is in MeV/c, B is in teslas, and R is
in meters.
16. An electron has a kinetic energy 5 times greater than its rest energy. Find (a) its total
energy and (b) its speed.
17. A proton in a high-energy accelerator is given a kinetic energy of 50 GeV. Determine the
(a) momentum and
(b) speed of the proton.

References
1. Raymond A. Serway and etal (2005), Modern Physics: Thomson Learning, Inc.
2. Beiser Arthur (2003), Concept of Modern physics: McGraw- Hill companies, Inc.
3. Raymond A. Serway (2007), 6th edition , Physics for scientists and engineers, McGraw-
Hill companies, Inc
4. John D. Walecka (2008), Introduction to Modern Physics; World Scientific
Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5. Carlo M. Becchi (2007,) Introduction to the basic concept of modern physics: Springer
verlag

Answers to selected problems
1. 0.866c
3. 0.048c = 1.44 x 106 m/s
5. 0.436L
6. Moving clock runs slower by ≅ 3.2 ns.
8. (a)= 7.1 μs (b)= 1.1 x 104 muons
9. (a) Galaxy A is approaching at v = 0.198c.

(b) Galaxy B is receding at v= 0.237c.
10. +0.41c and +0.41c
11. -0.50c
12. (a) =-0.33μs
(b) 140 m
(c) No. Event 2 occurs 0.33 μs earlier than event 1.
13. (a) 5.01x 10-21 kg m/s
(b) 2.89 x 10-19 kg m/s
(c) 1.03 x 10-18 kg m/s (d) for a, 9.38 MeV/c ; for b, 540 MeV/c ; for c, 1930 MeV/c
17 . (a) 2.71 x 10-17 kg m/s
(b) 2.9995x 108 m/s

Chapter 2
Development of Quantum Mechanics
Chapter out line
9 Limitation of Classical physics

9 Development of Quantum Mechanics
9 Summary
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students are able to
• Distinguish the limitation of classical mechanics.
• Describe the origin of quantum mechanics.
• Explain the two formulations of quantum mechanics.
• List down the two major fronts that led to the birth of quantum mechanics.
Introduction
In this chapter we are going to review the main physical ideas and experimental facts that are
defied classical physics and led to the birth of quantum mechanics. The introduction of quantum
mechanics was prompted by the failure of classical physics in explaining a number of
microphysical phenomena that were observed at the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries.
2.1 Limitation of Classical physics
9 Write down the limitation of classical Mechanics.
At the end of the nineteenth century, physics consisted essentially of classical mechanics, the
theory of electromagnetism1, and thermodynamics. Classical mechanics was used to predict the

dynamics of material bodies, and Maxwell’s electromagnetism provided the proper framework
to study radiation; matter and radiation were described in terms of particles and waves,
respectively. As for the interactions between matter and radiation, they were well explained by
the Lorentz force or by thermodynamics. The overwhelming success of classical physics—
classical mechanics, classical theory of electromagnetism, and thermodynamics—made people
believe that the ultimate description of nature had been achieved. It seemed that all known
physical phenomena could be explained within the framework of the general theories of matter
and radiation.
At the turn of the twentieth century, however, classical physics, which had been quite
unassailable, was seriously challenged on two major fronts:
• Relativistic domain: Einstein’s 1905 theory of relativity showed that the validity of
Newtonian mechanics ceases at very high speeds (i.e., at speeds comparable to that of
light).
• Microscopic domain: As soon as new experimental techniques were developed to the
point of probing atomic and subatomic structures, it turned out that classical physics fails
miserably in providing the proper explanation for several newly discovered phenomena.
It thus became evident that the validity of classical physics ceases at the microscopic
level and that new concept had to be invoked to describe, for instance, the structure of
atoms and molecules and how light interacts with them.
The failure of classical physics to explain several microscopic phenomena such as blackbody
radiation, the photoelectric effect, atomic stability, and atomic spectroscopy had cleared the way
for seeking new ideas outside its preview.
2.2 Development of Quantum Mechanics
The first real breakthrough came in 1900 when Max Planck introduced the concept of the
quantum of energy. In his efforts to explain the phenomenon of blackbody radiation, he
succeeded in reproducing the experimental results only after postulating that the energy
exchange between radiation and its surroundings takes place in discrete, or quantized, amounts.

He argued that the energy exchange between an electromagnetic wave of frequency ν and matter
occurs only in integer multiples of hν , which he called the energy of a quantum, where h is a
fundamental constant called Planck’s constant. The quantization of electromagnetic radiation
turned out to be an idea with far-reaching consequences.
Planck’s idea, which gave an accurate explanation of blackbody radiation, prompted new
thinking and triggered an avalanche of new discoveries that yielded solutions to the most
outstanding problems of the time.
In 1905 Einstein provided a powerful consolidation to Planck’s quantum concept. In trying to

understand the photoelectric effect, Einstein recognized that Planck’s idea of the quantization of
the electromagnetic waves must be valid for light as well. So, following Planck’s approach, he
posited that light itself is made of discrete bits of energy (or tiny particles), called photons, each
of energy hν , ν being the frequency of the light. The introduction of the photon concept enabled
Einstein to give an elegantly accurate explanation to the photoelectric problem, which had been
waiting for a solution ever since its first experimental observation by Hertz in 1887.
Another seminal breakthrough was due to Niels Bohr. Right after Rutherford’s experimental
discovery of the atomic nucleus in 1911, and combining Rutherford’s atomic model, Planck’s
quantum concept, and Einstein’s photons, Bohr introduced in 1913 his model of the hydrogen
atom. In this work, he argued that atoms can be found only in discrete states of energy and that
the interaction of atoms with radiation, i.e., the emission or absorption of radiation by atoms,
takes place only in discrete amounts of hν because it results from transitions of the atom
between its various discrete energy states. This work provided a satisfactory explanation to
several outstanding problems such as atomic stability and atomic spectroscopy.
Then in 1923 Compton made an important discovery that gave the most conclusive confirmation
for the corpuscular aspect of light. By scattering X-rays with electrons, he confirmed that the X-
ray photons behave like particles with momenta hν / c; ν is the frequency of the X-rays.

This series of breakthroughs—due to Planck, Einstein, Bohr, and Compton gave both the
theoretical foundations as well as the conclusive experimental confirmation for the particle
aspect of waves; that is, the concept that waves exhibit particle behavior at the microscopic scale.
At this scale, classical physics fails not only quantitatively but even qualitatively and
conceptually.
As if things were not bad enough for classical physics, de Broglie introduced in 1923 another
powerful new concept that classical physics could not reconcile: he postulated that not only does
radiation exhibit particle-like behavior but, conversely, material particles themselves display
wave-like behavior. This concept was confirmed experimentally in 1927 by Davisson and
Germer; they showed that interference patterns, a property of waves, can be obtained with
material particles such as electrons.
Although Bohr’s model for the atom produced results that agree well with experimental
spectroscopy, it was criticized for lacking the ingredients of a theory. Like the “quantization”
scheme introduced by Planck in 1900, the postulates and assumptions adopted by Bohr in
1913were quite arbitrary and do not follow from the first principles of a theory. It was the
dissatisfaction with the arbitrary nature of Planck’s idea and Bohr’s postulates as well as the
need to fit them within the context of a consistent theory that had prompted Heisenberg and
Schrödinger to search for the theoretical foundation underlying these new ideas. By 1925 their
efforts paid off: they skillfully welded the various experimental findings as well as Bohr’s
postulates into a refined theory: quantum mechanics. In addition to providing an accurate
reproduction of the existing experimental data, this theory turned out to possess an astonishingly
reliable prediction power which enabled it to explore and unravel many uncharted areas of the
microphysical world. This new theory had put an end to twenty five years (1900–1925) of
patchwork which was dominated by the ideas of Planck and Bohr and which later became known
as the old quantum theory.
Historically, there were two independent formulations of quantum mechanics. The first
formulation, called matrix mechanics, was developed by Heisenberg (1925) to describe atomic
structure starting from the observed spectral lines. Inspired by Planck’s quantization of waves
and by Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom, Heisenberg founded his theory on the notion that the

only allowed values of energy exchange between microphysical systems are those that are
discrete: quanta. Expressing dynamical quantities such as energy, position, momentum and
angular momentum in terms of matrices, he obtained an eigenvalue problem that describes the
dynamics of microscopic systems; the diagonalization of the Hamiltonian matrix yields the
energy spectrum and the state vectors of the system. Matrix mechanics was very successful in
accounting for the discrete quanta of light emitted and absorbed by atoms.
The second formulation, called wave mechanics, was due to Schrödinger (1926); it is a
generalization of the de Broglie postulate. This method, more intuitive than matrix mechanics,
describes the dynamics of microscopic matter by means of a wave equation, called the
Schrödinger equation; instead of the matrix eigenvalue problem of Heisenberg, Schrödinger
obtained a differential equation. The solutions of this equation yield the energy spectrum and the
wave function of the system under consideration. In 1927 Max Born proposed his probabilistic
interpretation of wave mechanics: he took the square moduli of the wave functions that are
solutions to the Schrödinger equation and he interpreted them as probability densities.
These two ostensibly different formulations—Schrödinger’s wave formulation and Heisenberg’s
matrix approach—were shown to be equivalent. Dirac then suggested a more general
formulation of quantum mechanics which deals with abstract objects such as kets (state vectors),
bras, and operators. The representation of Dirac’s formalism in a continuous basis the position or
momentum representations—gives back Schrödinger’s wave mechanics. As for Heisenberg’s
matrix formulation, it can be obtained by representing Dirac’s formalism in a discrete basis. In
this context, the approaches of Schrödinger and Heisenberg represent, respectively, the wave
formulation and the matrix formulation of the general theory of quantum mechanics.
Combining special relativity with quantum mechanics, Dirac derived in 1928 an equation which
describes the motion of electrons. This equation, known as Dirac’s equation, predicted the
existence of an antiparticle, the positron, which has similar properties, but opposite charge, with
the electron; the positron was discovered in 1932, four years after its prediction by quantum
mechanics.

Activity 2.1
Explain briefly the difference between Schrodinger and Heisenberg formulation of quantum
mechanics.

Summary
Quantum mechanics is the theory that describes the dynamics of matter at the microscopic scale.
But is it that important to learn? This is no less than an otiose question, for quantum mechanics is
the only valid framework for describing the microphysical world. It is vital for understanding the
physics of solids, lasers, semiconductor and superconductor devices, plasmas, etc. In short,
quantum mechanics is the founding basis of all modern physics: solid state, molecular, atomic,
nuclear, and particle physics, optics, thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and so on. Not only
that, it is also considered to be the foundation of Chemistry and Biology.

Reference
3. Raymond A. Serway (2007), 6th edition , Physics for scientists and engineers,
McGraw- Hill companies, Inc
5. Carlo M. Becchi (2007,) Introduction to the basic concept of modern physics:
Springer verlag
6. S.L. Kakani and etal (2006), Modern physics, Vinod vasishtha for viva books
Pte.ltd.
7. Nouredine Zettili(2009), Quantum Mechanics Concepts and Applications, John Wiley
& Sons, Ltd

Chapter 3
Particle properties of wave
Chapter out line
Chapter out line
9 Black Body Radiation
9 The Photo Electric Effect

9 Compton Effect
9 X-Rays Production
9 X-Rays diffraction
9 Wave-particle dualism
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students are able to:

• Define what a black body is.
• Describe Planck’s quantum hypothesis of black body spectrum.
• Explain Einstein’s description of photoelectric effect.
• Drive the wavelength shift of photons scattered by a free electron’s at rest.
Introduction
According to classical physics, a particle is characterized by an energy E and a momentum P,

r r 2π
where as a wave is characterized by an amplitude and a wave vector k (| k |= ) that
λ
specifies the direction of propagation of the wave; particles and waves exhibit entirely different
behaviors.

