XI CBSE PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANNUAL

S.NO DATE EXPERIMENT PAGE

1 Screw Gauge

2 Vernier Calipers

3 Simple Pendulum

4 Force Constant

5 Sonometer

6 Newton’s Law of Cooling

7

ACTIVITIES

1 Make a paper Scale

2 Principle of Moments
3 Plot a Graph

4
5
 USE OF LOGARITHMS FOR CALCULATIONS IN PHYSICS

In order to obtain the final result from your observational data, you have
often to do calculations involving multiplications and divisions. Such calculations
can be done quickly and with less chance of a calculation error by using the
logarithms.

To find the logarithm of a number you use a "4 - figure table of

logarithms". The logarithm of a number consists of an integral part, called
characteristic, and a decimal part called the mantissa. Whereas the
characteristic can be a positive or negative integer or zero, the mantissa is
always positive. If you look at a table of logarithms, it will be seen that rows of
four figures are placed against each of the numbers from 10 to 99. These four
figures form in each case the mantissa of a logarithm; the characteristic has to
be supplied by you.
The characteristic of logarithm of any number between 1 and 9 is zero. For
any number ≥10, it is a positive integer which is less by one than the
number of figures to the left of the decimal point.
For any number < 1 it is a negative integer whose magnitude is one more
than the number of zeros which follow the decimal point. Thus:
Characteristic of 7,47,300 is ( 6 figures) is 5
Characteristic of 7,473 is ( 4 figures) is 3
Characteristic of 74.73 is ( 2 figures) is 1
Characteristic of 7.473 is( 1 figure) is 0
Characteristic of 0.7473 is ( figure < 1) is -1 (read as 'one bar')
Characteristic of 0.07473 is ( after decimal one zero is present) -2
Characteristic of 0.007473 is (after decimal two zeros are present) is -3

Example 1: Find log 7.4

The characteristic is 0.
the column opposite the number 74 is mantissa 8692;
Hence log 7.4 = 0.8692

Example 2: Find log 74.7

The characteristic is 1
We find the first two figures 74 at the extreme left. Then move along the
horizontal line to the number in the vertical column headed by the third figure 7
to obtain the mantissa 8733.,
Hence log 74.7 = 1.8733.
Example 3: Find log 0.07473.

The number after decimal has one zero. Therefore the Characteristic is -2
This number consists of four figures. To obtain the logarithm of a number
consisting of four figures, it is necessary to use the mean difference columns at
the extreme right of the page.
Mantissa of log 747 = .8733
Mean difference for 4th figure 3 is = 2. This mean difference should be added
with the mantissa.
Mantissa of log 7473 = .8735
∴Hence log 0.07473 = -2 .8735

Antilogarithms

1.The number corresponding to a given logarithm is found by using the

table of antilogarithms.
2.First we use only the mantissa to find the figures of the required
number.
3. Then we locate the decimal point with the help of the characteristic.

Example 4:
Find the number whose log is 2.6057.
(For first 3 digits of mantissa) Antilog .605 = 4027
(For 4th digit of mantissa) Mean diff. for 7 is = 7
The antilog of the mantissa part .6057 is 4034
The characteristic part is 2, hence number of figures must be 3 figures.
Hence, the number whose log is 2.6057 is 403.4

Similarly,
the number whose log is 0.6057 is 4.034
the number whose log is -1 .6057 is 0.4034
the number whose log is -2.6057 is 0.04034

Multiplication
To multiply two or more numbers together,
add the logarithms of the numbers;
the sum is the logarithm of the product.

Example 10: Multiply 47.45 × 0.006834 × 1063

 number log
47.45 1.6763
0.006834 -3.8347
1063 3.0265
Total of log = 2.5375
The antilog of 2.5375 is 434.8
This is the product of the given multiplication.

Division
For multiplication we add the logarithms, for division, subtract
the logarithm of the divisor from logarithm of the dividend. Then
the difference obtained is the logarithm of the quotient.

Example 11: Evaluate 0.4891 divided by 256.8

Solution:

number log
0.4891 -1.6894
256.8 2.4096
Total ( by subtraction)= -3.2798
( the sign of 2 is changed and added)
The Antilog of -3.2798 is 0.001905
The number is also written as 1.905 X10-3
Date: 1 .SCREW GAUGE

AIM :
To measure diameter of a given wire using a screw gauge and find its volume.

APPARATUS :
Screw gauge, wire.