In this chapter we are going to see how these rigid concepts of classical physics led to its failure
in explaining a number of microscopic phenomena such as black body radiation,the photoelectric
effect, and the Compton Effect.
3.1 Black Body Radiation
9 What is black body?
When radiation falls on an object, some of it might be absorbed and some reflected. An idealized
“black body” is a material object that absorbs all of the radiation falling on it. On the other hand
when an object is heated, it radiates electromagnetic energy. The intensity of this radiation
depends on its frequency and on the temperature. An object in thermal equilibrium with its
surrounding radiates as much energy as it absorbs. Thus, it follows that a black body is a perfect
absorber as well as a perfect emitter of radiation.
A practical black body can be constructed by taking a hallow cavity and which has a very small
hole on its surface.
Figure 3.1 The opening to the cavity inside a body is a good approximation of a black body

Radiation that enters the hole will be trapped inside the cavity and gets completely absorbed after
successive reflection on the inner surface of the cavity. The hole thus absorbs radiation like a
black body.
On the other hand when this cavity is heated to a temperature T, the radiation that leaves the hole
is a black body radiation. The distribution of the radiant thermal energy as a function of
wavelength or frequency is called the spectrum of radiation. For such a cavity, a typical plot of
the spectral distribution of energy for several absolute temperature is shown in fig (3.2)
Figure 3.2 Emission from a glowing solid
A study of these curves reveals the following important facts:
i) At a given temperature the energy is not uniformly distributed in the spectrum of

black body radiation.
ii) At a given temperature, the intensity of radiations increases with increase in wave
length and becomes maximum at a particular wave length ( λm ), which is the
characteristics of the temperature of the radiating body. With further increase in wave
length, the intensity of radiation decreases.
iii) Raising the temperature increases the energy of all spectral components. The short
wavelength cutoff advances towards the origin as the temperature increase and the
peak of the curve shift to shorter wave lengths.

The shift of the peak of the curve was found to obey the following empirical
relationship, commonly called Wein’s displacement law.
λ p T = Constant, (3.1)
Where λ p refers to the wavelength corresponding to the peak of the curve. With the aid of
Classical thermodynamics, Wein has further shown that the amount of energy contained in
the spectral region included with in the wavelength λ and λ + d λ emitted by a black body is
given by
A
Eλ dλ = e − B / λ T dλ , (3.2)
λ 5
Where A and B are two parameters that can be adjusted to fit the experimental data. Weins
law works well only for short wavelengths. There are considerable deviation from Wein’s
law at long wave lengths and high temperatures.
Rayleigh and Jeans, by considering that the radiations in black body have degrees of
freedom and using classical of equipartition of energy, showed that
A
Eλ dλ = Tdλ , (3.3)
λ4
where A is a constant (=8 πκ ). Here κ is the Boltzmann constant.
A difficulty with eq. (3.3) immediately appears when we consider very small wavelengths.
From Eq. (3.3), it is clear that the energy radiated in a given wavelength range d λ ,
increases rapidly as λ decreases and approaches infinity for very short wavelengths, which
is not true. Obviously, Rayleigh-Jean’s law describes the experimental curve quite well in
the long wave length region, it diverges as the wavelength approaches zero. This failure
was such a crushing blow to classical physics that it is historically referred to as “ultraviolet

catastrophe.” The failure of the Rayleigh-Jeans law to explain the spectral energy curve of
black body radiation required suitable modification.
Figure 3.3 Comparison of the Rayleigh-Jeans formula for the spectrum of the
radiation from a black body at 1500oK with the observed spectrum.
Activity 3.1
Explain the distribution of energy in a black body spectrum. How far the classical
theories explain the distribution?
3.1.1 Planck’s Energy Density Distribution
By devising an ingenious scheme – interpolation between Wien’s rule and the Rayleigh-Jeans
rule-Planck succeed in 1900 in avoiding the ultraviolet catastrophe and proposed an accurate
description of black body radiation. As a result of this work, he was led to certain conclusions
about the nature of the electromagnetic oscillators which are in equilibrium with the energy
density with in the black body cavity. These revolutionary postulates, which have become the
foundation of the quantum theory of radiation, are as follows:

i) The amount of energy emitted or absorbed by an oscillator is proportional to its frequency.

Calling the constant of proportionality h, we then write for the change in oscillators energy
Δ ε =hν (3.4)
ii) An oscillator cannot have an arbitrary energy but must occupy one of a discrete set of energy
states given by
ε n=n hν , (3.5)
where n is an integer or zero. It was assumed that the ground state corresponds to the zero
energy states. The value of Planck’s constant h is 6.626 x10 -34 Js.
3.1.2 Derivation of Planck’s radiation Formula
Let N be the total number of Planck’s oscillator and E is their total energy, then the average
E
energy per oscillator, ε , is given by ε =
N
Let No, N1 , N2,… Nn … be the number of oscillators having energies, 0, ε, …,

nε... respectively, then
n =∞
N= N o + N1 + N 2 + ... + N n + .... = ∑ N n (3.6)

n =0
and
n =∞
E=0 + ЄN1 + 2ЄN2 + …+nЄNn+…= ∑

nεN n
n =0
(3.7)

According to Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function, the number of oscillators having

energy nε will be
− nε
N n = N o e KT
(3.8)
Obviously, the higher energy states are thus less likely to be populated, and as the energy
increases indefinitely the number of such oscillations becomes vanishingly small.
Using Eq. (3.7) and Eq. (3.8), Eq. (3.6) becomes
−ε −2ε − nε
N + Noe
N= o
KT
+ Noe KT
+ ... + N n e KT
−ε −2ε
=
N o (1 + e KT
+e KT
+ ...)
and
−ε −2ε
E = ε ( Noe KT
+ Noe KT
+ ...)
−ε −2 ε − nε
= N oε ( e KT
+e KT
+ ... + e KT
+ ...)
n =∞ − nε
E
∑ nεe KT
ε = = n =0
n =∞
N − nε
∑e
n =0
KT
−ε
Put
e KT
= x,

one obtains
n =∞ − nε 1 1
∑e
n =0
Kt
= 1 + x + x 2 + ... = =
1 − x 1 − e −ε KT
and
n =∞ − nε
∑ nε e
n =0
KT
= ε ( x + 2 x 2 + 3 x 2 + 4 x 3 + ...)
d d 1
= xε (1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ...) = xε ( )
dx dx 1 − x
−ε
xε xe KT
= (1 − x) 2 = −ε
(1 − e KT ) 2
Therefore,
−ε
εe KT
ε hν
ε= −ε
= ε
= hν (3.9)
1− e KT
e KT
−1 e KT
−1
Obviously, the average energy of an oscillator is not KT, but given by Eq. (3.9). The number of
oscillators per unit volume in frequency range ν and ν +dν is given by
8πν 2
N = 3 dν
c (3.10)
The energy density belonging in the range dν can be easily obtained by multiplying the average
energy of an oscillator by the number of oscillators per unit volume in the frequency range ν
and ν + dν as

8πhν 3 1 8πhν 3 1
Eν dν = 3
d ν hν
= 3 hν
dν (3.11)
c e KT
−1 c e KT
−1
This is the famous Planck’s radiation law.

c
One can express Eq. (3.11) in terms of wavelength by using the relation ν = λ and hence
c
| dν |=| dλ | as
λ2
8πhc 1
Eλ dλ =
λ 5 − ch (3.12)
e λKT
−1
Activity 3.2
1. Write a note on Planck’s law of distribution
2. Show that :
a. For small temperature and short wave length , Eq. (3.12) reduces to Wien’s law .
b. For higher temperature and large wave length, Eq. (3.12) reduces to Rayleigh-
Jeans law.
3.2 The Photo Electric Effect
9 Do you think that electrons are produced when light strikes a metal surface?
The photoelectric effect provides a direct confirmation for the energy quantization of light. In
1887 Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect: electrons were observed to be ejected from
metals when irradiated with light (Figure 3.4).

Figure 3.4 Photoelectric effect apparatus: The emitter surface is mounted opposite to the
collector surface in a highly evacuated glass plate.
Moreover, the following experimental laws were discovered prior to 1905:

• If the frequency of the incident radiation is smaller than the metal’s threshold frequency -
a frequency that depends on the properties of the metal—no electron can be emitted
regardless of the radiation’s intensity.
• No matter how low the intensity of the incident radiation, electrons will be ejected
instantly the moment the frequency of the radiation exceeds the threshold frequencyν o .

• At any frequency aboveν o , the number of electrons ejected increases with the intensity
of the light but does not depend on the light’s frequency.
• The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends on the frequency but not on the
intensity of the beam; the kinetic energy of the ejected electron increases linearly with
the incident frequency.
Figure 3.5
Inspired by Planck’s quantization of electromagnetic radiation, Einstein succeeded in 1905 in

giving a theoretical explanation for the dependence of photoelectric emission on the frequency of
the incident radiation. He assumed that light is made of corpuscles each carrying an energy hν ,
called photons. When a beam of light of frequency ν is incident on a metal, each photon
transmits all its energy hν to an electron near the surface; in the process, the photon is entirely
absorbed by the electron. The electron will thus absorb energy only in quanta of energy hν ,
irrespective of the intensity of the incident radiation. If hν is larger than the metal’s work

function φ —the energy required dislodging the electron from the metal (every metal has free
electrons that move from one atom to another; the minimum energy required to free the electron
from the metal is called the work function of that metal)—the electron will then be knocked out
of the metal. Hence no electron can be emitted from the metal’s surface unless
hν > φ :
hν = φ + k (3.13)
where K represents the kinetic energy of the electron leaving the material. Eq. (3.13), which was
derived by Einstein, gives the proper explanation to the experimental observation that the kinetic
energy of the ejected electron increases linearly with the incident frequency ν , as shown in
Figure 3.5b:
K = hν - φ =h(ν −ν o ) (3.14)
where ν o = φ
h is called the threshold or cutoff frequency of the metal. Moreover, this relation
shows clearly why no electron can be ejected from the metal unless ν > ν o : since the kinetic
energy cannot be negative, the photoelectric effect cannot occur when ν < ν o regardless of the
intensity of the radiation. The ejected electrons acquire their kinetic energy from the excess
energy h(ν −ν o ) supplied by the incident radiation.
The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons can be experimentally determined as follows.
The setup, which was devised by Lenard, consists of the photoelectric metal (cathode) that is
placed next to an anode inside an evacuated glass tube. When light strikes the cathode’s surface,
the electrons ejected will be attracted to the anode, thereby generating a photoelectric current.
It was found that the magnitude of the photoelectric current thus generated is proportional to the
intensity of the incident radiation, yet the speed of the electrons does not depend on the
radiation’s intensity, but on its frequency. To measure the kinetic energy of the electrons, we
simply need to use a varying voltage source and reverse the terminals. When the potential V
across the tube is reversed, the liberated electrons will be prevented from reaching the anode;

only those electrons with kinetic energy larger than e|V| will make it to the negative plate and
contribute to the current. We vary V until it reaches a value Vs , called the stopping potential, at
which all of the electrons, even the most energetic ones, will be turned back before reaching the
collector; hence the flow of photoelectric current ceases completely. The stopping potential Vs is
connected to the electrons’ kinetic energy by
1
e|Vs| = me v 2 = K
2
(in what follows, Vs will implicitly denote |Vs |). Thus, the relation (3.13) becomes eVs = hν - φ
or
h φ hc φ
Vs = ν − = − . (3.15)
e e eλ e
Activity 3.3
What is threshold wavelength for photon-emission? If the threshold wavelength increases

when the emitting metal is changed, what can you say about the work functions of the two
o
Example 3.1 The photoelectric threshold for a certain metal is 3600 A . Determine the
o
maximum energy of the ejected photoelectrons by a radiation of 2000 A .
Solution:
hc
Work function φ = hν o =
λo
Putting
h = 6.626 × 10 −34 Js ,
c = 3 × 108 m / s,
λo = 3600 × 10 −10 m ,

we get
6.63 × 10 −34 × 3 × 10 8
φ= −10
= 0.5521 × 10 −18 J
3600 × 10
0.5521 × 10 −18
= ev = 3.45ev
1.6 × 10 −19
o
Now, for incident light of wavelength λ = 2000 A
hc 6.626 × 10 −34 × 3 × 10 8
E= = ev = 6.21ev
λ 2000 × 10 −10 × 1.6 × 10 −19
From Einstein’s photoelectric equation
hν = φ + K
Kinetic energy of ejected electron: K = hν − φ = 6.21 − 3.45 = 2.76ev .
Example 3.2 When two ultraviolet beams of wavelengths λ1 = 280nm and λ2 = 490nm fall on
lead surface, they produce photoelectrons with maximum energies 8.57ev and
6.67ev, respectively
a) Estimate the numerical value of the Planck constant
b) Calculate the work function and the cutoff frequency of lead
Solution:
(a) From Eq. (3.14) we can write the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons as
hc hc
k1 = − Φ and k 2 = −Φ
λ1 λ2
⎛1 1 ⎞
k1 − k 2 = hc⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ λ1 λ2 ⎠

Solving for h, we find

⎛ λ λ ⎞1
h = ⎜⎜ 2 1 ⎟⎟ (k1 − k 2 )
⎝ λ2 − λ1 ⎠ c
Since 1 eV= 1.6 x 10-19 J, the numerical value of h follows at once
h=
(8.57 − 6.67)×1.6 ×10 −19 J × 280 ×10 −9 m × 490 ×10 −9 m ≈ 6.62 ×10 −34 J .s
3 × 108 m / s (490 − 280)×10 −9 m
(b) The work function of the metal can be obtained from either one of the two data
hc
Φ= − k1
λ1
6.63 × 10 −34 J .s × 3 × 108 m / s

Φ= −9
− 8.57 × 1.6 × 10 −19 J
280 × 10 m
= −6.6085 × 10 −19 J
The cutoff frequency and wavelength of lead are

Φ 6.6085 × 10 −19 J
ν0 = = −34
= 0.99 × 1015
h 6.63 × 10 Js
3.3 Compton Effect
9 What will happen when a photon collides with an electron?