Formula:
Total Reading = PSR +( HSR X L C) ± Z.C
PSR is pitch scale reading
HSR is Hear scale Reading
LC is Least Count
Z.C is Zero Correction

volume of the wire = π r2l

r is the radius of the wire
l is the length of the wire

Diagram:

Zero Error:
1.The zero mark of the circular scale comes on the reference line. In this case,
the zero error and the zero correction, both are nil.
2.The zero mark of the circular scale remains above the reference line and does not
cross it. In this case, the zero error is positive and the zero correction is negative.
3.The zero mark of the head scale is below the reference line. In this case, the zero
error is negative and the zero correction is positive .
OBSERVATIONS .
Determination of Least Count of the Screw Gauge

Number of full rotations given to screw = 5

Distance moved by the screw = 5 mm
pitch= 5mm/ 5 =1mm
Number of divisions on circular scale = 100
least count = Pitch/ HSD
=1mm /100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm.

zero error (e) =

zero correction (c) = Zero error X Least Count
Z.C = mm.

Length of the wire l = cm

PROCEDURE:
1. Determine the pitch and the least count of the screw gauge and record them.
2. Bring the plane face B in contact with plane face A and find the zero error.
3. Move the face B away from face A. Place the wire lengthwise over face A and move
the face B towards face A using the ratchet head R. Stop when R turns (slips) without
moving the screw.
4. Note the number of divisions of the Pitch scale visible and uncovered by the edge of the
cap. The reading (N) is called Pitch scale reading (P.S.R.).
5. Note the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying over reference line.
6. Repeat the experiment for five different positions separated equally throughout the
length of the wire. Record the observations in each set in a tabular form.
7. Find total reading and apply zero correction in each case.
8. Take mean of different values of diameter and find its radius r.
9. Measure the length of the wire by stretching it along a metre scale.
10. using the formula find the volume of the wire.

L.C = Z.C =

S.No PSR HSR Total Reading= PSR +( HSR X L C) ± Z.C

mm mm
1

Mean:
Calculation:

RESULT :
 1.The diameter of the given wire =
2.Te radius of the given wire =
3.The volume of the given wire =

PRECAUTIONS :

1. The screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K.

2.The screw should move freely without friction.
3.The zero correction, with proper sign should be noted very carefully and added
algebraically.
4.For same set of observations, the screw should be moved in the same direction to
avoid back-lash error of the screw.
5.At each place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular
directions and then the mean of the two be taken.
6.Readings should be taken at least for five different places equally spaced along the
whole length of the wire.
7.Error due to parallax should be avoided.

SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The screw may have friction.
2. The screw gauge may have back-lash error.
3. Circular scale divisions may not be of equal size .
4. The wire may not be uniform.

Date : 2. VERNIER CALLIPERS

AIM :
To measure diameter of a small spherical body,or Given rectangular object using
vernier callipers.

APPARATUS:
Vernier callipers, a spherical body (pendulum bob).
Diagram:

Formula:
Total Reading = MSR + (VSR X LC) ±ZC
Volume of the rectangular box = l x b x h
Volume of sphere = 4/3 ϖr3

Observation:

Least count of Vernier Callipers (Vernier Constant):

1 main scale division (MSD) = 1 mm = 0.1 cm

Number of vernier scale divisions, N = 10
10 vernier scale divisions = 9 main scale divisions
1 vernier scale division = 0.9 main scale division
Least Count ( L.C) = 1 main scale division – 1 vernier scale division
= (1– 0.9) main scale divisions
= 0.1 main scale division
(LC) = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm
Zero Error ( ZE) =
Zero Correction ( ZC) = ZE x LC
=

Zero error and its correction:

 1.When the jaws A and B touch each other, the zero of the Vernier should coincide
with the zero of the main scale.
2. If it is not so, the instrument is said to possess zero error (ZE).
3.Zero error may be positive or negative, depending upon whether the zero of
vernier scale lies to the right or to the left of the zero of the main scale.

PROCEDURE :
 1. Determine the least count (L.C.) of the vernier callipers and record it stepwise.
2. Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact with the fixed-jaw AC and find the zero
error.
3. Open the jaws, place the sphere or rectangular box between the two jaws A and B
and adjust the jaw DB, such that it gently grips the body without any undue
pressure on it. Tight the screw S attached to the vernier scale V.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale. Record
the main scale reading just before the zero mark of the vernier scale.
This reading is called main scale reading (M.S.R.).
5. Note the number (n) of the vernier scale division which coincides with some
division on the main scale.
6. Repeat the experiment for three different positions. Record the observations in
each set in a tabular form.
7. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
8. Take mean of different values of dimensions measured.

L.C = Z.C =

S.No MSR VSR Total Reading Mean

Dimension cm MSR + (VSR X LC) ±ZC
cm
1 Length
l
2

1 Breadth
b
2

1 Height
h
2

Calculation:
Result:
Length l =
Breadth b =
Height h =
Volume of the given rectangular box =

PRECAUTIONS :
1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth .
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly recorded.
3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently.
4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least as
three different places.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The vernier scale may be loose on main scale.
2. The jaws may not be at right angles to the main scale.