In his 1923 experiment, Compton provided the most conclusive confirmation of the particle
aspect of radiation. By scattering X-rays off free electrons, he found that the wavelength of the
scattered radiation is larger than the wavelength of the incident radiation. This can be explained
only by assuming that the X-ray photons behave like particles.

Here is to study how X-rays scatter off free electrons. According to classical Physics, the
incident and scattered radiation should have the same wavelength. This can be viewed as
follows. Classically, since the energy of the X-ray radiation is too high to be absorbed by a free
electron, the incident X-ray would then provide an oscillatory electric field which sets the
electron into oscillatory motion, hence making it radiate light with the same wavelength but with
an intensity I that depends on the intensity of the incident radiation Io (i.e., I ∝ I o ). Neither of
these two predictions of classical physics is compatible with experiment.
The experimental findings of Compton reveal that the wavelength of the scattered X-radiation
increases by an amount Δλ , called the wavelength shift, and that Δλ depends not on the
intensity of the incident radiation, but only on the scattering angle.
Figure 3.6 Compton scattering of a photon
Compton succeeded in explaining his experimental results only after treating the incident
radiation as a stream of particles – photons colliding elastically with individual electrons. In this
scattering process, which can be illustrated by the elastic scattering of a photon from a free

electron (Figure 3.6), the laws of elastic collisions can be invoked, notably the conservation of
energy and momentum.
Consider that the incident photon, of energy E = hν and momentum p = hν /c, collides with an
electron that is initially at rest. If the photon scatters with a momentum p’ at an angle θ while
the electron recoils with a momentum Pe, the conservation of linear momentum yields
r r r
p = pe + p' , (3.16)
which leads to
r r r
p e2 = ( p − p ' ) 2 = p 2 + p ' 2 −2 pp ' cos θ
h2 2 (3.17)
= (ν + ν ' 2 −2νν ' cos θ ).
c2
Let us now turn to the energy consideration. The energies of the electron before and after
collision are given respectively by
E o = me c 2 (3.18)
me2 c 4
Ee = p e2 c 2 + me2 c 4 = h ν 2 + ν ' 2 −2νν ' cos θ + (3.19)
h2
in deriving this relation, we have used Eq. (3.17). Since the energy of the incident and scattered
photons are given by E = hν and E ' = hν ' , respectively, the conservation of energy dictates that
E + Eo = E '+ Ee (3.20)
Or
me2 c 4
hν + me c = hν '+ h ν + ν ' −2νν ' cos θ + 2
2 2 2
(3.21)
h

Which in turn leads to,
me c 2 me2 c 4
ν − ν '+ = ν + ν ' −2νν ' cos θ + 2
2 2
(3.22)
h h
Squaring both sides of Eq. (3.22), we see that
h
ν −ν ' = νν ' (1 − cosθ ) . (3.23)
me c 2
Employing the relation

c
ν =
λ
one easily obtains
h θ
Δλ = λ '−λ = (1 − cosθ ) = 4πλc sin 2 ( ) , (3.24)
me c 2
Where λc = h = 3.86 × 10 −13 m is called the Compton wavelength of the electron, with
me c
h=h .
2π
This relation which connects the initial and final wavelengths to the scattering angle, confirms
Compton’s experimental observations: the wavelength shift of the x-rays depends only on the
angle at which they are scattered and not on the frequency (or wavelength) of the incident
photons.

Activity 3.4
How does the Compton Effect differ from the photoelectric effect?
o
Example 3.2 A photon of wavelength of 3 A suffers Compton scattering by a free electron at
rest. If the angle of scattering is 90o , what is the kinetic energy of the recoil
electron?
Solution
h
Δλ = (1 − cosθ )
me c
Here θ = 90 0 , cos90=0
h o
Δλ = = 0.024 A
me c
From the law of conservation of energy, we have
hν + me c 2 = hν '+ mc 2
Therefore recoil energy of electron
1 1 hcΔλ
K = h(ν − ν ' ) = hc( − ) =
λ λ ' λ (λ + Δλ )
6.626 × 10 −34 × 3 × 10 8 × 0.024 × 10 −10
=
3 × 10 −10 × 3.024 × 10 −10
= 33.3ev

3.4 X-Rays Production
9 Can part or all of the kinetic energy of a moving electron be converted into a photon?
9 Is there a reverse of photoelectric effect process?
In 1895 Wilhelm Roentgen found that a high penetrating radiation of unknown nature is
produced when fast moving electrons impinge on matter. Roentgen named these radiations as
X-rays. They show the typical transverse wave behavior of polarization, interference and
diffraction that is found in light and all other electromagnetic radiation. Hence X-rays are
electromagnetic waves. X- Rays are produced in the target of an X-ray tube as illustrated in
figure 3.7
Figure 3.7 X-rays are produced by bombarding a metal target
The cathode is heated by a filament through which an electric current is passed. Electrons are
emitted by the heated cathode via thermionic emission. When a high potential difference V is

maintained between the cathode and the metal target, then these electrons are accelerated
towards and hit it to produce X-rays.
The intensity of the X-rays produced by the tube is controlled by the filament temperature. That
means to increase intensity of x-rays you simply increase the heater voltage. This will increase
thermionic emission and as a result more and more collision between electrons and the target
would take place. That means, the intensity of x-rays produced will increase.
Figure 3.8 shows for four different values of the incident electron energy, how the x-rays
emerges from a tungsten target are distributed in wavelength.
Figure 3.8 X-ray spectra of x-ray of tungsten at various accelerating potentials

The continuous X-radiation figure 3.8 is often called Bremsstrahlung, from the German breams
(=braking, i.e. decelerating) + strahlung(=radiation). The Bremsstrahlung process occurs not
only in X-ray tubes but wherever fast electrons collide with matter.
The Bremsstrahlung process can be considered as an inverse photoelectric effect. In the

photoelectric effect, a photon is absorbed, its energy and momentum going to an electron and a
recalling nucleus. In the Bremsstrahlung process, a photon is created, its energy and momentum
coming from a colliding electron and nucleus. We may note that we deal with the creation of
photons in the Bremsstrahlung process, rather than with their absorption or scattering by matter.
The energy of the emitted photon hν must be equal to the loss of kinetic energy of the electron.
An electron may emit part or all of its energy in such a process. The highest frequency ν o is
produced when the electron gives up its entire kinetic energy and creates one photon. Since the
initial kinetic energy of an electron is ev , where v is the accelerating voltage, we have
hc
hν o = ev or = ev
λo
hc 1 1.24 × 10 −6
λo = . = m, (3.25)
e v v
λo is the cutoff wavelength. The relation given by Eq. (3.25) is known as the Duane-Hunt
rule as they first found it experimentally.
The shape of the X-ray spectrum is characteristics of the particular atom composing the
anode as shown in figure 3.9

Figure 3.9 X-ray spectra of tungsten and molybdenum at 35kv accelerating potential.
The sharp lines whose wavelength depends on the target material are called characteristic x-ray
and are produced when energetic electrons nock out the atomic electrons (from k or L shell).
Example 3.3 Determine Planck’s constant h from the fact that the minimum X-ray wavelength
produced by 40ev electron is 3.11 × 10 −11 m
Solution
evλmin 1.6 × 10 −19 c × 4 × 10 4 v × 3.11 × 10 −11 m
h= =
c 3.0 × 10 8 m / s
= 6.64 × 10 −34 J .s
Activity 3.5
An X-ray machine has an accelerating potential of 50,000 volts. Find the shortest
wavelength and maximum frequency.
3.4.1 Properties of X-rays
The important properties of X-rays are the following

i. They are highly penetrating rays and can penetrate through most substances. However
their penetrability is different in different substances. X-rays are able to penetrate more in
low density substances where as less in high density substances. E.g ordinary glass is
quite transparent to X-rays, but lead glass is almost completely opaque to them.
ii. X- rays ionize they gas through they pass.
iii. Like light, they affect photographic plates and the effect is more intense
iv. They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields which shows that unlike cathode
rays or positive rays they are not beams of charged particles.
v. They exhibit the phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and
polarization.
vi. They travel in a straight line with the speed of light
vii. They liberate photoelectrons from the metals. When strike metals, they produce
secondary X-rays.
viii. X-rays have a harmful effect upon human body. A long exposure of any part of human
body to X-rays kills the body tissues and cause incurable sores.

3.5 X-Rays diffraction
A particularly simple method of analyzing the scattering of x-rays from parallel crystal planes
was proposed by W. L. Bragg in 1912. Consider two successive planes of atoms as shown in
Figure 3.10. Note that adjacent atoms in a single plane, A, will scatter constructively if the angle
of incidence, θ i , equals the angle of reflection, θ r . Atoms in successive planes (A and B) will
scatter constructively at an angle θ if the path length difference for rays (1) and (2) is a whole
number of wavelengths, n λ . From the diagram, constructive interference will occur when
AB +BC = nλ n=1, 2, 3, …
and because AB = BC = d sin θ , it follows that
nλ = 2d sin θ n=1, 2, 3, … (3.26)
where n is the order of the intensity maximum, λ is the x-ray wavelength, d is the spacing
between planes, and θ is the angle of the intensity maximum measured from plane A. Note that
there are several maxima at different angles for a fixed d and corresponding to n =1, 2, 3,… .
Eq. 3.26 is known as the Bragg equation; it was used with great success by the Braggs to
determine atomic positions in crystals. A diagram of a Bragg x-ray spectrometer is shown in
Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.10 Bragg scattering of x-rays from successive planes of atoms.
3.6 Wave-particle dualism
Albert Einstein’s analysis of the photoelectric effect in 1905 demonstrated that light possessed
particle like properties, and this was further confirmed with the discovery of the Compton
scattering in 1923.
Later on, the diffraction of electrons would be predicted and experimentally confirmed, thus
showing that electrons must have wave-like properties in addition to particle properties. The
wave-particle duality is the concept that all matter and energy exhibits both wave-like and
particle-like properties. This duality addresses the inadequacy of classical concepts like ‘particle’
and ‘wave’ in fully describing the behavior of small-scale objects. This confusion over particle
versus wave properties was eventually resolved with the advent and establishment of quantum
mechanics in the first half of the 20th century.
In 1924, Louis de Broglie formulated the de Broglie hypothesis, claiming that all matter has a
wavelike nature and the wavelength (denoted as λ ) of a moving particle of momentum (denoted
as p) is given by:

h
λ= (3.27)
p
where h is Planck’s constant. De Broglie’s formula was confirmed three years later for electrons
with the observation of electron diffraction and he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in
1929 for his hypothesis.
The above formula holds true for all particles. In most of the laboratory experiments for
measuring the de Broglie wavelength, we accelerate a charged particle using an electric field.
When an electron at rest is accelerated by applying a potential difference of V , it will have a
kinetic energy given by
1 2
mv = eV . (3.28)
2
Expressing the kinetic energy in terms of linear momentum p(= mv), we rewrite the above
equation as
p2
= eV (3.29)
2m
that is
p = 2meV . (3.30)
Now plugging this equation into the expression for de Broglie wavelength, we get
h
λ= (3.31)
2meV

Substituting the numerical values of the natural constants (h = 6.626 × 10−34 Js, m = 9.11 × 10−31
kg and e = 1.602 × 10−19 C), we get
1.226 × 10 −9
λ= m (3.32)
V
Any way we will see the wave properties of particle in more detail in the next chapter.

Summary
• Black body is a material object that absorbs all of the radiation falling on it.
• Planck was forced to introduce the concept of the quantum of energy in order to derive
the correct blackbody formula.
• According to Planck, the atomic oscillators responsible for blackbody radiation can have
only discrete, or quantized, energies given by
E = nhν
where n is an integer, h is Planck’s constant, and ν is the oscillator’s natural

frequency.
• In Einstein’s view, light of frequency ν consists of a stream of particles, called photons,

each with energy E = hν .
• The photoelectric effect, a process in which electrons are ejected from a metallic surface
when light of sufficiently high frequency is incident on the surface, can be simply
explained with the photon theory. According to this theory, the maximum kinetic energy
of the ejected photoelectron, Kmax, is given by
K max = hν − Φ
where Φ is the work function of the metal.
• The Compton Effect confirms that photons behave like particles: they collide with
electrons like material particles.

• When an x-ray of frequency ν is viewed as a particle with energy hν and momentum hν

/c, x-ray–electron scattering can be simply analyzed to yield the Compton shift formula:
h
Δλ = λ '−λ = (1 − cos θ ) ,
mc
where m is the mass of the electron and θ is the x-ray scattering angle.
• The wavelength shift of the X-rays depends only on the angle at which they are scattered
and not on the frequency (or wavelength) of the incident photons.

Review Questions
1. State Wien’s displacement law and Rayleigh Jean’s law of radiation and indicate how far
two laws could explain the curve.
2. Explain how the shortcomings of classical theory were overcome. Drive Planck’s
radiation formula
3. Write the experimental observation of the photoelectric effect
4. Describe Compton effect. Derive the expression for the frequency of the scattered photon
in terms of the frequency of the incident radiation and the scattering angle.
Problems
1. Calculate the energy of a photon whose frequency is (a) 5 × 1014 Hz, (b) 10 GHz, (c) 30
MHz. Express your answers in electron volts.
2. Determine the corresponding wavelengths for the photons described in Problem 1.
3. Find the wavelength of the radiation that can eject electrons from the surface of a zinc
sheet with a kinetic energy of 75 eV; the work function of zinc is 3.74 eV. Find also the
cutoff wavelength of the metal.
4. If the stopping potential of a metal when illuminated with a radiation of wavelength 480
nm is 1.2V, find
(a) The work function of the metal,
(b) The cutoff wavelength of the metal, and
(c) The maximum energy of the ejected electrons.
5. Find the maximum Compton wave shift corresponding to a collision between a photon
and a proton at rest.
6. Photons of wavelength 5 nm are scattered from electrons that are at rest. If the photons
scatter at 60o relative to the incident photons, calculate
(a) The Compton wave shift,
(b) The kinetic energy imparted to the recoiling electrons, and
(c) the angle at which the electrons recoil.

References
Springer verlag
Pte.ltd.
7. Nouredine Zettili(2009), Quantum Mechanics Concepts and Applications, John Wiley
& Sons, Ltd

Chapter Four
Wave Properties of Particle
Chapter outline
9 De Broglie Waves
9 De Broglie Wave velocity
9 Particle Diffraction
9 Phase velocity, group velocity and particle velocity
9 Wave Function and its Interpretation
9 The Uncertainty Principle
Objectives
At the end of this unit, students are able to

• Describe the wave-particle duality.
• Calculate and verify the behavior of matter travelling at speeds approaching the speed of
light.
• Identify the difference between phase velocity and group velocity.
• Explain the uncertainty principle.
• Define and interpret wave function.
Introduction
As discussed in the previous chapter-the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect-radiation

exhibits particle-like characteristics in addition to its wave nature. In 1923 de Broglie took things
even further by suggesting that this wave particle duality is not restricted to radiations, but must
be universal: all material particles should also display a dual wave-particle behavior. That is, the
wave particle duality present in light also occurs in matter.

4.1 De Broglie Waves
9 Do you think that material particle display wave like properties?
De Broglie used Einstein’s special theory of relativity together with Planck’s quantum theory to
establish the wave properties of particles.
According to de Broglie, the energy of a photon is given by
E = hν = pc
From the above relation, we see that
hν
p= (4.1)
c
Since λν = c , the above relation can be written as
h
p= (4.2)
λ
From Eq. (4.2), we can easily see that
h
λ= (4.3)
p
De Broglie suggested that Eq. (4.3) is a completely general one that applies to material particles
as well as to photons. The momentum of a particle of mass m and velocity v is p = γmv , and its
de Broglie wavelength is accordingly
h
λ= (4.4)
γmv

It predicts the de Broglie wavelength λ of a matter wave associated with the motion of a material
particle having a momentum p.
Example 4.1 What is the de Broglie wavelength of a base ball moving at a speed v=10m/s.
Assume m=1.0kg
Solution
h h
λ= =
p mv
6.626 × 10 −34 Js
= = 6.626 × 10 −35 m = 6.626 × 10 − 25 A o
1.0 × 10m / sec
b) What is the de Broglie wavelength of an electron whose kinetic energy is 100 ev?
Solution
h h 6.626 × 10 −34 Js
λ= = = 1
p 2mk
(2 × 9.1× 10 −31 kg ×100ev × 1.6 ×10 −19 J / ev) 2
6.626 ×10 −34 Js
=
5.4 ×10 − 24 kgm / s
= 1.2 ×10 −10 m = 1.2 Ao
Example 4.2 A particle of rest mass mo has a kinetic energy T. Show that its de Broglie
wavelength is given by
hc
λ=
T (T + m o c 2 )
Find the wavelength λ in the limiting case a) T<<moc2?

Solution: We have from the theory of relativity
E 2 = p 2 c 2 + mo2 c 4 , (a)
where ‘p’ is the momentum and mo is the rest mass of the particle. If T be the particle’s kinetic
energy then
E = T + mo c 2 . (b)
From (a) and (b), one obtains
p 2 c 2 = T (T + 2mo c 2 )
Corresponding de-Broglie wavelength
h hc
λ= =
p T (T + 2m0 c 2 )
i) T<<moc2, we have
−1
hc T hc T
λ= 2
{1 + 2
}2 = (1 − )
2Tmo c 2mo c 2mo c 2T 4mo c 2
Upon substituting the known values, we obtain
12.27 ev
λ= (1 − )
v 4 mo c 2
ii. T>>moc2, we obtain

ch 2mo c 2 −21 ch m c2
λ = (1 + ) = (1 − o − −−)
T T T T
Activity 4.1
A particle of charge q and mass m is accelerated from rest through a small potential
difference V. Find its de Broglie wavelength, assuming that the particle is no relativistic.
4.2 De Broglie Wave velocity
9 So far we have studied that there exists matter wave. What is the velocity of matter wave?
According to de Broglie, the wavelength of the matter wave is given by
h
λ=
γmv
To find the frequency, we equate the quantum expression E = hν with the relativistic
formula for total energy E = γmc 2 to obtain
hν = γmc 2
γmc 2
ν=
h
The de Broglie wave velocity is therefore

γmc 2 h c2
v p = νλ = ( )×( )=
h γmv v (4.5)
For a material particle, the above relation has the following disturbing features
i. The velocity v p of the de Broglie wave is not the same as the velocity of the moving
particle
ii. Since the velocity of the material particle is always less than the velocity of light c, the
velocity v p of the de Broglie wave come out to greater than c. This violates the
fundamental postulates of the special theory of relativity.
To overcome the above difficulty Schrödinger postulated that a moving material particle is
equivalent to a wave packet rather than a single wave. A wave packet comprises a group of
waves, each with slightly different velocity and wave length, with phases and amplitudes so
chosen that they interfere constructively over only a small region of space where the particle can
be located, outside of which they produce destructive interference so that the amplitude reduces
to zero rapidly.
4.3 Particle Diffraction
9 Do you think that the wave properties of particle proved experimentally?
In 1927, while working for Bell Labs, Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer performed an
experiment showing that electrons were diffracted at the surface of a crystal of nickel. The basic
idea is that the planar nature of crystal structure provides scattering surfaces at regular intervals,
thus waves that scatter from one surface can constructively or destructively interfere from waves
that scatter from the next crystal plane deeper into the crystal. This celebrated Davisson-Germer
experiment confirmed the de Broglie hypothesis that particles of matter have a wave-like nature,
which is a central tenet of quantum mechanics. In particular, their observation of diffraction
allowed the first measurement of a wavelength for electrons. The measured wavelength agreed
well with de Broglie’s equation.

The Davisson-Germer consisted of firing an electron beam from an electron gun on a nickel
crystal at normal incidence i.e. perpendicular to the surface of the crystal. The electron gun
consisted of a heated filament that released thermally excited electrons, which were then
accelerated through a potential difference V , giving them a kinetic energy of eV where e is the
charge of an electron. The angular dependence of the reflected electron intensity was measured,
and was determined to have the same diffraction pattern as those predicted by Bragg for X-rays.
An electron detector was placed at an angle θ = 50 o and measured the number of electrons that
were scattered at that particular angle.
According to the de Broglie relation, a beam of 54 eV had a wavelength of 0.165nm. This

matched the predictions of Bragg’s law
nλ = 2d sin θ (4.6)

Figure 4.1 The Davisson-Germer experiment
for n = 1, θ = 50o, and for the spacing of the crystalline planes of nickel (d = 0.091nm), we have
λ = 2d sin θ = 2(0.091nm)(sin 65) = 0.165nm .
This is an excellent agreement with the de Broglie wavelength.
This was also replicated by George Thomson. Thomson and Davisson shared the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1937 for their experimental work . This, in combination with Arthur Compton’s
experiment, established the wave-particle duality hypothesis, which was a fundamental step in
quantum theory.
4.4 Phase velocity, group velocity and particle velocity
9 What is the difference between phase velocity and group velocity?

The phase velocity of a wave is the rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space. This
is the speed at which the phase of any one frequency component of the wave travels. For such a

component, any given phase of the wave (for example, the crest) will appear to travel at the
phase velocity.
Figure 4.2 wave propagation.
The phase speed is given in terms of the wavelength λ and period T as
λ
v phase = . (4.8)
T
Or, equivalently, in terms of the wave’s angular frequency ω and wave number k by
ω
v phase = . (4.9)
k
In quantum mechanics, particles also behave as waves with complex phases. By the de Broglie
hypothesis, we see that
ω E/h
v phase = =
k p/h
E
v phase = . (4.10)
p
The phase velocity of electromagnetic radiation may under certain circumstances (e.g. in the case
of anomalous dispersion) exceed the speed of light in a vacuum, but this does not indicate any

superluminal information or energy transfer. It was theoretically described by physicists such as

Arnold Sommerfeld and Leon Brillouin.
The group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the variations in the shape of the wave’s
amplitude (known as the modulation or envelope of the wave) propagate through space. For
example, imagine what happens if you throw a stone into the middle of a very still pond. When
the stone hits the surface of the water, a circular pattern of waves appears. It soon turns into a
circular ring of waves with a quiescent center. The ever expanding ring of waves is the group,
within which one can discern individual wavelets of differing wavelengths traveling at different
speeds. The longer waves travel faster than the group as a whole, but they die out as they
approach the leading edge. The shorter waves travel slower and they die out as they emerge from
the trailing boundary of the group. Now, we shall arrive at the expression for the group velocity
using the concept of superposition of two almost similar waves.
Figure4.3 the superposition of two waves.
Let the two waves be given by

y1 = A cos( ωt − kx )
y2 =A cos [ ( ω + Δω )t − (k + Δk ) x ].
When these two waves superimpose, we get
y = y1 + y 2
y = A cos(ωt − kx) + A cos[(ω + Δω )t − (k + Δk ) x] .
Using the trigonometric relation

α +β α −β
cos α + cos β = 2 cos( ) cos( ),
2 2
we get
⎛ [ωt − kx ] + [(ω + Δω )t − ( k + Δk ) x ] ⎞ ⎛ [ωt − kx ] − [(ω + Δω )t − ( k + Δk ) x ] ⎞

y = 2 A cos ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ (2ω + Δω )t − (2k + Δk ) x ⎞ ⎛ Δωt − Δkx ⎞

y = 2 A cos⎜ ⎟ cos⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Since Δω is too small compared to 2ω , we can write
2ω + Δω ≈ 2ω
Now using this in the above equation and rearranging the terms, we can end up
⎛ Δωt − Δkx ⎞ ⎛ 2ωt − 2kx ⎞

y = 2 A cos⎜ ⎟ cos⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Further simplifying it, gives it
⎛ Δωt − Δkx ⎞
y = 2 A cos⎜ ⎟ cos(ωt − kx )
⎝ 2 ⎠
Identifying 2 cos⎜ ⎟ as the constant of amplitude of the superposed wave, we can write
⎝ 2 ⎠
2 A cos⎜ ⎟ = Constant
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ Δωt − Δk ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = constant
⎝ 2 ⎠
(Δωt − Δkx ) = constant
⎛ Δω ⎞
x=⎜ t ⎟ + cons tan t
⎝ Δk ⎠
Differentiating the above equation with respect to t, we get the group velocity
dx Δω
v group = =
dt Δk
Under the limiting condition, we get
dω
v group =
dk (4.11)
This is the defining equation of group velocity. In a dispersive medium, the phase velocity varies
with frequency and is not necessarily the same as the group velocity of the wave.