Date: 3. SIMPLE PENDULUM

Aim:
Using a simple pendulum, plot its L-T2 graph and use it to find the effective length of
second's pendulum and calculate acceleration due to gravity g.

Apparatus:
A clamp with stand, A split cork, A Cotton Thread (about 2 meters long),
A bob, Stop /watch, Metre scale.

Diagram:

Formula:
Time period T = total time taken/ number of oscillations

Acceleration due to gravity g = 4π2 (L/T2)

From the graph : g = 4π2( AB/BC)

Procedure:

1.Attach a string to the bob. The length of the pendulum

2.Put ink marks M1,M2 and M3 etc on the thread at distance of 50,60cm ,70cm ,80cm,90cm
and 100 cm from the C.G of the bob .
3.Pass the thread through the splited cork with the 50 cm mark at the bottom of the cork
and tighten the two cork pieces between the clamp.
4.Fix the clamp in a stand kept on the table .
5.The equilibrium position of the pendulum is indicated by drawing a vertical line with a
chalk on the edge of the table, just behind the string.
6.Find the least count and the zero error of the stop watch. Bring its hands to the zero
position.
7.Move bob using the hand at an angle of 30º and leave it. See that the bob returns over
the line without spinning.
8.The stop watch is started when the pendulum crosses the equilibrium position to any
one side.
9.When it passes the equilibrium position in the same direction the next time it has
completed one oscillation.
10.Just when the 20th oscillation is complete, count 20 and at once stop the stop watch.
11.Note the total time taken for twenty oscillations .
12.Repeat the experiment for lengths 60cm, 70cm, 80cm, 90 cm, 100cm,.
13.Calculate the time period T anf find out L/T2 .
14. In all cases it is found that L/T2 is a constant.
15.The mean value of L/T2 is calculated and then the acceleration due to gravity is
calculated using the relation g = 4π2 (L/T2).

16.To draw the l-T2 graph:

A graph is drawn with L along X axis and T2 along Y axis. The graph is a straight line, as
shown in the figure.

To find the length of the second’s pendulum:

A second’s pendulum is one for which the period of oscillation is 2 seconds. From the
graph the length L corresponding to T2=4 s2 is determined. This gives the length of the second’s
pendulum.
To find the length of the pendulum whose period is 1.5 seconds
The length l corresponding to T2 =1.52=2.25 is determined from the graph.

S.No Length L Time for 20 Time period T T2 L/T2

cm Oscillations s S2 Cm/s2
s
1 50

2 60

3 70

4 80

5 90

6 100
Calculation:

Result:

1. Acceleration due to gravity (by calculation) g=

2. Acceleration due to gravity (by graph) g=

3. The length of the seconds pendulum =

Precaution of the experiment / to improve the accuracy

1) The bob of the pendulum was displaced with a small angle.

2) The amplitude of the oscillation of a simple pendulum is small.
3) The simple pendulum oscillate in a vertical plane only.
4) Switch off the fan to reduce the air resistance.

Sources of error:
1) The bob of the pendulum was displaced with a large angle.
2) The amplitude of the oscillation of a simple pendulum is may be large.
3) The simple pendulum may not oscillate in a vertical plane only.
4) The air resistance will affect the time period.
5) The measurements may not be accurate.

4. Parallelogram Law of Vectors

Aim
To find the weight of a given body using parallelogram law of vectors.

Apparatus
Parallelogram law of forces apparatus (Gravesand’s apparatus), plumb line, two hangers with slotted
weights, a body (a wooden block) whose weight is to be determined, thin strong or thread, white
drawing paper sheet, drawing pins, mirror strip, sharp pencil, half metre scale, set squares, protractor.
FORMULA
Procedure

1. Set up the Gravesand’s apparatus with its board vertical, tested with the help of a plumb line.
2. Test that pulleys P1 and P2 are frictionless. Oil them if necessary.
3. Fix the white drawing paper sheets on the board with the help of drawing pins.
4. Take three pieces of strong thread and tie their one end together to make knot O. This knot
becomes junction of the three threads.
5. From the other ends of two threads, tie a hanger with some slotted weights in each. These serve
as the weights P and Q. From the other end of third thread tie the given body S.
6. Pass threads with weights P and Q over the pulleys and let the third thread with given body S,
stay vertical in the middle of the board.
7. Adjust the weights P and Q (forces) such that the junction O stays in equilibrium slightly below
the middle of the paper.
8. The weights P, Q and wooden block S act as three forces