Activity 4.2
Calculate the group velocity of a relativistic particle moving with a velocity v.
4.3.1 Relation between group velocity and particle velocity
The group velocity of a matter wave is given by

dω
v group = ,
dk
where
ω = 2πν
and
2π
k= .
λ
From Planck’s equation E = hν , we can write
E
ν =
h
and from de Broglie wavelength, we can write
h
λ= .
p
Using the above equations, we rewrite the expression for ω and k

E
ω = 2π
h
and
p
k = 2π
h
Now, differentiating the expression for ω and k, we get
2π
dω = dE
h
and
2π
dk = dp .
h
Substituting the expressions for dω and dk into the v group equation, we see that
2π
dE
v group = h
2π
dp
h
that is
dE
v group =
dp (4.12)
Since we are dealing with the matter-waves E can be the kinetic energy of particle in wave
motion.

Using the relation
p2
E=
2m
and differentiating it with respect to p, we get
dE d ⎛ p2 ⎞ 2 p
v group = = ⎜ ⎟= ,
dp dp ⎜⎝ 2m ⎟⎠ 2m
v group = v particle
(4.13)
Hence the de Broglie wave group associated with a moving body travels with the same speed as
the body.
Activity 4.3
Obtain the relation ship between phase velocity and particle velocity.
gλ
Example 4.3 Newton’s showed that deep -water wave have a phase velocity of . Find the
2π
group velocity of such waves.
Solution
gλ
vd = v p = ,
2π
g ω
=
k k
g
ω=k = g k
k
Differentiate the above equation, we see that

1 −1
dω = g ( k ) 2 dk
2
dω 1 g 1
vg = = = vp
dκ 2 k 2
4.5 Wave Function and its Interpretation
At this stage it would interesting to define or interpret the significance of the wave function Ψ in
terms of the observable properties associated with the particle or the system. It is, however, an
essential element of the quantum theory that the wave function associated with a physical system
contains all relevant information about the behavior of the system and thus describes it
completely. In other words, any meaningful question about the result of an experiment
performed upon the system can be answered if the wave function is known. Thus far, the only
interpretive guide available to us is that the wave function be large where the particle is likely to
be and small elsewhere. It is apparent, therefore, that this has to be supplemented with more
detailed statements or postulates that enable us to get out of Ψ (r , t ) the maximum amount of
information permitted by nature.
It is assumed that the wave associated with a particle in motion is represented by a complex
variable quantity Ψ ( x, y, z, t ) or Ψ (r , t ) , called the wave function. This complex wave function
Ψ (r , t ) is defined to describe the entire physical state of a particle or a system of particle such as
an atom or a molecule.
Let us assume that the wave function is specified in the x-direction by
⎡ x ⎤
Ψ = A exp⎢− iω (t − )⎥ , (4.14)
⎣ v ⎦

where A is a constant and i = − 1 . The phase velocity v p is given by
λ ω
v p = νλ = 2πν = ,
2π k
Therefore
ω
=k . (4.15)
vp
Using Eq. (4.15), Eq. (4.14) can be expressed as
Ψ ( x, t ) = A exp[i (ωt − kx )] . (4.16)
2π
Here the propagation constant k = and the momentum in x direction is
λ
h h 2π
px = = = hk
λ 2π λ
and energy is given by
h
E = hν = 2πν = hω .
2π
Using the above results, one obtains from Eq. (4.16)
⎡ ⎛E x ⎞⎤ ⎡ i ⎤
Ψ ( x, t ) = A exp ⎢− i⎜ t − p x ⎟⎥ = A exp ⎢− ( Et − p x x)⎥
⎣ ⎝h h ⎠⎦ ⎣ h ⎦
⎡i ⎤
= A exp ⎢ ( p x x − Et )⎥
⎣h ⎦
(4.17)
Eq. (4.17) represents a plane continuous simple harmonic wave associated with a particle of
accurately known momentum p x and total energy E moving in the positive x-direction. For a
plane wave travelling in an arbitrary direction the wave function is written as
⎡i ⎤
Ψ (r , t ) = A exp⎢ ( p.r − Et )⎥,
⎣h ⎦ (4.18)
where the vector p is the momentum and the vector r is the position vector of the particle.
We have assumed that a wave function is a complex quantity and therefore it cannot have a
direct physical meaning. It may be expressed in the form
Ψ ( x, y, z , t ) = a + ib, (4.19)
where a and b are real functions of the variables (x, y, z, t). One can obtain the complex
conjugate of Ψ which is denoted by Ψ ∗ by changing i to − i , i.e.
Ψ ∗ ( x, y, z, t ) = a − ib (4.20)
Multiplying Eq. (4.19) by Eq. (4.20), one obtains
Ψ ( x, y, z, t )Ψ ∗ ( x, y, z, t ) = a 2 + b 2
The product of ΨΨ ∗ is denoted by p

p = Ψ ( x, y, z, t )Ψ ∗ ( x, y, z, t ) =| Ψ( x, y, z, t ) | 2
p =| Ψ ( x, y, z, t ) | 2 = a 2 + b 2 (4.21)
Obviously, the product of Ψ and Ψ ∗ is real and positive if Ψ ≠ 0. Its positive square root is
denoted by | Ψ( x, y, z, t ) | and is called modulus of Ψ . The quantity | Ψ( x, y, z, t ) | 2 is called the
probability density.
Max born has used the result Eq. (4.21) and interpret Ψ ( x, y, z, t ) as follows:
For the motion of the particle, the quantity
pdv = Ψ( x, y, z, t )Ψ ∗ ( x, y, z, t )dv =| Ψ ( x, y, z, t ) | 2 dv
is the probability that the particle will be found in a volume element dv surrounding the point at
position (x,y,z,t) at time t. Thus the total probability for finding the particle any where in space in
question is proportional to the integral of | Ψ ( x, y, z, t ) | 2 over all the space. For the motion of a
particle in one dimension
pdx = Ψ ( x, t )Ψ ∗ ( x, t )dx =| Ψ ( x, t ) | 2 dx
In this case | Ψ ( x, t ) | 2 is called the probability per unit distance. Thus the total probability for the
one dimensional space along the x-axis is
+∞ 2
p x = ∫ | Ψ ( x, t ) | dx.
−∞
For three dimensional space

+∞ 2
p = ∫ | Ψ ( x, y, z , t ) | dv.
−∞
The above integrals must be finite in order to represent a real particle. The above discussion
clearly reveals that the quantum laws and results of their measurement have probabilistic
interpretation.
Example 4.4 A particle is in motion along a line between x=0 and x=a with zero potential
nπx
energy. The wave function for the particle in the nth state is given by Ψn = A sin .
a
a) find the expression for the normalized wave function. b) find the probability in the
a
region 0 < x <
2
Solution: The normalization requirement is
a 2
∫0
| Ψ n ( x ) | dx = 1
n πx (a)
A 2 ∫ sin 2 =1
a
Employing the trigonometric identity

1 − cos 2θ
sin 2 θ = ,
2
Eq. (a) can be written as
1⎛ 2nπx ⎞
A2 ∫ ⎜1 − cos ⎟dx = 1 .
2⎝ a ⎠
Upon carrying out the integration we find
A2
a = 1.
2
Hence the normalization constant A is given by

A= 2 .
a
Thus, the normalized wave function
nπx
Ψn ( x) = 2 sin .
a a
The probability in the region 0<x<a/2 is given by
⎛ nπx ⎞ ⎛ 2nπx ⎞ ⎞
a/2
2 1 ⎛ 1
∫ sin ⎟dx = ∫ ⎜⎜1 − cos⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟dx = .
2
⎜
a 0 ⎝ a ⎠ a ⎝ ⎝ a ⎠⎠ 2
4.1.1 Schrödinger Equations
Consider a particle moving along the x-axis with a definite momentum is described by the
infinite plane wave
Ψ ( x, t ) = Ae i ( k x x −ωt ) (4.22)
px E
Replacement of k x by ω
h and by h gives
i ( p x − Et )
Ψ ( x, t ) = Ae h x
(4.23)
Differentiation of Eq. (4.23) with respect to time gives
∂Ψ ( x, t )
ih = EΨ ( x , t ) (4.24)
∂t
Successive differentiation of Eq. (4.23) with respect to x leads to

∂Ψ
− ih = pxΨ (4.25)
∂x
and
h 2 ∂ 2 Ψ p x2
− = Ψ. (4.26)
2m ∂x 2 2m
Classically, the energy E (also called Hamiltonian) of a particle in a potential v(x,t) is
p2 (4.27)
E= + v ( x, t )
2m
Hence, from Eq. (4.24), (4.26) and (4.27), we may write
∂ ⎡ h2 ∂2 ⎤
ih Ψ ( x , t ) = ⎢ − + v⎥Ψ (4.28)
∂t ⎣ 2m ∂x
2
⎦
Eq. (4.27) is the one dimensional time dependent Schrödinger equation for a particle moving in a
potential v( x, t ) .
In three dimensions, Eq. (4.28) can be expressed as
∂ ⎡ h2 2 ⎤
ih Ψ (r , t ) = ⎢− ∇ + v(r , t )⎥ Ψ (r , t ) , (4.29)
∂t ⎣ 2m ⎦
where
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ = 2 + 2 + 2.
2
∂x ∂y ∂z
In many cases of interest, the system does not change with time. The potential is a function of
coordinate only. In such cases, we can separate the variables in Eq. (4.29) and obtain two

equations, one depending on the variable t and the other on the variable r. We can write Ψ (r , t )
as the product of two functions ϕ (r ) and Φ(t ), where ϕ (r ) a function of space coordinates only is
and Φ(t ) is a function of time only.
Ψ (r , t ) = Φ(t )ϕ (r ) (4.30)
Substituting these values of Ψ (r , t ) in Eq. (4.29), we obtain
d ⎡ h2 2 ⎤
ϕ ( r )ih Φ (t ) = Φ (t ) ⎢ ∇ + v( r ) ⎥ϕ ( r ) .
dt ⎣ 2m ⎦
Dividing through out by Φ (t )ϕ (r ) , we see that
1 d 1 ⎡ h2 2 ⎤
ih Φ (t ) = ⎢− ∇ + v( r ) ⎥ϕ ( r ) (4.31)
Φ dt ϕ ( r ) ⎣ 2m ⎦
The left hand side of Eq. (4.31) is a function of t only while the right hand side is a function of r
only. This is possible only if both sides are equal to a constant, say E.
Therefore,
d
ih Φ (t ) = EΦ (t ) (4.32)
dt
⎡ h2 2 ⎤
⎢− ∇ + v( r )⎥ϕ ( r ) = Eϕ (r ) (4.33)
⎣ 2m ⎦
Eq. (4.33) is the time independent Schrödinger equation.