acting along the three threads at the junction O. The forces are in equilibrium.
9. See that all the weights hang freely and none of them touches the board or the table.
10. Mark the position of junction O on the white paper sheet by a sharp pencil.
11. Disturb weights P and Q and leave them.
12. Note position of junction O. It must be very close to earlier position. (If not, oil the pulleys to
remove friction.)
13. Keeping mirror strip lengthwise under each thread, mark the position of the ends of the image
of thread in the mirror, covering the image by the thread (this removes parallax error). The
position are P1 ,P2 for thread of weight P, Q1 and Q2 for thread of weight Q and S1 , S2 for thread
of weight S as shown in figure.
14. Remove paper from the board.
15. With the help of a half metre scale draw lines through points P1 and P2 to represent P, through points
Q1 and Q2 to represent Q and through points S1 and S2 to represent S. These lines must meet at point
O.
16. Taking a scale, 1 cm = 50 g, take OA = 3 cm and OB = 3 cm to represent P = 150 g and Q = 150 g.
17. Complete parallelogram OACB using set squares and join OC. It represents R.
18. Measure OC. It comes to be 3.9 cm.
19. For different sets of observation, change P and Q suitably.
20. Find weight of the wooden block by a spring balance.
Observation
Least count of spring balance =………. g
Zero error of spring balance =………..g
Weight of unknown body by spring balance = ………..g
Scale. Let 1 cm = 50 g.

21.
Calculations

Result
The unknown weight of given body = 195 g
The error is within limits of experiment error.

Precautions

1. The board should be stable and vertical.

2. The pulleys should be friction less.
3. The hangers should not touch the board or table.
4. Junction O should be in the middle of the paper sheet.
5. Points should be marked only when weights are at rest.
6. Points should be marked with sharp pencil.
7. Arrows should be marked to show direction of forces.
8. A proper scale should be taken to make fairly big parallelogram.
Sources of error

1. Pulleys may have friction.

2. Weights may not be accurate.
3. Points may not be marked correctly.
4. Weight measured by spring balance may not be much accurate.
Date: 5. THE FORCE CONSTANT OF A HELICAL SPRING
AIM :
To find the force constant of a helical spring by plotting graph between load
and extension.

APPARATUS :
A spring, A rigid support, Weight hanger, 50g or 20 g slotted weights,
A vertical wooden scale, A fine pointer
Diagram:

Formula:
Force Constant K = F/ L = AB / BC

Graph
Procedure:

1.The helical spring is suspended vertically from a rigid support.

2.A pointer is attached horizontally at the free end of the spring.
3.A metre scale is kept vertically in such a way that the tip of the pointer is over the
divisions of the scale, but does not touch the scale.
4.A dead weight, w0 gwt is suspended by the weight hanger to keep the spring vertical.
5.The reading of the pointer on the metre scale is noted.
6.Now, gently add a suitable load of 50 g slotted weights to the hanger and the reading of
the pointer is noted.
7.The weights are added one by one till the maximum load is reached. In each case, the
reading of the pointer is noted.
8.The weights are then removed one by one and the reading of the pointer is noted in each
case of unloading.
9.The average of the readings for each load during loading and unloading is calculated in each
case.
10.From this, extensions L (in cm) for the loads, are calculated 100 g wt respectively.
11.A graph is drawn with load M in g wt along X axis and extension, L in centimetre along
the Y axis. The graph is a straight line.
12.The spring constant in N/m is obtained by multiplying this with g=9.8 m/s 2.

S.No Load onhanger Reading of pointer tip while Mean Extension L

F (cm) Z= (x+y)/2 for 100 g wt
(g wt) Loading (x) Unloading (y) cm cm
1 Dead load

2 50

3 100

4 150

5 200

6 250
 7 300

Calculation:

Result:

The force constant from the graph is K =

PRECAUTIONS

1. Loading and unloading of weight must be done gently.

2. Reading should be noted only when tip of pointer comes to rest.
3. Pointer tip should not touch the scale surface.
4. Loading should not be beyond elastic limit.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The support may not be rigid.

2. The slotted weights may not have correct weight (50 g or 20g).
6. Coefficient of Viscosity of a Given Viscous
Liquid
Aim
To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring terminal velocity of a
given spherical body.

Apparatus
A half metre high, 5 cm broad glass cylindrical jar with millimetre graduations along its height,
transparent viscous liquid, one steel ball, screw gauge, stop clock/watch, thermometer, clamp with
stand.

formula
Procedure

1. Clean the glass jar and fill it with the viscous liquid, which must be transparent.
2. Check that the vertical scale along the height of the jar is clearly visible. Note its least count.
3. Test the stop clock/watch for its tight spring. Find its least count and zero error (if any).
4. Find and note the least count and zero error of the screw gauge.
5. Determine mean radius of the ball.
6. Drop the ball gently in the liquid. It falls down in the liquid with accelerated velocity for about
one-third of the height of liquid. Then it falls with uniform terminal velocity.
7. Start the stop clock/watch when the ball reaches some convenient division (20 cm; 25 cm ;
………..). Note its fall.
8. Stop the stop clock/watch just when the ball reaches lowest convenient division (45 cm).
9. Find and note the distance fallen and time taken by the ball.
10. Repeat steps 6 to 9 two times more.
11. Note and record temperature of the liquid.
12. Record your observations as given ahead.
Observations
Calculations

Result
The coefficient of viscosity of the liquid at temperature (θ°C) =…….C.G.S. units.