4.4.2 Electron in a Box
The best way to gain understanding of Schrödinger’s equation is to solve it for various potentials.
The simplest is a one-dimensional “particle in a box” problem. The appropriate potential is V(x)
= 0 for x between 0, L and V(x) = infinity otherwise—that is to say, there are infinitely high walls
at x = 0 and x = L, and the particle is trapped between them. This turns out to be quite a good
approximation for electrons in a long molecule, and the three-dimensional version is a reasonable
picture for electrons in metals.
Between x = 0 and x = L we have V = 0, so the wave equation is just
∂Ψ ( x, t ) h 2 ∂ 2 Ψ ( x, t )
ih =−
∂t 2m ∂x 2
A possible plane wave solution is
i ( px − Et )
Ψ ( x, t ) = Ae h
On inserting this into the zero-potential Schrödinger equation above we find E = p2/2m, as we
expect.
− i ( px − Et )
It is very important to notice that the complex conjugate, proportional to e h
, is not a solution to the Schrödinger equation! If we blindly put it into the equation we get
E = − p 2 / 2m
an unphysical result.
However, a wave function proportional to e −i / h ( px + Et ) gives E = p2/2m, so this plane wave is a

solution to the equation.

Therefore, the two allowed plane-wave solutions to the zero-potential Schrödinger equation are
− i ( px − Et )
proportional to e h
and e −i / h ( px + Et ) respectively.
− iet
Note that these two solutions have the same time dependence e h
To decide on the appropriate solution for our problem of an electron in a box, of course we have
to bring in the walls—what they mean is that ψ = 0 for x < 0 and for x > L because remember
| ψ |2 tells us the probability of finding the particle anywhere, and, since it’s in the box, it’s
trapped between the walls, so there’s zero probability of finding it outside.
The condition ψ = 0 at x = 0 and x = L reminds us of the vibrating string with two fixed ends—
the solution of the string wave equation is standing waves of sine form. In fact, taking the
difference of the two permitted plane-wave forms above gives a solution of this type:
− iEt
px
Ψ ( x, t ) = A sin e h
h
This wave function satisfies the Schrödinger equation between the walls, it vanishes at the x = 0
wall, it will also vanish at x = L provided that the momentum variable satisfies:
pL
= π ,2π ,3π ,...
h
Thus the allowed values of p are hn/2L, where n = 1, 2, 3… , and from E = p2/2m the allowed
energy levels of the particle are:

2 2 2
p2 1 ⎛ h ⎞ 4 ⎛ h ⎞ 9 ⎛ h ⎞
E= = ⎜ ⎟ , ⎜ ⎟ , ⎜ ⎟ ,...
2m 2m ⎝ 2 L ⎠ 2m ⎝ 2 L ⎠ 2m ⎝ 2 L ⎠
What about the overall multiplicative constant A in the wave function? This can be real or
complex. To find its value, note that at a fixed time, say t = 0, the probability of the electron
being between x and x + dx is |ψ |2dx or
px
| A | 2 sin 2 dx
h
The total probability of the particle being somewhere between 0, L must be unity:
x=L
px 1
∫| A | dx = 1, so L | A | 2 = 1
2
sin 2
x =0
h 2
Hence
− iET
2 px
Ψ ( x, t ) = sin e h
L h
When A is fixed in this way, by demanding that the total probability of finding the particle
somewhere be unity, it is called the normalization constant.
4.6 The Uncertainty Principle
As we have shown for wave packets, the wave nature of particles implies that we cannot know
both position and momentum of a particle to an arbitrary degree of accuracy—if Δx represents
the uncertainty in our knowledge of position, and Δp that of momentum, then
ΔpΔx ≈ h ,
where h is Planck’s constant. In the real world, particles are three-dimensional and we should say
Δp x Δx ≈ h ,

with corresponding equations for the other two spatial directions. The fuzziness about position is
related to that of momentum in the same direction.
Let’s see how this works by trying to measure y-position and y-momentum very accurately.
Suppose we have a source of electrons, say, an electron gun in a CRT (cathode ray tube, such as
an old-fashioned monitor). The beam spreads out a bit, but if we interpose a sheet of metal with a
slit of width w, then for particles that make it through the slit, we know y with an uncertainty
Δy=w. Now, if the slit is a long way downstream from the electron gun source, we also know py
very accurately as the electron reaches the slit, because to make it to the slit the electron’s
velocity would have to be aimed just right.
But does the measurement of the electron’s y position—in other words, having it go through the
slit—affect its y momentum? The answer is yes. If it didn’t, then sending a stream of particles
through the slit they would all hit very close to the same point on a screen placed further
downstream. But we know from experiment that this is not what happens—a single slit
diffraction pattern builds up, of angular width θ ≈ λ/w, where the electron’s de Broglie
wavelength λ is given by px h/λ (there is a negligible contribution to λ from the y-momentum).
The consequent uncertainty in py is
Δp y / p x ≈ θ ≈ λ / w
Putting in px=h/λ, we find immediately that
Δpy~h/w
so the act of measuring the electron’s y position has fuzzed out its y momentum by precisely the
amount required by the uncertainty principle.
Example 4.5 Show that the spread of velocities caused by the uncertainty principle does not
have measurable consequences for macroscopic objects (objects that are large

compared with atoms) by considering a 100-g racquetball confined to a room 15 m

on a side. Assume the ball is moving at 2.0 m/s along the x axis.
Solution:
h 1.05 × 10 −34 Js
Δp x = = = 3.5 × 10 −36 kgm / s
2Δx 2 × 15m
Activity 4.4
The Position and momentum of a 1kev electron are simultaneously determined. If its position is
located to be with in 1Ao, what is the percentage of uncertainty in its momentum?

Summary
• Every lump of matter of mass m and momentum p has wave like properties with
wavelength given by the de Broglie relation
h
λ=
p
• In 1927, Davisson and Germer demonstrated directly the wave nature of electrons by
showing that low-energy electrons were diffracted by single crystals of nickel.
• A wave packet or group can then be shown to travel with the same speed as the classical
particle.
• All objects have both a wave and particle nature.
• X-rays diffracted off of regular spaced layers of atoms in a crystal.
• To represent a particle properly, a superposition of matter waves with different
wavelengths, amplitudes, and phases must be chosen to interfere constructively over a
limited region of space. The resulting wave packet or group can then be shown to travel
with the same speed as the classical particle.
• In quantum mechanics matter waves are represented by a wave function Ψ (x, y, z, t).
• The probability of finding a particle represented by Ψ in a small volume centered at
(x, y, z) at time t is proportional to | Ψ | 2 .

Review Questions
1. What is de Broglie hypothesis? Show that the wavelength λ associated with a particle of
mass m and kinetic energy E is given by λ = h 2mE , where h is Planck’s constant

2. Is light a wave or a particle? Support your answer by citing specific experimental
evidence.
3. Is an electron a particle or a wave? Support your answer
by citing some experimental results.
4. An electron and a proton are accelerated from rest through the same potential difference.
Which particle has the longer wavelength?
5. Describe the Davisson Germer’s experiment and mention the important results
6. Can matter waves travel faster than light?
Problems
1. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of

(a) an electron of kinetic energy 54 eV,
(b) a proton of kinetic energy 70 MeV,
(c) a 100 g bullet moving at 1200 m/s, and
Useful data: mec2 = 0.511 MeV, mpc2 = 938.3MeV, hc = 197.3eVnm
2. Show that the group velocity for a non relativistic free electron is also given by vg =p/me
=v0, where v0 is the electron’s velocity.
3. The angular frequency of the surface waves in a liquid is given in terms of the wave
3
number k by ω = gk + Tk , where g is the acceleration due to gravity, ρ is the
ρ
density of the liquid, and T is the surface tension (which gives an upward force on an
element of the surface liquid). Find the phase and group velocities for the limiting cases
when the surface waves have: (a) very large wavelengths and (b) very small wavelengths.
4. Show that the de Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated from rest through a small
potential difference V is given by λ = 1.226 , where λ is in nanometers and V is in

V
volts.
5. Assume the uncertainty in position of a hydrogen molecule of mass 2 × 10 −27 kg is the
order of the diameter of about 10-10m. Determine the uncertainty in momentum.
6. Find the de Broglie wavelength of a ball of mass 0.20 kg just before it strikes the Earth
after being dropped from a building 50 m tall.
7. Through what potential difference would an electron have to be accelerated to give it a de
Broglie wavelength of 1.00 × 10 −10 m ?

References
Springer verlag
Pte.ltd.
7. Nouredine Zettili(2009), Quantum Mechanics Concepts and Applications, John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Chapter 5
Atomic Structure
Chapter outline
9 Introduction
9 Thomson Model
9 Rutherford Scattering Experiment
9 Alpha Particle Scattering
9 Rutherford Scattering Formula
9 Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom
9 Correspondence principle
Objectives
At the end of this unit, students will be able to

• Describe the Thomson and Rutherford model of the atom.
• Explain the alpha-particle experiment.
• State Bohr’s postulates.
• Verify, measure and predict atomic spectra.
Introduction
Dalton’s atomic theory (1803) of the matter was the first scientific approach towards the
understanding of the structure of matter. According to this theory all matter was composed of
very small particles called atoms. The atoms retained their individuality in all kinds of chemical
combinations. Dalton further believed that the atoms of the same substance were all alike and
differed from those of all other substances and further, that the atoms could not be subdivided,
destroyed or created.

5.1 Thomson Model
9 Describe the Thomson model of the atom.
The Thomson model considered the atoms as a homogeneous sphere of positive charges with
sufficient electrons embedded in it so that the atom as a whole is electrically neutral (Figure 4.1).
It is like pudding with the plums distributed through out. This model failed to explain the
observed frequencies in optical spectra and the results of α -scattering of Geiger and Marsden.
Though, Thomson himself tried different configuration for the electrons in the atom, the
agreement with experimental observations was not satisfactory.
Figure 5.1 The Thomson model of the atom
Activity 5.1
Discuss early views on atomic structure.

5.2 Rutherford Scattering Experiment
Geiger and Marsden placed a sample of an alpha-emitting substance behind a lead screen with a
small hole in it, as in figure 5.2, so that a narrow beam of alpha particles was produced. This
beam was directed at a thin gold foil. A zinc sulfide screen, which gives off a visible flash of
light when struck by an alpha particle, was set on the other side of the foil with a microscope to
see the flashes.
It was expected that the α particle would go right through the foil with hardly any deflection.
This follows from the Thomson model, in which the electric charge inside an atom is assumed to
be uniformly spread through its volume. With only weak electric forces exerted on them, alpha
particles that pass through a thin foil ought to be deflected only slightly 1o or less.
Figure 5.2 The Ruther ford scattering experiment.

Alpha particles are relatively heavy (almost 800 electron masses) and those used in this
experiment had high speeds (typically 2 × 10 7 m / s ), so it was clear that powerful force were
needed to cause such marked deflections.
The only way to explain the results, Rutherford found, was to picture an atom as being composed
of a tiny nucleus in which its positive charge and nearly all its mass are concentrated, with the
electrons some distance away.
Figure 5.3 The Rutherford model of the atom
Activity 5.2
Discuss the limitation of the Rutherford model of the atom.
5.3 Alpha Particle scattering
Assumption made by Rutherford

• The α particle and the nucleus it interacts with are both small enough to be considered as
point masses and charges.
• The electrostatic repulsion between α particles and the nucleus (both positively charged
)is the only force acting.

1
• The force varies with where r is the instantaneous separation between α particles and
r2
the nucleus.
• The nucleus is so massive compared with the α particles that it does not move during
interaction.
• The impact parameter b is the minimum distance to which the α particle would approach
the nucleus if there were no force between them.
• The angle between the original direction and the scattered direction of the α is referred
as the scattered angle.
Figure 5.4 Rutherford scattering
As a result of the impulse ∫ Fdt given it by the nucleus, the momentum of the α particle
changes by Δp from the initial value p1 to the final value p2. That is
Δp = p 2 − p1 = ∫ Fdt (5.1)

For elastic scattering
p1 = p 2 = mv,
where v is the α particle velocity far from the nucleus
Figure 5.5 Geometrical relationships in Rutherford scattering.
From figure 5.5 we see that according to the law of sines,
Δp mv
=
sin θ ⎛ π −θ ⎞
sin⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
1
Since sin (π − θ ) = cos θ / 2
2

and
sin θ = 2 sin θ / 2 cosθ / 2
we have for the magnitude of the momentum change
Δp = 2mv sin θ / 2 . (5.2)
Because the impulse ∫ Fdt is in the same direction as the momentum change Δp , its magnitude is
| ∫ Fdt |= ∫ F cos Φdt , (5.3)
where Φ is the instantaneous angle between F and Δp along the path of the α particle. Inserting
Eqs.(5.2) and (5.3) in Eq. (5.1)
∞
2mv sin θ / 2 = ∫ F cos Φdt
−∞
By changing the integration variable, we have
+ (π −θ ) / 2
dt
2mv sin θ / 2 = ∫
π θ
−( − ) / 2
F cos Φ
dΦ
dΦ (5.4)
dΦ
The quantity is just the angular velocity ω of the alpha particle about the nucleus.
dt
The electric force exerted by the nucleus on the α particle acts along the radius vector joining
them, so there is no torque on the α particle and its angular momentum mωr 2 is a constant.
Hence

dΦ
mω 2 r 2 = cons tan t = mr 2 = mvb
dt
from which we obtain
dt r2
=
dΦ vb
Substituting the above expression in Eq. (5.4), we obtain
h
ν −ν ' = νν ' (1 − cosθ ).
me c 2
As we recall, F is the electric force exerted by the nucleus on the α particle. The charge on the
nucleus is Ze, corresponding to the atomic number Z, and that on the α particle is 2e. Therefore
1 2Ze 2
F=
4πε o r 2
and
+ (π −θ ) / 2
4πε o mv 2 b
sin θ / 2 = ∫ cos ΦdΦ = 2 cos θ / 2
Ze 2 − (π −θ ) / 2
The scattering angle θ is related to the impact parameter b by the equation
θ 2 πε o mv 2 b
cot =
2 Ze 2

It is more convenient to specify the α particle energy K.E instead of its mass and velocity
separately, with this substitution; the Scattering angle is given as
θ 4πε o KE
cot = b (5.5)
2 Ze 2
Figure 5.6 The scattering angle decreases with increasing impact parameter
Figure 5.6 is a schematic representation of Eq. (5.5); the rapid decrease in θ as b increases is
evident.
5.4 Rutherford Scattering Formula
We note from figure 5.6 that α particles approaching a target nucleus with an impact parameter
from 0 to b will be scattered through an angle θ or more, where θ is given in terms of b by Eq.
(5.5). This means that an α particle that is initially directed any where with in the area πb 2
around the nucleus will be scattered through θ or more. The area πb 2 is accordingly called the
cross section for the interaction. The general symbol for cross section is δ and it is given by

δ = πb 2 (5.6)
Consider a foil of thickness t that contains n atoms per unit volume. The number of target nuclei
per unit area is nt, and an alpha particle beam incident upon an area A therefore encounters ntA
nuclei. The aggregate cross section for scatterings of θ or more is the number of target nuclei ntA
multiplied by the cross section δ for such scattering per nucleus, or ntA δ . Hence the fraction f
of incident α particles scattered by θ or more is the ratio between the aggregate cross section ntA
δ for such scattering and the total area A. That is
ntA δ
=
A
= ntπb 2
Substituting for b from Eq. (5.6), we have
2
⎛ Ze 2 ⎞
f = πnt ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ cot 2 θ / 2 (5.7)
⎝ 4πε o KE ⎠
Example 5.1 Find the fraction of a beam of 7.7-Mev alpha particles that is scattered through
angles of more than 450 when incident upon a gold foil 3 × 10 −17 m think. These values
are typical of the alpha-particle energies and foil thickness used by Geiger and
Marsden. For comparison, a human hair is about 10-4 m in diameter.

Solution: We begin by finding n, the number of gold atom per unit volume in the foil, from the
relationship
atoms / m 3
n=
mass / atom
Since the density of gold is 1.93 × 10 4 kg / m 3 , its atomic mass is 197u, and u = 1.66 × 10 −27 kg ,
we have
1.93 × 10 4 kg / m 3
n=
(
(197u / atom ) 1.66 × 10 −27 kg / u )
= 5.90 × 10 atom / m .
28 3
−12
The atomic number Z of gold is 79, a kinetic energy of 7.7 Mev is equal to 1.23 × 10 J , and
θ = 450 ; from these figures we find
f = 7 × 10 −5
of the incident alpha particles are scattered through 450 or more- only 0.007 percent! A foil this
think is quite transparent to alpha particles.
In the actual experiment, a detector measures α particles scattered between θ and θ + dθ as in

figure 5.7. The fraction of incident α particles so scattered is found by differentiating Eq. (5.7)
with respect to θ, which gives
2
⎛ Ze 2 ⎞ θ θ
df = −πnt ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ cot csc 2 dθ
⎝ 4πε o KE ⎠ 2 2
The negative sign signifies the fact that f decreases as θ increases.

Figure 5.7 In the Rutherford experiment, particles are detected that have been scattered between
and θ + dθ.
Those alpha particles scattered between θ and θ + dθ reached a zone of a sphere of radius r
whose width is rdθ. The zone radius itself is r sinθ, and so the area ds of the screen struck by
these particles is
ds = (2πr sin θ )(rdθ ) = 2πr 2 sin θdθ

θ θ
= 4πr 2 sin cos dθ
2 2
If a total of N i α particles strike the foil during the course of the experiment, the number
scattered into dθ at θ is N i df . the number N (θ ) per unit area striking the screen at θ, which is
the quantity actually measured, is

2
⎛ Ze 2 ⎞ θ θ
N i πnt ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ cot csc 2 dθ
N df
N (θ ) = i = ⎝ 4πε o KE ⎠ 2 2
,
ds θ θ
4πr sin cos dθ
2
2 2
N i ntZ 2 e 4
N (θ ) = (5.8)
(8πε o )2 r 2 KE 2 sin 4 (θ / 2)
Eq. (5.8) is the Rutherford scattering formula.
5.5 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
Combining Rutherford’s planetary model, Planck’s quantum hypothesis, and Einstein’s photon
concept, Bohr proposed in 1913 a model that gives an accurate account of the observed spectrum
of the hydrogen atom as well as a convincing explanation for its stability.
Bohr assumed, as in Rutherford’s model, that each atom’s electron moves in an orbit around the
nucleus under the influence of the electrostatic attraction of the nucleus; circular or elliptic orbits
are allowed by classical mechanics. For simplicity, Bohr considered only circular orbits, and
introduced several, rather arbitrary assumptions which violate classical physics but which are
immensely successful in explaining many properties of the hydrogen atom:
1. Instead of a continuum of orbits, which are possible in classical mechanics, only a discrete
set of circular stable orbits, called stationary states, are allowed. Atoms can exist only in
certain stable states with definite energies: E1, E2, E3, etc.
2. The allowed (stationary) orbits correspond to those for which the orbital angular momentum
of the electron is an integer multiple of h ( h = h / 2π )
L = nh

This relation is known as the Bohr quantization rule of the angular momentum.
3. As long as an electron remains in a stationary orbit, it does not radiate electromagnetic
energy. Emission or absorption of radiation can take place only when an electron jumps
from one allowed orbit to another. The radiation corresponding to the electron’s transition from
an orbit of energy En to another Em is carried out by a photon of energy
hν = E n − E m
So an atom may emit (or absorb) radiation by having the electron jump to a lower (or
higher) orbit.
Consider an electron moving with a non relativistic velocity v in a circular orbit of radius r
around the nucleus. Let us use the approximation that the nucleus is infinitely heavy compared to
the electron and is therefore at rest as in figure shown below.
Figure 5.8 force balance in the hydrogen atom

Let m be the mass of the electron and v its velocity along a circular orbit of radius r. As the
centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic attraction, we have
mv 2 1 e2
=
r 4πε o r 2
or
1 e2
mv 2 = (5.9)
4πε o r
From Bohr’s second postulate, the angular momentum of the electron in a permitted orbit is
given by
nh
mvr =
mr
Solving for v , we get
nh
v= (5.10)
mr
Squaring on both sides of Eq. (5.10), we have
h2n2
v2 = . (5.11)
m2r 2
On account of Eq. (5.11), Eq. (5.9) takes the form
mh 2 n 2 e2
=
m2r 2 4πε o
Solving for r, we see that
⎛ 4πε o h 2 ⎞ 2
rn = ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟n = n 2 a o , (5.12)
⎝ me ⎠

where
4πε o h 2
ao = is the Bohr radius, ao = 5.3nm .
me 2
The speed of the orbiting electron from Eq. (5.10) is given by
nh me 2 e2
v= = (5.13)
m 4πε o h 2 n 2 4πε o hn
The energy of the electron is partly kinetic and partly potential. The kinetic energy of the
electron is given by
2
1 2 1 ⎛ e2 ⎞ 1 1 ⎛ me 2 ⎞ e 2
T = mv = m⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 2 ⎟
. (5.14)
2 2 ⎝ 4πε o ⎠ h n 2 ⎝ 4πε o h n ⎠ 4πε o
This equation shows that the electron circulates in an orbit of radius r with a kinetic energy equal
to minus one half the potential energy.
On account of Eq. (5.12), Eq. (5.14) can be written as
e2
T= .
8πε o rn
The total energy of the electron is given by
e2 e2 1 ⎛ e2 ⎞
E = T +V = − = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
8πε o rn 4πε o rn 2 ⎝ 4πε o rn ⎠
Putting the explicit form of rn in the above expression, we see that

2
m ⎛ e2 ⎞ 1 ke 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
En = − 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . 2 = − ⎜ ⎟ (5.15)
2h ⎝ 4πε o ⎠ n 2a o ⎝ n 2 ⎠
Which is Known as the Bohr energy.

Inserting numerical values into Eq. (5.15) gives
13.6
En = − ev , n=1, 2, 3, … (5.16)
n2
The integer’s n corresponding to the discrete, or quantized, values of the atom’s energy have the
special name quantum numbers. Quantum numbers are central to quantum theory and in general
refer to the set of integers that label the discrete values of important atomic quantities,
such as energy and angular momentum. The lowest stationary, or no radiating, state is called the
ground state, has n = 1, and has an energy E1=-13.6 eV. The next state, or first excited state, has
n = 2 and an energy E2= E1/22 = -3.4 eV. An energy-level diagram showing the energies of these
discrete energy states and the corresponding quantum numbers is shown in Figure 5.9. The
uppermost level, corresponding to n = ∞ (or r = ∞ ) and E = 0, represents the state for which the
electron is removed from the atom and is motionless. The minimum energy required to ionize the
atom (that is, to completely remove an electron in the ground state from the proton’s influence)
is called the ionization energy. As can be seen from Figure 5.9, the ionization energy for
hydrogen based on Bohr’s calculation is 13.6 eV. This constituted another major achievement for
the Bohr Theory, because the ionization energy for hydrogen had already been measured to be
precisely 13.6 eV.
The energy E n of each state of the atom is determined by the value of the quantum number n.
The negative sign of the energy is due to the bound state nature the atom. That is, states with
negative energy E n < 0 correspond to bound states.