Precautions

1. Liquid should be transparent to watch motion of the ball.

2. Ball should be perfectly spherical.
3. Velocity should be noted only when it becomes constant.
Sources of error

1. The liquid may not have uniform density.

2. The ball may not be perfectly spherical.
3. The noted velocity may not be constant.
Date: 7.SONOMETER

Aim:
To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension for constant
frequency using Sonometer.

Apparatus:
A Sonometer, A tuning fork of known frequency, 0.5kg weight hanger
Some 0.5kg slotted weights, Rubber pad, Paper rider

Diagram

Formula:
1. L2/T is a constant

2.graph
The graph between square of length and tension is a straight line, which shows that tension is
directly proportional to square of resonant le.
Procedure:

1.Place the sonometer on the table..

2.Stretch the wire by placing a suitable maximum load on the weight hanger.
3.Move the wooden bridges outward, so that the length of wire between the bridges is
maximum.
4.Put an inverted V shaped paper rider on the middle of the wire.
5.Take a tuning fork of known frequency. Make it vibrate by strike its prong with a rubber
pad and touch the lower end of its handle with sonometer board.
6.Gently adjust the bridges till the two sounds appear alike.
7.The wire vibrates due to resonance and the paper rider falls.
8.Measure the length of wire between the bridges using a meter scale. It is the resonant
length and record it
9.Repeat the experiment by adding slotted weights one by one in equal steps of 0.5kg.
10.Record the observations each time.

g = 10 m/s2

S.No Mass (M) Tension (T) Resonating length L L2 L2/ T

Kg Mg (N) x10-2 m m2 m2/N
1 1.5

2 2.0

3 2.5

4 3.0

5 3.5

6 4.0
Calculation:

Result:

The graph between square of length and tension is a straight line, which shows that
tension is directly proportional to square of resonant length.

Precautions:
1.Wire should have uniform area of cross section
2.Loading of wire should not be beyond the elastic limit.
3.Tuning fork should me vibrated using soft rubber pad.
4.Legs should not be placed under the load.

Sources of error:
1.The slotted weights may not have correct weight (50 g or 20g).
2.Wire may not be uniform.
3.The frequency of tuning fork may not be with exact value.

8..Newton's Law of Cooling

Aim
The aim of the experiment is to verify Newton's Law of Cooling and to draw the cooling curve.
Apparatus Required:
Copper calorimeter, Stirrer, Wooden box with aclamp and stand,
A wooden lid having a hole in the middle. Thermometer, Stop watch, Hot water of about 80 °C.

Theory
Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the rate of temperature of the body is proportional to the
difference between the temperature of the body and that of the surrounding medium.
Suppose that a body with initial temperature T1°C, is allowed to cool in air which is maintained at a
constant temperature T2°C. Let the temperature of the body be T°C at time t.
Then by Newton’s Law of Cooling,

Where k is a positive proportionality constant. Since the temperature of the body is higher than the
temperature of the surroundings then T-T2 is positive.
The graph drawn between the temperature of the body and time is known as cooling curve.
The slope of the tangent to the curve at any point gives the rate of fall of temperature.

MODEL GRAPH:
PROCEDURE:
 Fill about 2/3rd of the copper calorimeter containing stirrer with hot water of about 80 °C.
 Place the calorimeter inside the wooden box. The space between the wooden box and
calorimeter is filled with cotton to avoid heat loss.
 Close the wooden box with its lid.
 Suspend the thermometer inside the hot water in the calorimeter from the clamp and stand.
 Stir water continuously to make it cool uniformly.
 When the temperature of hot water falls to 70°C, start the stop watch.
 Note the temperature reading at every five minutes.
 Continue the time temperature observation till the temperature becomes constant.
 Plot a graph between time along X-axis and temperature along Y-axis. This graph is called the
cooling curve.
 The graph is an exponential curve and it shows that the temperature falls quickly at the
beginning and then slowly as the difference of temperature goes on decreasing. This verifies
the Newton’s Law of cooling.
Room temperature: ---------------------
S.NO TEMP TIME S.N0 TEMP TIME
C s s
1 0
2 30
3 60
4 90
5 120
 6 150
7 180
8 210
9 240
10 270
11 300
12 330
360

RESULT:

1,The cooling curve of the liquid is plotted.

2.The temperature falls quickly in the beginning and then slowly as the difference of
temperature goes on decreasing.
3.This is in agreement with Newton’s Law of cooling.

PRECAUTIONS:
1.The water in the calorimeter should be gently stirred continuously.
2. Ideally the space between the double walls of the surrounding vessel should be filled with
flowing water to make it an enclosure having a constant temperature.
3.Make sure that the openings for inserting thermometers are air tight and no heat is lost to the
surroundings through these.
4.The starting temperature of water in the calorimeter should be about 30°C above the room
temperature.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1.Some personal error is always likely to be involved due to delay in starting or stopping the
stop-watch. Take care in starting and stopping the stop-watch.
2.The cooling experiment is performed with the calorimeter, filled with same volume of
water and turpentine oil successively, by maintaining the same temperature difference
between the calorimeter and the surrounding enclosure.
3.. The accuracy of the result depends mainly on the simultaneous measurement of
temperature of hot and the time. Take special care while reading the stop-watch and the
thermometer simultaneously
4.The temperature of the water in enclosure is not constant.
 ACTIVITY 1

PAPER SCALE
AIM:
To make a paper scale of given least count: (a) 0.2 cm and (b) 0.5 cm

APPARATUS:
Thick drawing sheet; pencil; sharpener; eraser; metre scale (ruler); fine tipped black ink
or gel pen

THEORY:
Least count of a measuring instrument is the smallest measurement that can be made
accurately with the given measuring instrument. A metre scale normally has graduations at 1
mm (or 0.1 cm) spacing, as the smallest division on its scale. You cannot measure lengths with
this scale with accuracy better than 1mm (or 0.1 cm). You can make paper scale of least count
(a) 0.2 cm (b) 0.5 cm, by dividing one centimetre length into smaller divisions by a simple
method, without using mm marks.

DIAGRAM:
(a) Making Paper Scale of Least Count 0.2 cm
1. Take a strip of thick drawing sheet.
2. Using a sharp pencil, draw a line AB, of length 15 cm.
3.Starting with the left end marked A as zero, mark very small dots on the line AB
after every 1.0 cm and write 0,1,2 ..., 15 at successive dots

4.Divide each cm into 5 small parts by placing 5 dots.

5.Intersection of these lines perpendicular to read respectively 0.2 cm, 0.4 cm,
0.6 cm and 0.8 cm in length.
6. Use this arrangement to measure length of a pencil or a knitting needle with least
count of 0.2 cm.
(b) Similarly a Paper Scale of Least Count 0.5 cm can be made by dividing each cm
into two equal parts.

Using the paper scale measure the length of your pencil.

RESULT:
Length of pencil as measured by using the scales made above =

PRECAUTIONS:
(i)Very sharp pencil should be used.
(ii) Scale should be cut along the boundary by using a sharp paper cutter.
(iii) Observation should be recorded showing accuracy of the scale.
(iv) While measuring lengths, full cm mark should be made to coincide with one end
of the object and other end should be read on the scale.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
The line showing the graduations may not be as sharp as required.

ACTIVITY 2

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

AIM:

To determine the mass of a given body using a metre scale by the principle of moment.

APPARATUS:
A wooden metre scale , load of unknown mass, wooden or metal wedge with
sharp edge, weight box, thread.
THEORY:
For a body free to rotate about a fixed axis, in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise
moments is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments.
If F1 is the weight with the known mass M1. It is suspended at a distance d1 on one side
from the centre of gravity of a beam and F2 is the weight with known mass M2 . It is suspended
at a distance d2 on the other side from the centre of gravity, and the beam is in equilibrium,
then F1 = F2
 M 2g d 2 = M 1 g d 1.
M 2 d2 = M 1 d 1 .

FORMULA:

unknown mass M2 = (M1d1) / d2

Centre of Gravity ( balance point): ------------

S.No Known Mass Distance of Distance of unknown mass

M1 g known mass known mass M2 = (M1d1) / d2
d1 cm d2 cm g

PROCEDURE:
 1.Make a raised platform on a table by using a wooden stand with a sharp wedge
on it. With the help of a spirit level set the level of the wedge horizontal.
2.Make two loops of thread to be used for suspending the unknown mass and the
weights from the metre scale (beam).
3.Insert the loops at about 10 cm from the edge of the metre scale from both sides.
4.Place the metre scale with thread loops on the wedge and adjust it till it is
balanced. Mark two points on the scale above the wedge where the scale is balanced.
Join these two points with a straight line which would facilitate to pin point the
location of balance position even if the scale topples over from the wedge due to
some reason. This line is passing through the centre of gravity of scale.
5.Take the unknown mass in one hand. Select a weight from the weight box which
feels nearly equal to the unknown mass when it is kept on the other hand.
6.Suspend the unknown mass from either of the two loops of thread attached to the
metre scale. Suspend the known weight from the other loop
7.Adjust the position of the known weight by moving the loop till the metre scale
gets balanced on the sharp wedge
8. Measure the distance of the position of the loops from the centre of gravity.
9. Record your observations.
10. Repeat the activity atleast two times with a slightly lighter and a heavier weight.
11. In balanced position of the metre scale, moment of the force on one side of the
wedge will be equal to the moment of the force on the other side.
Moment of the force due to known weight = (M 1L1 ) g
Moment of the force due to unknown weight = (M2L 2) g
In balanced position
M2 = (M1L1) / L2