Figure 5.9 Energy levels and transition between them for the hydrogen atom
The structure of the atom’s energy spectrum as given by (5.16) is displayed in Figure 5.9 (where,
by convention, the energy levels are shown as horizontal lines). As n increases, the energy level
separation decreases rapidly. Since n can take all integral values from n =1 to n = +∞ , the energy
spectrum of the atom contains an infinite number of discrete energy levels.
When the quantum number n is very large, n → +∞ , the atom’s radius rn will also be very large
but the energy values go to zero, En = 0. This means that the proton and the electron are infinitely
far away from one another and hence they are no longer bound; the atom is ionized.
In this case there is no restriction on the amount of kinetic energy the electron can take, for it is
free. This situation is represented in Figure by the continuum of positive energy states, En > 0.
Eq . (5.15) together with Bohr’s third postulate can be used to calculate the frequency of the
photon emitted when the electron jumps from an outer orbit to an inner orbit:

Ei − E f ke 2 ⎛⎜ 1 1 ⎞
ν= = − 2⎟ (5.17)
h 2ao h ⎜⎝ n f ni ⎟⎠
2
Because the quantity actually measured is wavelength, it is convenient to convert frequency to

wavelength using c = νλ to get
1 ν ke 2 ⎛⎜ 1 1 ⎞⎟
= = − (5.18)
λ c 2a o hc ⎜⎝ n 2f ni2 ⎟⎠
Eq. (5.18), is identical to Balmer’s empirical relation
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= R⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ (5.19)
λ ⎜n ⎟
⎝ f ni ⎠ .
Provided that the combination of constants ke 2/2a0hc is equal to the experimentally determined
Rydberg constant, R = 1.0973732 × 107 m-1.
Example 5.2 The electron in a hydrogen atom at rest makes a transition from the n =2 energy
state to the n =1 ground state. (a) Find the wavelength, frequency, and energy (eV)
of the emitted photon.
Solution We can use Eq. (5.19) directly to obtain λ , with n i = 2 and n f = 1:
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 3R
= R⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ =
λ ⎝1 2 ⎠ 4
Upon substituting the value of R, we see that

4
λ= −1
= 1.215 × 10 − 7 m
3 × 1.0973732 × 10 m
7
= 121 .5nm
Since c = νλ , the frequency of the photon is
c 3 × 10 8 m / s
ν= =
λ 1.215 × 10 −7 m
ν = 2.47 × 1015 Hz
The energy of the photon is given by
E = hν = 6.626 × 10 −34 Js × 2.47 × 1015 Hz × 1.6 × 10 −19 ev / J

E = 10.2ev
At room temperature nearly all hydrogen atoms will be in the ground state. At higher
temperatures or an electric discharge, electrons can be in excited states. Since their life time in
the excited state is short, they make transition to lower energy states and emit electromagnetic
radiations of definite frequency.
If the electron in the initial state n i (upper state) of energy E i jumps to a final state n f (lower
state) of energy E f , according to Eq. (5.19)
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= R⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟
λ ⎜n ⎟
⎝ f ni ⎠
For example, the Lyman series, which corresponds to the emissions of ultraviolet radiation, is
due to transitions from excited state n = 2,3,4,5,.... to the ground state n=1.

1 ⎛1 1 ⎞
= R⎜⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎟ (ni>1)
λ ⎝ 1 ni ⎠
Balmer Series, is due to transitions to the first excited states ( n = 2 )
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= R⎜⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟
⎟ (ni>2)
λB ⎝2 ni ⎠
• The atom emits visible radiation as a result of the Balmer transition

Paschen Series, is due to transition to the second excited states (n=3)
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= R⎜⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟
⎟ (n1>3)
λp ⎝3 ni ⎠
Example 5.3 Calculate the short and long wavelength limits of the Lyman series
Solution For Lyman series, we have
1 ⎛1 1 ⎞
= R⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟
λ ⎝1 n ⎠
For the short wavelength limit (λ = λ s ) , n = ∞
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= R ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ = R
λs ⎝ ∞ ⎠
1 1
λs = = m
R 1096770

For long wavelength limit (λ = λ L ) , n = 2
1 ⎛1 1 ⎞ 3
= R⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ = R
λL ⎝1 2 ⎠ 4
4 4
λL = = =
3R 3 × 1096770
Activity5.2
Find the energy of the shortest-wavelength photon emitted in the Balmer series for hydrogen.
5.6 Correspondence Principle
9 Do you think that quantum theory result corresponds to classical mechanics theory?
Quantum physics, so different from classical physics in the micro world beyond reach of our
sense, must nevertheless give the same results as classical physics in the macro world where
experiments show that the latter is valid. We have already seen that this basic requirement is
true of the wave theory of moving particles. We shall now find that it is also true that for Bohr’s
model of the hydrogen atom.
According to electromagnetic theory, an electron moving in a circular orbit radiates

electromagnetic waves whose frequency is equal to its frequency of revolution and to harmonics
(that is, integral multiples) of that frequency. In a hydrogen atom the electron’s speed is
e
v=
4πε o mr
where r is the radius of its orbit. Hence the frequency of revolution f of the electron is

The radius rn of a stable orbit is given in terms of the quantum number n by Eq. (5.12) as
n 2 h 2ε 0
rn =
πme 2
and so the frequency of revolution is
me 4 ⎛ 2 ⎞ − E1 ⎛ 2 ⎞
f = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ . (5.20)
8ε o2 h 3 ⎝ n 3 ⎠ h ⎝ n3 ⎠
Activity 5.3
a) Find the frequency of revolution of electrons in n=1 and n=2 Bohr orbits. B
b) What is the frequency of the photon emitted when an electron in an n=2 orbits
drops to an n=1 orbits?
c) c) An electron typically spends about 10-8s in an excited state before it drops to
a lower state by emitting a photon. How many revolution does an electron in an
n=2 Bohr orbit make in 1.00 × 10-8 s?
Under what circumstance should the Bohr atom behave classically? If the electron orbit is so
large that we might be able measure it directly, quantum effects ought not to dominate. An orbit
0.01 mm across, for instance, meets this specification.
What does the Bohr Theory predict such an atom will radiate? From Eq. (5.19), a hydrogen atom
dropping from the nith energy level to the nfth energy level emits a photon whose frequency is

1 1
ν
Let us write n for the initial quantum number ni and n-p (where p = 1,2,3,…)for the final
quantum number nf. With this substitution,
E1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ E ⎡ 2np − p 2 ⎤
ν =− ⎜⎜ − 2 ⎟⎟ = − 1 ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
h ⎝ (n − p) 2
n ⎠ h ⎣ n (n − p) ⎦
When ni and nf are both very large, n is much greater than p, and
2 2
So that frequency of photon is
ν (5.21)
When p=1, the frequency ν of the radiation is exactly the same as the frequency of rotation f of
the orbital electron given in Eq. (5.20). Multiples of this radiation is radiated when
p = 2, 3, 4, … . Hence both quantum and classical pictures of the hydrogen atom make the same
predictions in the limit of very large quantum numbers. When n=2 Eq. (5.20) predicts a radiation
frequency that differs from that given by Eq. (5.21) by almost 300%. When n = 10,000 the
discrepancy is only about 0.01 %.
The requirement that quantum physics give the same results as classical physics in the limit of
large quantum numbers was called by Bohr the correspondence principle. It has played an
important role in the development of the quantum theory of matter.

Summary
• J. J. Thomson’s determination of e/me and that the electron is a part of all atoms.
Thomson measured e/me of electrons from a variety of elements by measuring the
deflection of an electron beam by an electric field.
• Rutherford’s scattering of α particles from gold atoms, which established the nuclear
model of the atom. By measuring the rate of scattering of α particles into an angle Φ,
Rutherford was able to establish that most of the mass and all of the positive charge of an
atom, +Ze, are concentrated in a minute volume of the atom with a diameter of about
10-14 m.
• The explanation of the motion of electrons within the atom and of the rich and elaborate
series of spectral lines emitted by the atom was given by Bohr. Bohr’s theory was based
partly on classical mechanics and partly on some startling new quantum ideas. Bohr’s
postulates were
1) Electrons move about the nucleus in circular orbits determined by Coulomb’s and
Newton’s laws.
2) Only certain orbits are stable. The electron does not radiate electromagnetic energy in
these special orbits, and because the energy is constant with time these are called
stationary states.
3) A spectral line of frequency ν is emitted when an electron jumps from an initial orbit of
energy Ei to a final orbit of energy Ef, where hν= Ei - Ef
4) The sizes of the stable electron orbits are determined by requiring the electron’s
angular momentum to be an integral multiple of h .
• These postulates lead to quantized orbits and quantized energies for a single electron
orbiting a nucleus with charge +Ze, given by
n 2 a0
rn =
Z

and
ke 2 Z 2 13.6Z 2
En = − = − ev
2a0 n 2 n2
where n is an integer and a0 =(0.0529 nm) is the Bohr radius.
• As a bridge between the familiar domain of classical physics and the more uncertain
domain of atomic systems and quantum theory, Bohr provided the correspondence
principle. This principle states that predictions of quantum theory must correspond to the
predictions of classical physics in the region of sizes where classical theory is known to
hold.

Review Questions
1. The Bohr Theory of the hydrogen atom is based on several assumptions. Discuss
these assumptions and their significance. Do any of these assumptions contradict
classical physics?
2. Find an expression for the energy required to ionize hydrogen atom in the lowest
energy level.
3. In a hydrogen atom, there is only one electron, but its emission spectrum shows
many lines, why?
4. Explain the concept of an atomic stationary state.
5. Of the following quantities, which increase and which decrease in the Bohr model
as n increases? Frequency of revolution, electron speed, electron wavelength,
angular momentum potential energy, kinetic energy, total energy.
Problems
1. The first member of the Balmer series of hydrogen has a wavelength of 6563A0.
Calculate the wavelength of the second member.
2. (a) What value of n is associated with the Lyman series line in hydrogen whose
wavelength is 102.6 nm?
(b) Could this wavelength be associated with the Paschen or Brackett series?
3. (a) Calculate the longest and shortest wavelengths for the Paschen series.
(b) Determine the photon energies corresponding to these wavelengths.

4. A hydrogen atom is in its ground state (n =1). Using the Bohr theory of the atom,
calculate :
(a) the radius of the orbit,

(b) the linear momentum of the electron,
(c) the angular momentum of the electron,
(d) the kinetic energy,
(e) the potential energy, and
(f) the total energy.

References
Springer verlag
Pte.ltd.

Solutions keys to selected problems
Chapter3
2. (a) λ= 600 nm (b) λ= 0.03 m (c) λ=10 m
Chpter 4
g
3. a) vph= , vg=1/2 vph
k
T
b) vph= k , vg=3/2 vph
ρ
5. Δp x = 1.05 × 10 −24 kgm / s
Chapter5
1. 4861.1Ao
2. (a) 3 (b) no
3. (a) λ max = 1874.606 nm, λmin = 820.140 nm
(b) Emin = 0.6627 eV, Emax =1.515 eV
4. (a) 0.0529 nm
(b) 1.99 x 10-24 kg . m/s
(c) 1.05 x 10-34 kg .m2/s = h
(d) 13.6 eV
(e) - 27.2 eV
(f ) - 13.6 eV

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Introduction to Modern physics

At the end this chapter student will able to:

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1.1 Relativity of Orientation and Origin

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1.2: Frames of Reference and Newton’s Laws

Figure 1.1 A frame of reference.

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In order to show the underlying equivalence of measurements made in different reference

Force = mass × acceleration,

to predict future planetary motions with great accuracy.

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What do you think of the velocities?

The velocity in S′ in the x′ direction is given as:

It’s just the addition of velocities formula:

ux= u’x +v ( 1.6)

EXAMPLE1.1 Fx= max, Is Covariant Under a Galilean Transformation?

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Can you describe the core ideas of Galilean transformation?

1.4 The Michelson–Morley experiment

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In our case, x = v2/c 2 and we find:

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1. What was the negative interpretation of the Michelson Morley Experiment?

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1.5 Postulates of special relativity

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1. Describe how the speed of light c is constant in vacuum?

1.6 The Lorentz transformation

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Forming u’x = dx’/dt’ leads, after some simplification, to

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In general, the complete coordinate transformations between events found to occur at

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If we wish to transform coordinates of an event in the S’ frame to coordinates in the S frame, we

x= γ(x’- vt’) (1.28)

Event 1 (light on) Event 2 (light off)

Frame S x0, t1 x0, t2

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t’2 - t’1 =γ(t2 – vx0/c2) - γ(t1 – vx0/c2)

Since γ>1 and (t2 - t1) is the proper time.

x’2 - x’1 = γ (x0 – vt1)- γ (x0 – vt2)

It is reduced to v (t1 - t2) for v/c <<1.

1.7 Lorentz Velocity Transformation

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Figure 1 .6 Two spaceships A and B move in opposite directions.

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1.8 Simultaneity and the Relativity of Time

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on the state of motion of the observer,” from the principle of relativity?

1.9 Time Dilation

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