RESULT:
Average mass of unknown load = Kg

PRECAUTIONS:
1.Wedge should be sharp and always perpendicular to the length of the scale. 2.
Thread loops should be perpendicular to the length of the scale.
3. Thread used for loops should be thin, light and strong.
4. Air currents should be minimised.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1.Mass per unit length may not be uniform along the length of the metre scale due
to variation in its thickness and width.
2. The line marked on the scale may not be exactly over the wedge while balancing
the weights in subsequent settings.
3. The thread of the loops may not be parallel to the wedge when the weights are
balanced, which in turn would introduce some error in measurement of
weight-arm.
4. It may be difficult to adjudge balance position of the scale exactly.
A tilt of even of the order of 1° may affect the measurement of mass of the load.
 ACTIVITY 3

PLOT A GRAPH FOR A GIVEN SET OF DATA

AIM:
To plot a graph for a given set of data choosing proper scale and show error bars due to
the precision of the instruments.

APPARATUS :
Graph paper, a pencil, a scale and a set of data
PRINCIPLE :
Graphical representation of experimentally obtained data helps in interpreting,
communicating and understanding the interdependence between the variable parameters
of a given phenomena.

Data and Model Graph

Time 0 30 90 150 210 285 330 355 400

s
Temp 90 82 71 63 59 59 59 56 54
ºC

PROCEDURE:

Steps involved in drawing a graph with error bars on it are as follows:

1. Draw x- and y- axes on a graph sheet and select an appropriate scale for plotting
of the graph.
2. Labelle the X and Y axes.
3. The independent variable should be taken along the X axis.
4. The dependent variable should be taken along the Y axis.
5. Mark the points on the graph for each pair of data
6.A smooth curve or line should pass as close as possible through all the + marks
marked on the graph.

RESULT:
For the given data a graph is drawn.

PRECAUTIONS:

1.A given set of data gives unique points. However, when plotted, a curve
representing that data may not physically pass through these points.
2.For a given set of data, try to maximize the use of the graph paper area.
3. While deciding on scale for plotting the graph, efforts should be made to choose a
scale which would enable to depict uncertainty by at least one smallest division on
the graph sheet.
4. While joining the data points on the graph sheet, enough care should be taken to
join them smoothly. The curve or line should be thin.
5. Every graph must be given a suitable heading, which should be written on top of
the graph.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

1. Improper choice of origin and the scale.

2. Improper marking of observation points.
4.Change of State-Cooling Curve for Molten Wax

Aim
To observe change of state and plot a cooling curve for molten wax.

Apparatus
A uniform straight wooden metre rod (scale). Two G clamp, pointer pin, thread, slotted weights of 50
g each, wax, vertical scale, clamp stand.

Theory
(а) For cooling

(b) For change of state

When molten wax cools down to its freezing point, it starts solidifying and the temperature becomes
constant.
The curve becomes horizontal thereafter (parallel to time-axis) as shown in Graph.
Graph

Procedure
Steps 1 to 8 of experiment 6 except step 2 in which calorimeter is filled two third by molten wax (in
place of water)
9. When temperature of wax falls to about 80°C note it and start the stop clock.

9. Continue stirring and note temperature after every one minute.

10. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.
12. When fall of temperature stops, remove the lid and note that the wax in calorimeter starts
solidifying. Temperature remains same till all the wax in calorimeter solidifies.
13. Watch the constant temperature for some minutes.
14. Record your observations as given below.
Observations
Least count of enclosure thermometer = ……….°C.
Constant temperature of enclosure, θ0 = ……….°C
Least count of calorimeter-wax thermometer = …………°C.
Least count of stop clock/watch = ………..s.
Table for time and temperature
Plot a graph between time t and temperature 0, taking t along X-axis and 0 along Y-axis. The
decreasing slope curve is called cooling curve of molten wax.
The horizontal straight line is called freezing curve of the wax.

Result

1. The temperature falls quickly in the beginning and then slowly.

2. When wax starts freezing, the temperature does not fall further. The freezing point comes to be
50°C as calculated from graph.
Precautions

1. The metre scale should be straight and uniform and clamped firmly.
2. The tip of pointer should not touch the vertical scale.
3. The scale should not be loaded beyond the elastic limit.
4. Reading on metre scale should be taken carefully.
Sources of error

1. The metre scale may be non-uniform.

2. The tip of pointer may not be very sharp.

Change in Level of Liquid in a Container on

Heating
Aim
To note the change in level of liquid in a container on heating and interpret the observations.
Apparatus
A round bottom glass flask with volume graduations in the neck, liquid (having boiling point above
100°C), water bath, heating arrangement, thermometer with hanging arrangement.

Theory
1. Real cubical expansion of a liquid = Apparent cubical expansion of the liquid + Cubical expansion
of the vessel.
2. γr= γa+ γg

Diagram
Procedure

1. Clean and dry the round bottom glass flask.

2. Fill it with the experimental liquid up to a known mark A to have a known volume of liquid.
3. Put the flask in water bath kept on a tripod stand, under which some heating arrangement (gas
burner) is fitted.
4. Suspend a thermometer in the liquid with its bulb in the middle of the flask.
5. Note and record least count of the thermometer.
6. Note initial temperature (t1°C) of the liquid.
7. Start heating the liquid and keep your eye on the mark A. You will find that liquid level falls
down.
8. When water in water-bath starts boiling, temperature of liquid in flask becomes steady and
liquid level falls to mark B.
9. Note the liquid temperature (t2°C) and position of mark B. (Volume between marks A and B
gives cubical expansion of the glass flask.)
10. Continue heating the liquid through water bath. Liquid level rises, because now liquid starts
expanding. The level reaches A and continues moving up. The level becomes steady at mark C.
11. Note the position of mark C. (Volume between B and C gives real cubical expansion of the
liquid.)
12. Record your observations as given below.
Observations
Least count of thermometer = ………..°C
Initial (room) temperature of liquid (t1) = …………..°C
Final (bath) temperature of liquid (t2 ) = ………………°C.
Table for position of marks

Calculations
Difference of positions of marks A and B gives cubical expansion (VAB) of the vessel.
Find difference of positions of marks B and C. This gives real cubical expansion (VBC) of the liquid.
Find difference of positions of marks A and C. This gives apparent cubical expansion (VAC) of the liquid.
Result
Real cubical expansion of the liquid is more than the apparent cubical expansion. The difference will
be less if the vessel is made of a material having very small coefficient of cubical expansion.

Interpretation
The liquid level falls due to initial thermal expansion of the container.

Precautions

1. Boiling point of liquid should be higher than that of bath liquid (water).
2. Liquid heating should be uniform through a bath.
3. Observations should be taken when temperature becomes steady.
Sources of error

1. Heating of liquid may not be uniform.

2. Temperature may not be steady.
6. Effect of Heating on a Bi-Metallic Strip
Aim
To observe and explain the effect of heating on a bi-metallic strip.

Apparatus
A bi-metallic strip (made of iron and brass bars), a board with clamp screw on one side and vertical
scale on the other side, electric heating arrangement, or a burner thermometer.
Short Description of a Bi-metallic Strip
It is a strip made up of two bars of different metals but same dimensions, put together lengthwise and
ripetted at their ends. The strip is straight at room temperature.

When the bi-metallic strip is heated both bars expand differently. Since they are ripetted at their ends, their
ends stay together. The bi-metallic strip bends keeping more expanding bar on its convex side. More is
heating, more is the bending.
In case of an iron-brass bi-metallic strip, the bent strip will have brass bar on its convex side
Formula

If two rods of different metals have same length L1 at temperature t1°C, their length at higher temperature t2 °C
will be different. The rod of a metal having more value of ‘ coefficient of linear expansion will have more
length than the other rod
Procedure

1. Clamp one end of the brass-iron bi-metallic strip, keeping brass bar on the lower side.
2. Keep the strip horizontal rested on a vertical support.
3. Fix a vertical scale near the free end of the bi-metallic strip.
4. Suspend a thermometer with its bulb touching the strip in the middle.
5. Note the initial temperature of the strip.
6. Note the vertical scale division coinciding with the upper edge of the strip.
7. Heat the strip by passing electric current through it or by using a burner. The thermometer will
show a rise of temperature.
8. Watch the movement of the free end of the strip. The strip bends upwards (towards iron bar
side) and position of upper edge of the strip changes.
9. Note the temperature after each rise of temperature by 2°C and also the position of the upper
edge at that temperature.
10. Record your observations as given below.
Observations
Room temperature = 30°C (say)
Least count of vertical scale = 1 mm.
Table for temperature and vertical scale reading

Calculations

1. Find the amount of bending by taking difference of position with initial position.
2. It is found that amount of bending increases as temperature rises.
Result

1. Bi-metallic strip bends more and more as its temperature rises.

2. Since brass bar is on convex side and iron bar on concave side of bent bi-metallic strip, brass
bar expands more than the iron bar. Hence brass has larger linear expansion.
Precautions

1. The two bars should be firmly ripetted near their ends.

2. Brass bar should be kept on the lower side.
3. One end of the bi-metallic strip should be screw clamped.
4. Heating of whole bi-metallic strip should be uniform.
Sources of error

1. The ripettes may be loose.

2. Heating of strip may not be uniform